elemental atmospheric pollution assessment via moss-based
TRANSCRIPT
United States Department of Agriculture
DE
PAR TMENT OF AGRICULTU
RE
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, OregonDemetrios Gatziolis, Sarah Jovan, Geoffrey Donovan, Michael Amacher, and Vicente Monleon
Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station
General Technical Report PNW-GTR-938
June 2016
In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.
Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information may be made available in languages other than English.
To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html and at any USDA office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: [email protected].
USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.
AuthorsDemetrios Gatziolis and Geoffrey Donovan are research foresters, and Sarah Jovan is a research ecologist, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 620 SW Main Street, Suite 400, Portland, OR 97205. Michael Amacher (retired) was a research soil scientist, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 860 N 1200 E, Logan, UT 84321; Vicente Monleon is a research math statistician, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331.
Cover: Moss (Orthotrichum lyellii), by Sarah Jovan.
AbstractGatziolis, Demetrios; Jovan, Sarah; Donovan, Geoffrey; Amacher, Michael;
Monleon, Vicente. 2016. Elemental atmospheric pollution assessment via moss-based measurements in Portland, Oregon. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-938. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 55 p.
Mosses accumulate pollutants from the atmosphere and can serve as an inexpensive screening tool for mapping air quality and guiding the placement of monitoring instruments. We measured 22 elements using 346 moss samples collected across Portland, Oregon, in December 2013. Our objectives were to develop citywide maps showing concentrations of each element in moss and identify potential air pollution “hotspots.” We used simple dot maps, histograms, and summary statistics to describe the distribution of each element. Fifteen metals had highly right-skewed distributions, indicating high metal concentrations (relative to concentrations mea-sured in our dataset) in moss at one or more locations. These metals included high-priority toxics such as cadmium, nickel, lead, and arsenic. Past research shows that element concentrations in moss reflect atmospheric concentrations, although the strength of these relationships varies by element and is unknown for the elements we sampled. Therefore, atmospheric concentrations would need to be measured by an air quality monitor in order to determine whether hotspots suggested by the moss indicator are problematic or pose a health risk. We provide the raw data for all elements we measured to enable scientists, regulators, and citizens to further investigate the importance and possible sources of moss-identified hotspots.
Keywords: Bioindicators, moss, heavy metals, air quality, mapping, sampling.
Contents 1 Introduction 2 Methods 4 Laboratory Analysis 6 Correlations Between Metal Distributions 7 Mapping 9 Results and Discussion 9 Element Associations 11 High Concentrations and “Hotspots” 36 Limitations and Guidelines 38 Conclusions 38 English Equivalents 39 Literature Cited 42 Appendix
1
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
IntroductionMany studies have used mosses and lichens to study atmospheric heavy-metal pol-lution (e.g., Berg and Steinnes 1997a, Gerdol et al. 2014, Nickel et al. 2014, Owcza-rek et al. 2001, Rühling and Tyler 1968). Mosses and lichens are commonly used as bioindicators of air quality because they readily accumulate pollutants over time. Unlike plants, they lack roots and absorb nutrients from the atmosphere. Mosses and lichens also lack the impermeable waxy coating of plant leaves so they absorb water over their entire surface like a sponge. Their high cation exchange capacity, a term that quantifies their ability to hold exchangeable, positively charged ions, helps cells capture dissolved nutrients during rain events (Bates 1994) and passively trap pollutants including heavy metals. Particulate pollutants also become trapped on the outer surfaces of the mosses and lichens (Aboal et al. 2011).
Traditional air quality monitoring relies on specialized instruments. However owing to high purchasing costs and the expense of operation and data analysis, only a small number of instruments is usually available. For instance, Portland, Oregon, has one permanent air toxics monitor, and it costs $40,000 annually to measure met-als.1 One instrument is not sufficient to resolve the varying nature of pollutant con-centrations on spatial scales smaller than the size of a metropolitan area, such as at the neighborhood level or smaller. Measuring pollutant levels in bioindicators is less costly than using instruments (each moss sample costs about $150 for labor and lab analysis), thereby making it possible to collect the large number of samples needed to detect and quantify pollutants that disperse short distances from their source.
In this study, we analyzed 346 moss samples collected within a short timeframe (Dec. 2-23, 2013) across Portland, Oregon, enabling a spatially detailed, yet eco-nomical, preliminary assessment of atmospheric pollution. One study has been published using these data, linking cadmium (Cd) concentrations in moss to stained glass manufacturers (Donovan et al. 2016). The purpose of this report is to present the raw data for all 22 elements we measured in moss, making it possible for others to model pollutant distributions and investigate possible emissions sources. Data are published here as dot maps showing the spatial distribution of the sample. All data are provided in tabular format (see app., table 6) and may be downloaded from the Web (http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/research/moss/).
Please note that the moss sample data for each element serve only as an index, meaning that high concentrations in moss are suggestive (but not conclusive) of high concentrations in the atmosphere. Although past research suggests moss
1 Anthony Barnack. Personal communication. Ambient Air Monitoring Coordinator, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, 811 SW 6th Avenue, Portland, OR 97204-1390.
Mosses and lichens are commonly used as bioindicators of air quality because they readily accumulate pollutants over time.
One air toxics monitoring instrument is not sufficient to resolve the varying nature of pollutant concentrations on spatial scales smaller than the size of a metropolitan area, such as at the neighborhood level or smaller. Measuring pollutant levels in bioindicators is less costly than using instruments (each moss sample costs about $150 for labor and lab analysis).
2
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
concentrations reflect atmospheric concentrations for many elements, the strength of these relationships is unknown and varies by element (Aboal et al. 2010). The time period represented by metals in moss is also unknown. Thus, for a particular element, a moss sample with a relatively high value or a “hotspot” shown on a map should not be interpreted by itself as a health hazard. Conversely, samples with low values do not necessarily indicate “healthy” neighborhoods. To infer about risks to human or environmental health, more research is needed to deter-mine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations as measured by the air quality instruments. The association between high levels of Cd and two stained-glass manufacturers described in Donovan et al. (2016) was supported by further research, including an exhaustive investigation of other pos-sible sources of Cd in the area, additional moss sampling and, most importantly, air quality monitoring instruments placed on site. Limitations and guidelines for interpreting the moss data presented in this report are discussed further on p. 36.
MethodsWe placed a 1-km2 grid across Portland, Oregon, including a 1-km buffer beyond the city limits. Major industrial and forested areas were excluded. We selected a residential address randomly within each grid cell and collected moss from the nearest hardwood tree or shrub (n = 278 “base points”). To capture variability in metal concentrations across short distances, we randomly selected 72 base points where we collected an additional sample nearby. At 12 of those 72 sites, the second sample was from the same tree. For the remaining 60, moss was sampled within 10 to 100 m of the randomly selected base points (6 at each 10-m increment). We could not find the moss at four sites, making for a total of 346 moss samples. As the potential for weather conditions to affect metal concentrations in the moss was unknown, we collected all samples within a short period (Dec. 2-23, 2013) in six traverses across the city. Most samples were taken from street trees, but occasion-ally we collected from trees in parks, wayside areas, or on private property with the permission of the landowner.
All samples were georeferenced using a recreational grade global positioning system (GPS) device and registered in geographic (latitude/longitude) projection. The detailed definition of the projection is shown in the appendix (app., fig. 6). Spatial overlays of the sample locations with precisely registered high-resolution airborne imagery indicated that the precision of the GPS recordings was about 6.5 m. Sample points were subsequently projected to a Cartesian system (Lambert Confor-mal Conic), which maintains a constant linear unit omnidirectionally. The detailed definition of the projection is shown in the appendix (app., fig. 7).
Research has found that metal concentrations in moss are correlated with atmospheric metal concentrations, but the strength of these relationships is uncertain and varies by element.
A moss sample with a relatively high value for a particular element or a “hotspot” shown on a map should not be interpreted by itself as a health hazard. Conversely, samples with low values do not necessarily indicate “healthy” neighborhoods.
3
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
The species sampled was Orthotrichum lyellii Hook. & Taylor (fig. 1), a widespread moss that grows on hardwood trees in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and California (Lawton 1971). This species is the most common epiphytic moss on street trees in Portland, often forming large patches on trunks and branches. Wearing powder-free nitrile gloves, we collected about 5 g (dry weight) of moss from multiple patches on each sampled tree. All moss was col-lected from at least 1 m off the ground to avoid road spray and pet-related con-taminants. Samples were stored at 4 °C in metallized polyester Kapak2 bags sealed with duct tape.
Samples were prepared for elemental analysis in a lab using petri dishes, forceps, and scissors sterilized with 70 percent ethanol. Wearing clean powder-free nitrile gloves, we separated the upper two-thirds of moss stems, discarding the base of the moss (fig. 2). Bark, necrotic tissue, insects, and debris were care-fully removed from the sample using forceps. Moss samples weighing at least 1.5 g (dry weight) were sent to the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Logan, Utah, for elemental analysis.
Figure 1—Orthotrichum lyellii Hook. & Taylor.
2 The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.
4
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Laboratory AnalysisSamples were dried for 24 hours at 40 °C and ground to a fine powder. The HNO3 + H2O2 digestion method was used to prepare the dried and ground samples for analysis. Briefly, 4 mL of concentrated reagent-grade HNO3 were added to 0.5-g subsamples in 50-mL graduated plastic digestion tubes. After being covered with plastic watch glasses, the tubes were allowed to sit overnight in a fume hood to ensure initial HNO3-imposed oxidation of the samples at ambient temperature. The samples were digested at 95 °C for 90 minutes in a graphite block digestor. The samples were allowed to cool, and 4 mL of reagent-grade 30 percent H2O2 was added to each tube, followed by a 30-minute digestion at 95 °C. After cooling, a second 4-mL aliquot of H2O2 was added to each sample, followed by a 45-minute digestion at 95 °C. If the sample was not clear or pale yellow, a third H2O2 diges-tion was done for 45 minutes. After cooling, deionized water was added to each tube to the 25-mL mark. The samples were filtered through 0.45-um membrane filters to remove undigested particulates, primarily silicate minerals not dissolved in HNO3 + H2O2, and stored in 22-mL plastic scintillation vials until analysis.
Digests were analyzed for 22 elements (phosphorus–P, potassium–K, mag-nesium–Mg, calcium–Ca, sulfur–S, molybdenum-Mo, manganese–Mn, iron–Fe,
Figure 2—Example illustrating location of moss stem cutoff. About the top two-thirds of the stem is analyzed for metal concentrations. Tissue that is dark brown or covered in debris is avoided.
5
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
nickel–Ni, copper–Cu, zinc–Zn, boron–B, sodium–Na, strontium–Sr, barium–Ba, aluminum–Al, silicon–Si, chromium–Cr, cobalt–Co, cadmium–Cd, lead–Pb, and arsenic–As) using inductively coupled plasma (ICP) optical emission spectrometry. Table 1 shows element full names and abbreviations. Quality control/quality assur-ance measures consisted of independent check standards to monitor ICP calibra-tion performance, reagent and method blanks, repeat analysis of a bulk sample of Orthotrichum collected in the Portland area in 2013 (table 2), and assessment of overall method accuracy by analyzing the International Atomic Energy Agency value (IAEA-336) epiphytic lichen species, Evernia prunastri L. Ach. reference standard collected in Portugal (International Atomic Energy Agency 1999) (table 3).
Reported concentrations are in mg/kg except for Ca, Mg, K, P, and S, which are in percentage (%) of sample dry weight.
Table 1—Names, symbols, units, and class membership of elements analyzed in the study
Element Symbol (unit) ClassPhosphorus P (%) Plant-essential
macronutrientsPotassium K (%)Magnesium Mg (%) Plant-essential secondary
nutrientsCalcium Ca (%)Sulfur S (%)Molybdenum Mo (mg/kg) Plant-essential
micronutrientsManganese Mn (mg/kg)Iron Fe (mg/kg)Nickel Ni (mg/kg)Copper Cu (mg/kg)Zinc Zn (mg/kg)Boron B (mg/kg)Sodium Na mg/kg) Soil mineral elementsa
Strontium Sr (mg/kg)Barium Ba (mg/kg)Aluminum Al (mg/kg)Silicon Si (mg/kg)Chromium Cr (mg/kg) Environmentally important
trace elementsbCobalt Co (mg/kg)Cadmium Cd (mg/kg)Lead Pb (mg/kg)Arsenic As (mg/kg)a Na and Si are plant beneficial for some taxa, but not essential.b Generally toxic to plant life, animal life (except Cr(III) at low levels) or both.
6
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Correlations Between Metal DistributionsWe computed sample descriptive statistics, including the mean, median, minimum, and maximum concentrations of all the elements. We assessed associations between elements by computing their correlations. Many of the elements measured belong to the same functional group or class (table 1). For example, P and K are essential macronutrients for plants. We would thus expect them to exhibit some level of cor-relation. Note that even in environments virtually free from anthropogenic effects, the distribution of a given element can vary substantially because elements may be released at different levels by natural sources. We also calculated the Fisher-Pearson skewness coefficient for each element (Shepard 1968) to identify elements with exceptionally high (i.e., high relative to the rest of the concentration data for that element) (table 4) concentrations. Elements with exceptionally high values have higher skewness coefficients than elements without.
Table 2—Quality control data for inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry for element analysis of Orthotrichum lyellii repeat analysis sample (n = 12)a
Element (unit) Measured rangeMeasured mean
± std errDetection limit
(mg/kg)b ClassP (%) 0.198 - 0.215 0.206 ± 0.002 0.283 Plant-essential
macronutrientsK (%) 0.401 - 0.466 0.442 ± 0.007 0.255Mg (%) 0.189 - 0.206 0.199 ± 0.002 0.002 Plant-essential secondary
nutrientsCa (%) 0.487 - 0.523 0.500 ± 0.003 0.001S (%) 0.111 - 0.126 0.119 ± 0.001 0.111Mo (mg/kg) 0.380 - 0.520 0.470 ± 0.010 0.056 Plant-essential
micronutrientsMn (mg/kg) 108 - 116 111 ± 1 0.011Fe (mg/kg) 698 - 817 767 ± 11 0.040Ni (mg/kg) 1.0 - 1.2 1.1 ± 0.0 0.115Cu (mg/kg) 7.9 - 9.0 8.4 ± 0.1 0.118Zn (mg/kg) 35.9 - 41.8 37.3 ± 0.5 0.030B (mg/kg) 15.2 - 16.4 15.7 ± 0.1 Not availableNa (mg/kg) 200 - 229 215 ± 3 0.090 Soil mineral elementsSr (mg/kg) 27.6 - 29.7 28.6 ± 0.2 0.002Ba (mg/kg) 33.3 - 37.3 34.7 ± 0.3 0.009Al (mg/kg) 320 - 371 345 ± 5 0.076Si (mg/kg) 322 - 498 400 ± 17 Not availableCr (mg/kg) 1.38 - 1.76 1.58 ± 0.03 0.043 Environmentally
important trace elementsCo (mg/kg) 0.37 - 0.43 0.40 ± 0.01 0.058Cd (mg/kg) 0.09 - 0.12 0.104 ± 0.002 0.0095Pb (mg/kg) 1.90 - 2.90 2.3 ± 0.1 0.225As (mg/kg) 0.07 - 0.32 0.161 ± 0.029 0.237Note: gray shading used to demarcate element classes shown in table 1.a The Orthotricum sample was used to track analysis repeatability and is not a certified reference standard.b As dictated by established standards, detection limits for plant-essential macro and secondary nutrients are reported in mg/kg and their concentrations in percentage of dry weight.
Note that even in environments virtually free from anthropogenic effects, the distribution of a given element can vary substantially because elements may be released at different levels by natural sources.
7
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
MappingDot maps, one per element, were generated, and sampling locations were color coded by concentrations measured in the moss. A green-yellow-brown color ramp was used to indicate low–to–high relative concentrations. Histograms of element concentrations were color coded using the same scheme. Where sampling locations were in close proximity, the one reporting the highest concentration was shown in the foreground. The maps include freeways and major road arterials for reference purposes. A color-blind-friendly version of the maps is available at http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr938_maps.pdf
For elements with highly skewed distributions exhibiting a few extremely high concentrations, the color scheme was restricted to an upper, element-specific, threshold. These thresholds were imposed arbitrarily by examining the form of the
Table 3—Quality control data for inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry for element analysis of the IAEA-336 Evernia prunastri reference sample (n = 9)
Element (unit) IAEA value (95% CI)Measured
rangeMeasured
mean ± std errDetection
limit (mg/kga) ClassP (%) 0.061 (0.049-0.073) 0.047-0.053 0.051 ± 0.001 0.283 Plant-essential
macronutrientsK (%) 0.184 (0.164-0.204) 0.121-0.165 0.145 ± 0.004 0.255Mg (%) 0.058 0.047-0.053 0.051 ± 0.001 0.002 Plant-essential
secondary nutrients
Ca (%) 0.282 0.210-0.238 0.222 ± 0.003 0.001S (%) None listed 0.058-0.085 0.063 ± 0.003 0.111Mo (mg/kg) None listed 0.00-0.12 0.03 ± 0.02 0.056 Plant-essential
micronutrientsMn (mg/kg) 63 (46-70) 51-57 54 ± 1 0.011Fe (mg/kg) 430 (380-480) 229-314 277 ± 8 0.040Ni (mg/kg) 1.65 0.6-0.8 0.7 ± 0.0 0.115Cu (mg/kg) 3.6 (3.1-4.1) 2.0-2.5 2.3 ± 0.1 0.118Zn (mg/kg) 30.4 (27.0-33.8) 26.9-29.7 28.1 ± 0.4 0.030B (mg/kg) None listed 1.2-2.0 1.5 ± 0.1 Not availableNa (mg/kg) 320 (280-360) 236-276 261 ± 4 0.090 Soil mineral
elementsSr (mg/kg) 9.3 (8.2-10.4) 6.1-7.0 6.5 ± 0.1 0.002Ba (mg/kg) 6.4 (5.3-7.5) 1.8-4.8 3.2 ± 0.4 0.009Al (mg/kg) 680 (570-790) 206-240 217 ± 4 0.076Si (mg/kg) None listed 197-370 280 ± 23 Not availableCr (mg/kg) 1.06 (0.89-1.23) 0.39-0.52 0.46 ± 0.02 0.043 Environmentally
important trace elements
Co (mg/kg) 0.29 (0.24-0.34) 0.19-0.26 0.22 ± 0.01 0.058Cd (mg/kg) 0.117 (0.100-0.134) 0.07-0.10 0.084 ± 0.004 0.0095Pb (mg/kg) 4.9 (4.3-5.5) 4.0-4.8 4.4 ± 0.1 0.225As (mg/kg) 0.63 (0.55-0.71) 0.18-0.60 0.42 ± 0.05 0.237Note: The P, Mg, Ca, Ni, Al, Cr, Cd, and Pb concentration values supplied with the IAEA-336 sample are not recommended reference values and are for informational purposes only (Mg, Ca, and Ni are listed as uncertain). IAEA = International Atomic Energy Agency. CI = confidence interval. Gray shading used to demarcate element classes shown in table 1.a As dictated by established standards, detection limits for plant-essential macro and secondary nutrients are reported in mg/kg and their concentrations in percentage of dry weight.
Dot maps, one per element, were generated, and sampling locations were color coded by concentrations measured in the moss.
8
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
histograms for Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al, and As. High outlying values are shown in black on the histogram and as black squares on the map instead of filled circles. The element concentration is reported next to each square on the map. This alternative color scheme was devised to ensure that the variability in sample values remains evident even in the presence of a few high values. Subsequently, we created a ranked list of locations based on the number of elements measured at that site with concentrations in the top eight highest values. Sample locations with high concentrations for several elements is one way to prioritize hotspots for further air quality investigations.
To protect the privacy of individual landowners, the coordinates of samples located on private property were shifted manually to the closest trees in public areas using as reference orthorectified, high-resolution aerial imagery taken at the
Table 4—Element descriptive statistics
Element Minimum Maximum Mean MedianFisher-Pearson
Skewness coefficientSamples with value
below detection limitsP 0.0958 0.4333 0.2133 0.2074 0.5739 0K 0.2537 1.2120 0.5219 0.5146 1.1343 0Mg 0.0775 0.3130 0.1646 0.1592 0.5536 0Ca 0.2598 0.8659 0.5189 0.5042 0.4161 0S 0.0712 0.2406 0.1261 0.1234 0.8035 0Mo BDa 3.7700 0.8008 0.6675 2.6471 2Mn 18.1650 449.8050 87.6504 63.5525 2.0260 0Fe 447.1600 4802.8300 1115.2190 996.4600 2.5414 0Ni 0.6750 43.4500 2.8338 2.2000 8.8199 0Cu 5.3550 357.2500 19.0601 12.8925 8.2733 0Zn 24.0750 250.0600 71.9426 60.3025 1.6644 0B 2.7600 101.2050 19.3121 15.7025 1.6918 0Na BD 382.5900 138.7499 138.9000 0.5663 1Sr 12.8300 113.7550 35.7719 33.7275 1.7317 0Ba 16.1450 175.0100 51.1529 46.4400 1.6553 0Al 220.3050 1713.4400 527.4580 487.1700 1.8221 0Si 23.8950 1324.8900 459.6801 445.1550 0.8157 0Cr 1.0150 10.0400 2.3852 2.0500 2.5543 0Co 0.2700 2.5200 0.6577 0.5975 2.4552 0Cd BD 4.3800 0.3083 0.2300 6.7973 1Pb 1.0300 128.9500 7.0914 4.9950 9.2178 0As BD 0.9450 0.3757 0.3500 1.7642 177Note: Measurement units per element are given in table 1. Gray shading used to demarcate element classes shown in table 1.a BD indicates concentration below detection limits.
9
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
same time the moss data were collected. Of the 346 sample points, 121 were shifted. The mean planar shifting distance was 5.00 m, more than two orders of magnitude smaller than mean minimum distance between sample locations. It is unlikely that such a small shift will affect any spatial analysis conducted by users of the moss data. Appendix table 6 and dot maps show the shifted coordinates.
Results and DiscussionFor each element, sample descriptive statistics and number of samples with concen-tration values below the detection limit are shown in table 4. Correlations between element concentrations measured in moss are shown in table 5. Correlations higher than 0.50 are shaded in gray; shading becomes progressively darker as the strength of the correlation increases.
Element AssociationsIdentification of pollution emissions sources can be aided by examining associa-tions between elements. Strong positive correlations between elements suggest they are often co-emitted or share a common origin. Here we provide the table of cor-relations (table 5) and a basic summary mainly for reference. Further analysis using multivariate techniques, such as Principal Components Analysis, is recommended to help resolve the relative contribution of different types of emissions sources (e.g., natural vs. vehicular vs. industrial) to element concentrations measured in moss (e.g., Berg and Steinnes 1997b, Schaug et al. 1990). The correlation between P and K is substantial (0.62), suggesting P and K are often high in the same locations. This is unsurprising considering that both elements are naturally abundant plant macronutrients that are also widely used in plant and grass fertilizers. Otherwise, highly correlated elements spanned multiple classes. Sulfur, a plant-essential secondary nutrient, and a product of combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, exhibits correlations higher than 0.50 with seven elements (Mo, Fe, Zn, B, Al, Cr, and Co), none of which belong to its class (table 1). This closely correlated group of elements and S are commonly, but not exclusively, emitted by various industrial processes. For instance, Al and Fe levels in moss are often associated with wind-blown soil particulates (Steinnes 1995), and Mo and Zn may occur from vehicular sources (e.g., exhaust, tire and brake wear) (Zechmeister et al. 2005). Sulfur may also be released by natural sources, the most likely in Portland being biomass burning and decomposition of organic matter (Bates and Lamb 1992). Seven other elements commonly emitted from industrial sources were not associated strongly with any (As, Cu, Mn, and Pb) or at most two other elements (Cd, Ni, Sr) (table 5).
Identification of pollution emissions sources can be aided by examining associations between elements. Strong positive correlations between elements suggest they are often co-emitted or share a common origin.
10
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Tabl
e 5—
Cor
rela
tions
bet
wee
n m
etal
con
cent
ratio
ns o
bser
ved
in th
e sa
mpl
e
P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
sP
•0.
620.
450.
200.
460.
180.
060.
170.
08-0
.05
0.17
0.38
0.16
0.12
0.28
0.13
0.14
0.23
0.17
0.19
0.05
-0.0
2K
•0.
410.
060.
290.
080.
120.
050.
05-0
.06
0.04
0.38
0.48
-0.0
60.
090.
020.
050.
120.
060.
130.
04-0
.03
Mg
•0.
150.
310.
200.
060.
170.
09-0
.03
0.10
0.46
0.22
0.14
0.23
0.12
0.20
0.23
0.19
0.16
-0.0
50.
06C
a•
0.50
0.23
-0.2
80.
260.
100.
200.
170.
70-0
.150.
630.
520.
290.
260.
320.
210.
360.
260.
33S
•0.
590.
090.
660.
220.
170.
530.
510.
250.
290.
450.
560.
390.
690.
540.
400.
370.
29M
o•
0.12
0.72
0.56
0.14
0.51
0.24
0.19
0.15
0.35
0.59
0.25
0.83
0.71
0.23
0.27
0.31
Mn
•0.
11-0
.01
-0.0
70.
14-0
.160.
22-0
.20
0.09
0.06
0.10
0.09
0.09
-0.0
9-0
.02
-0.0
1Fe
•0.
280.
190.
610.
210.
230.
250.
380.
920.
440.
870.
890.
240.
340.
31N
i•
0.02
0.16
0.10
0.08
0.03
0.13
0.32
0.14
0.45
0.59
0.08
0.12
0.28
Cu
•0.
190.
10-0
.01
0.14
0.13
0.14
0.06
0.21
0.12
0.11
0.17
0.19
Zn
•0.
220.
110.
130.
230.
520.
220.
590.
540.
370.
330.
21B
•0.
100.
380.
390.
200.
270.
280.
200.
580.
200.
28N
a•
-0.14
0.02
0.21
0.24
0.24
0.21
0.06
0.05
0.12
Sr•
0.57
0.31
0.16
0.19
0.23
0.14
0.15
0.18
Ba
•0.
410.
350.
370.
360.
220.
190.
23A
l•
0.53
0.72
0.88
0.20
0.28
0.37
Si•
0.35
0.42
0.19
0.18
0.17
Cr
•0.
790.
290.
410.
33C
o•
0.23
0.27
0.35
Cd
•0.
180.
30Pb
•0.
08A
s•
Not
e: D
arke
r cel
l bac
kgro
und
indi
cate
s hig
her c
orre
latio
ns v
alue
s. D
otte
d lin
es d
emar
cate
ele
men
t cla
sses
show
n in
tabl
e 1.
11
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
High Concentrations and “Hotspots”Dot maps of element concentrations in moss and corresponding histograms are shown in figure 3. As might be expected, the dot maps show unique spatial distribu-tions for the seven elements that lacked strong associations with other elements. Most exhibit one or a few hotspots (figs. 3i, 3j, 3t, and 3u) whereas possible As and Sr hotspots were numerous and widespread (figs. 3n and 3v).
Skewness coefficients (table 4) varied by element. All highly skewed histograms (fig. 3) showed a tail towards the right, indicating the presence of one or more exceptionally high concentrations in our dataset. In studies of small-scale industrial emissions, elements with highly right-skewed distributions typically indicate the presence of pollution point sources (Fernandez et al. 2007, Varela et al. 2014). The most skewed elements included all elements in the plant-essential micronutrients and environmentally important trace elements classes (Zn, B, As, Mn, Co, Fe, Cr, Mo, Cd, Cu, Ni, and Pb). All of these elements may be emitted from certain industrial activities and can be hazardous if present in high concentrations in the atmosphere. Also substantially skewed were the distributions of Sr, Al, and Ba, soil mineral ele-ments that may also be emitted by industry. The elements Cd, Cu, Ni, and Pb had the highest coefficients owing to a few very high concentrations measured in the moss samples. Three of the four (Cd, Ni, and Pb) are heavy metals on the Environmental Protection Agency’s list of urban toxics posing the greatest health risk in urban areas.3
On the other hand, elements belonging to the plant-essential macro- and sec-ondary nutrients, plus the soil minerals Na and Si, were relatively free of exception-ally high concentrations. These elements are all abundant in nature and, with the exception of S and Si, are less commonly released from industrial sources. Because elements with right-skewed distributions often indicate pollution point sources, it would thus be expected that elements primarily derived from natural sources would have more normally distributed data.
Ranking locations with high concentrations of multiple elements of concern is one approach to prioritizing hotspots for further investigation. Figure 4 shows where moss concentrations were in the top eight highest for the six most toxic metals in our dataset (Ni, Cr, Co, Cd, Pb, and As). Figure 5 shows locations in the top 8 for the 10 most skewed elements, which includes all 6 of the most toxic metals (Mo, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr, Co, Cd, Pb, and As). Despite its highly skewed distribu-tion, manganese (Mn) was excluded as prior research suggests levels measured in moss are controlled by factors other than atmospheric concentrations (Boquete et al. 2011). Increasing the number of elements used in calculating the top 8 concentration from 6 to 10 does not alter the overall hotspot pattern although a few other sample locations with more than one value in the top-8 values emerge.
3 Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Urban air toxic pollutants. https://www.epa.gov/urban-air-toxics/urban-air-toxic-pollutants. (April 2016).
The elements Cd, Cu, Ni, and Pb had the highest skewness coefficients owing to a few very high concentrations measured in the moss samples. Three of the four (Cd, Ni, and Pb) are heavy metals on the Environmental Protection Agency’s list of urban toxics posing the greatest health risk in urban areas.
Ranking locations with high concentrations of multiple elements of concern is one approach to prioritizing hotspots for further investigation.
12
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Figure 3a—Dot map of phosphorus concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
Phosphorus (P)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.4 .5
010
2030
4050
60
Percent of sample dry weight
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
13
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Potassium (K)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1. .3
010
2030
4050
60
Percent of sample dry weight
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3b—Dot map of potassium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
14
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Magnesium (Mg)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
010
2030
4050
Percent of sample dry weight
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3c—Dot map of magnesium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
15
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Calcium (Ca)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
010
2030
4050
Percent of sample dry weight
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3d—Dot map of calcium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
16
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Sulfur (S)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.2
010
2030
4050
60
Percent of sample dry weight
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3e—Dot map of sulfur concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
17
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Molybdenum (Mo)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
020
4060
8010
012
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3f—Dot map of molybdenum concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
18
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Manganese (Mn)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
020
4060
8010
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3g—Dot map of manganese concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
19
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Iron (Fe)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
3614
3883
4803
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
010
2030
4050
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3h—Dot map of iron concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
20
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Nickel (Ni)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
43.5
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
020
4060
8010
012
014
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3i—Dot map of nickel concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
21
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Copper (Cu)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
125
250
342
357
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
020
4060
8010
012
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3j—Dot map of copper concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
22
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Zinc (Zn)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
020
40
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3k—Dot map of zinc concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
23
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Boron (B)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
020
4060
80More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3l—Dot map of boron concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
24
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Sodium (Na)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
020
4060
80More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3m—Dot map of sodium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
25
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Strontium (Sr)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
010
2030
4050
6070
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3n—Dot map of strontium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
26
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Barium (Ba)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
020
4060
8010
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3o—Dot map of barium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
27
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Aluminum (Al)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
020
4060
8010
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3p—Dot map of aluminum concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
28
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Silicon (Si)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
010
240
3050
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3q—Dot map of silicon concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
29
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Chromium (Cr)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
8.06
8.8
10.04
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1
020
4060
8010
012
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3r—Dot map of chromium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
30
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Cobalt (Co)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
2.02
2.15
2.52
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
010
2030
4050
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3s—Dot map of cobalt concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
31
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Cadmium (Cd)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
4.38
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3. .5
020
4060
8010
012
0
Figure 3t—Dot map of cadmium concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
32
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Lead (Pb)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
129
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
020
4060
8010
0More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3u—Dot map of lead concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme.
33
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Arsenic (As)N
0 5 10
Kilometers
mg/kg
Num
ber o
f mos
s sa
mpl
es
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
050
100
150
200
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 3v—Dot map of arsenic concentrations found in moss samples and corresponding distribution histogram. See text pp. 7 and 8 for details on the coloring scheme. Mode of histogram is below the detection limit (0.237 mg/kg) for arsenic.
34
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Co, As
Element list(selected locations)
1: Ni, Cr, Co, As 2: Pb, Cr, Co 3: Cr, Co, As 4: Cd, Cr, Co 5: Pb, Cr, Co 6: Ni, Co 7: Cd, As
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333
444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
Figure 4—Sample locations with elevated concentrations for several of the six most toxic metals in our dataset (Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Co, and As). Filled points show the locations where the concentration of one or more of those elements was among the top 8. Numbers in filled circles link locations to the element list in the lower left corner. Blue circles indicate that the concentration of just one element was among the top 8 concentrations.
35
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Figure 5—Sample locations with elevated concentrations for several of the 10 most toxic metals in our dataset (Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al, and As). Filled points show the locations where the concentration of one or more of those elements was among the top 8. Numbers in filled circles link locations to the element list in the lower left corner. Blue circles indicate that the concentration of just one element was among the top 8 concentrations.
N
0 5 10
Kilometers
Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al, As
Element list(selected locations)
1: Cu, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al, As 2: Pb, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al 3: Cd, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al 4: Pb, Mo, Cr, Fe, Co, Al 5: Ni, Mo, Cr, Co, As 6: Fe, Co, Al 7: Mo, Cr, Fe 8: Fe, Co, Al 9: Pb, Cu 10: Ni, Co 11: Cd, As 12: Cu, Al
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333
444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212121212
More research is needed to determine the exact relationship between moss concentrations and air concentrations.
36
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Limitations and GuidelinesAt this stage in the research, the moss data should be regarded as a screening tool to identify possible problem areas for followup with actual air quality measurements. Even with a casual look at the element concentration dot maps in figure 3, the reader can identify many samples positioned very close to each other but with highly contrasting concentration values. This observation is both encouraging and concerning. It is encouraging because it suggests that the dispersion distance of most elements is relatively short and an isolated pollu-tion point source will affect only those in its immediate vicinity, ultimately a very small percentage of an urban area’s population. It is concerning because a pollution point source can remain undetected for a long time if relying exclu-sively on sparse air monitoring networks. To reduce the probability of missing a hotspot, the mean distance between neighboring samples will need to be shorter than the one used in this study, and the spatial allocation of the sample free of sizeable gaps. Ensuring the latter can be logistically challenging, while the former would be costly.
A key unknown is how accurately metal concentrations in the moss we used, Orthotrichum lyellii, reflect levels in the air. Donovan et al. (2016) found a very high correlation between moss Cd and atmospheric Cd measured by the Depart-ment of Environmental Quality (DEQ) (0.991 or 99.1 percent), but this relation-ship was based on only four data points and is thus not considered statistically significant. Otherwise, no calibration work (comparing moss-to-instrument values) has been done yet with Orthotrichum as this is the first time it has been used as a bioindicator.
It is likely that the strength of relationships between moss and atmospheric con-centrations will vary by element. This is because elements differ in how strongly they bind to moss cells, how long they are retained in the moss, and how susceptible they are to displacement by other co-occurring elements (Gonzalez and Pokrovsky 2014, Rühling and Tyler 1970). Additionally, moss cells regulate the uptake of elements with physiological roles, such as some of the plant essential nutrients (table 1) (Bates 1992), potentially weakening relationships with atmospheric concentra-tions. Also, emissions from natural sources of elements (e.g., soils, leachates from overstory vegetation, marine aerosols) can contribute to levels measured in moss. Therefore, it is likely that some Orthotrichum-based maps will portray air quality more accurately than others.
37
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Most past research calibrating moss-based concentrations with air quality data focused on comparing ground-dwelling moss species against bulk deposi-tion measurements (Aboal et al. 2010). This may not accurately represent the epiphytic species we used and the DEQ’s high-volume particulate monitors used by Donovan et al. (2016) to calibrate our Cd data. Calibrating Orthotrichum is a top research priority. It is only possible to convert moss concentrations to health thresholds and regulatory standards if relationships are sufficiently strong. Otherwise, validation of moss hotspots using monitoring instruments is required to make inferences about health risks and absolute concentrations in the atmosphere.
The time period represented by metals in Orthotrichum is unknown, but it likely ranges between several months to a few years. This means moss concen-trations may indicate emissions sources that no longer exist and that repeat sam-pling over short time intervals may not accurately portray declining emissions after pollution abatement measures are taken. We analyzed elemental concentra-tions in only the upper two-thirds of moss stems and estimate that our samples could represent, at maximum, 3 years of exposure. In the reciprocal transplant study of Boquete et al. (2013), it took over 1.5 years for transplants from polluted environments to reach background concentrations of metals. Conversely, it took 240 days for transplants from “clean” sites to reflect metal concentrations at a polluted site. As it is well known that different species have different accumula-tion and retention capacities (Castello 2007, Gonzalez and Pokrovsky 2014, Halleraker et al. 1998), determining what timeframe Orthotrichum represents is another research priority.
Environmental conditions, such as precipitation intensity, pH, and temperature, may affect element concentrations in moss tissues although results seem to vary across studies (Čeburnis and Valiulis 1999, Gjengedal and Steinnes 1990). Effects on Orthotrichum concentrations are another unknown that could potentially affect both timeframe and strength of relationships to atmospheric concentrations. Annual and daily temperature, humidity, and precipitation were not significant predictors of Cd in moss (Donovan et al. 2016). However, we intentionally sampled within a short timeframe (2.5 weeks) to minimize variability in weather conditions so results are not definitive.
38
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
ConclusionsMosses are a useful screening tool for atmospheric pollutants. They can be used to inexpensively and quickly identify areas for the placement of pollution monitoring instruments. Moss and lichen bioindicators have provided valuable low-cost infor-mation on pollution levels in hundreds of other studies from dozens of countries across the world (e.g., Ares et al. 2012, Fuga et al. 2008, Garty Ha2001, Nguyen Viet et al. 2010, Zvěřina et al. 2014).
While monitoring instruments are expensive and require one or more months to yield results for a single location, they provide real-time, accurate measurements of pollutant concentrations in the air without the uncertainties of working with living organisms like moss bioindicators. The complementary use of both techniques has the potential to revolutionize how we monitor air quality in urban areas, helping to more efficiently and effectively inform about pollution levels and sources, an excel-lent example being current monitoring activities taking place in Portland, Oregon.
Moss monitoring research based on our Cd data helped identify two major, unregulated sources of Cd in Portland. Placement of an air monitor near one hotspot measured Cd and As levels that greatly exceeded health benchmarks (Donovan et al. 2016). These findings led to the installation of new pollution controls at both facilities, reexamination of regulatory exemptions for the stained-glass industry, and the creation of “Cleaner Air Oregon.”4 This new state program will provide more resources for air monitoring and mandates the development of risk-based standards for air toxics. Hotspots identified in this study may likewise assist in uncovering additional unknown or unregulated pollution sources; the provision of our raw data (app., table 6) will enable others to carry forward such investigations.
English EquivalentsWhen you know: Multiply by: To get:Meters (m) 3.27 FeetSquare kilometers (km2) 0.386 Square milesMilliliters (mL) 0.061 Cubic inchesGrams (g) 0.0352 OuncesDegrees Celsius (°C) 1.8 °C (+ 32) Degrees Fahrenheit
4 Cleaner Air Oregon. http://cleanerairoregon.org/. (May 2016).
39
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Literature CitedAboal, J.R.; Fernandez, J.A.; Boquete, T.; Carballeira, A. 2010. Is it possible
to estimate atmospheric deposition of heavy metals by analysis of terrestrial mosses? Science of the Total Environment. 408: 6291-6297.
Aboal, J.R.; Pérez-Llamazares, A.; Carballeira, A.; Giordano, S.; Fernández, J.A. 2011. Should moss samples used as biomonitors of atmospheric contamination be washed? Atmospheric Environment. 45(37): 6837–6840.
Ares, A.; Aboal, J.R.; Carballeira, A.; Giordano, S.; Adamo, P.; Fernandez, J.A. 2012. Moss bag biomonitoring: a methodological review. Science of the Total Environment. 432: 143–158.
Bates, J.W. 1992. Mineral nutrient acquisition and retention by bryophytes. Journal of Bryology. 1(4): 7-34.
Bates, J.W. 1994. Responses of the mosses Brachythecium rutabulum and Pseudoscleropodium purum to a mineral nutrient pulse. Functional Ecology. 172(8): 686–692.
Bates, T.S.; Lamb, B.K. 1992. Natural sulfur emissions to the atmosphere of the continental United States. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 6(4): 431–435.
Berg, T.; Steinnes, E. 1997a. Recent trends in atmospheric deposition of trace elements in Norway as evident from the 1995 moss survey. Science of the Total Environment. 208: 197–206.
Berg, T.; Steinnes, E. 1997b. Use of mosses (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) as biomonitors of heavy metal deposition: from relative to absolute deposition values. Environmental Pollution. 98: 61–71.
Boquete, M.T.; Fernández, J.A.; Aboal, J.R.; Carballeira, A. 2011. Are terrestrial mosses good biomonitors of atmospheric deposition of Mn? Atmospheric Environment. 45: 2704–2710. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.057.
Boquete, M.T.; Fernandez, J.A.; Carballeira, A.; Aboal, J.R. 2013. Assessing the tolerance of the terrestrial moss Pseudoscleropodium purum to high levels of atmospheric heavy metals: a reciprocal transplant study. Science of the Total Environment. 461–462: 552–559.
Castello, M. 2007. A comparison between two moss species used as transplants for airborne trace element biomonitoring in NE Italy. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 133: 267–276.
40
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Čeburnis, D.; Valiulis, D. 1999. Investigation of absolute metal uptake efficiency from precipitation in moss. Science of the Total Environment. 226: 247–253.
Donovan, G.H.; Jovan, S.E.; Gatziolis, D.; Burstyn, I.; Michael, Y.L.; Monleon, V.J. 2016. Using an epiphytic moss to identify previously unknown sources of atmospheric cadmium pollution. Total Science of the Environment. 559: 84–93.
Fernández, J.A.; Aboal, J.R.; Real, C.; Carballeira, A. 2007. A new moss biomonitoring method for detecting sources of small-scale pollution. Atmospheric Environment. 41(10): 2098–2110. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.10.072.
Fuga, A.; Saiki, M.; Marcelli, M.P.; Saldiva, P.H.N. 2008. Atmospheric pollutants monitoring by analysis of epiphytic lichens. Environmental Pollution. 151: 334–340.
Garty, J. 2001. Biomonitoring atmospheric heavy metals with lichens: theory and application. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 20: 309–371.
Gerdol, R.; Marchesini, R.; Lacumin, P.; Brancaleoni, L. 2014. Monitoring temporal trends of air pollution in an urban area using mosses and lichens as biomonitors. Chemosphere. 108: 388–395.
Gjengedal, E.; Steinnes, E. 1990. Uptake of metal ions in moss from artificial precipitation. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 14: 77–87.
Gonzalez, A.G.; Pokrovksy, O.S. 2014. Metal adsorption on mosses: toward a universal adsorption model. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 415: 169–178.
Halleraker, J.H.; Reimann, C.; de Caritat, P.; Finne, T.E.; Kashulina, G.; Niskaavaara, H.; Bogatyrev, I. 1998. Reliability of moss (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) as a bioindicator of atmospheric chemistry in the Barents region: interspecies and field duplicate variability. Science of the Total Environment. 218: 123–139.
Lawton, E. 1971. Moss flora of the Pacific Northwest. Nichinan, Miyazaki, Japan: Hattori Botanical Library. 389 p.
Nguyen Viet, H.; Frontasyeva, M.V.; Trinh Thi, T.M.; Gilbert, D.; Bernard, N. 2010. Atmospheric heavy metal deposition in northern Vietnam: Hanoi and Thainguyen case study using the moss biomonitoring technique, INAA and AAS. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 17: 1045–1052.
41
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Nickel, S.; Hertel, A.; Pesch, R.; Schröder, W.; Steinnes, E.; Uggerud, H.T. 2014. Modelling and mapping spatio-temporal trends of heavy metal accumulation in moss and natural surface soil monitored 1990–2010 throughout Norway by multivariate generalized linear models and geostatistics. Atmospheric Environment. 99: 85–93.
Owczarek, M.; Guidotti, M.; Blasi, G.; De Simone, C.; De Marco, A.; Spadoni, M. 2001. Traffic pollution monitoring using lichens as bioaccumulators of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin. 10: 42–45.
Rühling, Å.; Tyler, G. 1968. An ecological approach to lead problem. Botaniska Notiser. 121: 321–342.
Rühling, Å.; Tyler, G. 1970. Sorption and retention of heavy metals in the woodland moss Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) Br. et Sch. Oikos. 21: 92–97.
Schaug, J.; Rambæk, J.P.; Steinnes, E.; Henry, R.C. 1990. Multivariate analysis of trace element data from moss samples used to monitor atmospheric deposition. Atmospheric Environment. Part A. General Topics. 24: 2625–2631.
Shepard, D. 1968. A two-dimensional interpolation function for irregularly-spaced data. Proceedings of the 1968 ACM National Conference: 517–524.
Steinnes, E. [1995]. A critical evaluation of the use of naturally growing moss to monitor the deposition of atmospheric metals. Science of Total Environment. 160/161: 243–249.
Varela, Z.; Aboal, J.R.; Carballeira, A.; Real, C.; Fernández, J.A. 2014. Use of a moss biomonitoring method to compile emission inventories for small-scale industries. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 275: 72–78.
Zechmeister, H.G.; Hohenwallner, D.; Riss, A.; Hanus-Illnar, A. 2005. Estimation of element deposition derived from road traffic sources by using mosses. Environmental Pollution. 138: 238–49.
Zvěřina, O.; Láska, K.; Červenka, R.; Kuta, J.; Coufalík, P.; Komárek, J. 2014. Analysis of mercury and other heavy metals accumulated in lichen Usnea antarctica from James Ross Island, Antarctica. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 186: 9089–9100.
42
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
App
endi
x Ta
ble
6—M
oss-
deri
ved
elem
ent c
once
ntra
tion
data
(con
tinue
d)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
145
.547
82-1
22.6
0665
0.18
60.
542
0.10
50.
826
0.12
10.
130
61.5
671.
01.
9110
.23
50.9
132
.03
112.
858
.042
.237
1.745
1.3
1.77
0.39
50.
430
14.2
3BD
b
245
.570
09-1
22.6
4356
0.17
20.
568
0.16
20.
465
0.12
40.
700
37.7
943.
21.
9325
.79
61.6
313
.7418
3.2
29.5
31.0
433.
651
5.7
2.11
0.52
50.
320
7.59
0.27
0
345
.547
87-1
22.5
3965
0.20
90.
479
0.19
80.
481
0.13
40.
580
53.0
1313
.52.
9313
.68
72.8
112
.65
170.
348
.562
.667
3.4
657.
03.
140.
870
0.24
04.
24BD
445
.453
84-1
22.5
1577
0.25
80.
565
0.18
00.
551
0.07
90.
410
31.6
627.
21.
3712
.04
35.0
020
.91
152.
525
.840
.238
3.3
478.
61.
380.
440
0.12
51.7
8BD
545
.466
31-1
22.5
8462
0.16
30.
410
0.11
50.
455
0.09
60.
935
36.0
971.
63.
7411
.99
37.2
06.
6811
1.729
.448
.355
3.0
415.
41.7
90.
730
0.10
54.
820.
295
645
.514
93-1
22.6
8193
0.33
90.
677
0.18
50.
620
0.17
91.1
6517
5.0
1144
.53.
0423
.12
83.11
32.75
153.
034
.142
.344
3.4
432.
23.
750.
565
0.38
56.
18BD
745
.535
01-1
22.7
9052
0.22
50.
573
0.22
10.
525
0.12
00.
420
59.6
974.
71.
427.
5742
.44
22.5
714
2.0
34.8
34.5
381.
844
5.2
2.24
0.50
00.
165
2.36
BD
845
.555
57-1
22.6
8132
0.21
40.
432
0.13
50.
579
0.14
30.
635
102.
313
85.5
3.15
18.8
894
.61
15.75
98.8
37.7
60.3
553.
946
0.4
3.39
0.77
50.
360
12.5
20.
250
945
.510
80-1
22.6
0269
0.24
60.
512
0.13
30.
349
0.13
30.
655
101.
810
38.6
3.71
14.6
644
.50
4.78
171.
915
.136
.855
0.0
434.
32.
080.
570
0.24
510
.70
BD
1045
.466
16-1
22.7
1173
0.15
50.
398
0.13
50.
402
0.09
00.
615
380.
310
86.1
1.38
7.52
51.75
6.99
119.1
21.7
51.1
488.
159
5.7
1.68
0.64
50.
160
3.58
BD
1145
.570
14-1
22.6
8977
0.13
20.
442
0.17
40.
739
0.15
31.1
6556
.211
21.7
2.94
48.1
994
.73
31.9
514
8.6
34.3
35.2
485.
148
1.13.
410.
565
0.33
015
.65
0.39
0
1245
.523
79-1
22.5
5503
0.19
40.
455
0.15
30.
784
0.11
90.
175
30.8
857.
02.
0611
.48
35.4
539
.79
117.
358
.985
.543
3.4
432.
71.7
40.
535
0.19
03.
200.
315
1345
.453
38-1
22.7
3467
0.18
00.
349
0.09
90.
457
0.09
40.
485
99.8
814.
11.
266.
9543
.71
4.93
81.7
27.3
52.5
411.1
499.
31.
490.
450
0.24
05.
06BD
1445
.549
30-1
22.6
5667
0.15
80.
365
0.09
20.
393
0.11
00.
365
51.1
1030
.52.
2618
.58
89.6
63.
4798
.024
.835
.346
8.5
454.
22.
370.
635
0.27
513
.29
BD
1545
.522
54-1
22.5
8347
0.28
40.
502
0.15
90.
706
0.17
80.
625
84.7
1618
.58.
9323
.26
79.5
128
.00
148.
749
.645
.082
7.4
782.
03.
431.
010
0.22
512
.47
0.38
5
1645
.555
61-1
22.6
6570
0.31
70.
630
0.19
80.
672
0.16
90.
295
56.5
1069
.52.
2719
.98
101.
9155
.43
111.
043
.762
.250
5.9
570.
02.
590.
595
0.74
526
.19
0.38
0
1745
.560
18-1
22.6
0090
0.34
60.
606
0.19
50.
580
0.15
91.
435
64.7
2741
.23.
4030
.98
165.
6326
.7513
5.5
48.9
65.7
1042
.851
8.2
3.81
1.27
00.
250
17.5
00.
520
1845
.479
62-1
22.6
9420
0.23
80.
562
0.15
50.
651
0.15
30.
960
53.5
1167
.11.
3914
.66
68.7
065
.44
155.
443
.279
.147
5.5
509.
22.
250.
630
0.25
04.
67BD
1945
.427
59-1
22.74
598
0.20
00.
355
0.08
30.
442
0.12
10.
670
40.8
1079
.11.
488.
1572
.25
3.73
104.
130
.333
.144
9.2
257.
32.
000.
515
0.08
03.
64BD
2045
.444
16-1
22.7
2103
0.15
40.
382
0.13
90.
398
0.09
80.
725
130.
674
7.6
1.24
7.11
50.0
05.
7618
3.4
28.2
54.0
421.1
356.
71.
480.
520
0.21
53.
560.
265
2145
.508
59-1
22.5
7343
0.22
20.
633
0.09
50.
417
0.07
30.
455
76.3
689.
61.
915.
8930
.54
7.56
92.8
19.1
20.2
366.
236
8.3
1.30
0.37
00.
075
2.78
BD
2245
.556
19-1
22.6
8085
0.23
60.
515
0.12
00.
431
0.16
81.
070
83.2
1738
.52.
9426
.95
231.
565.
3611
6.6
37.9
71.9
617.
452
0.5
3.56
0.89
50.
385
12.2
2BD
2345
.508
00-1
22.5
7326
0.21
60.
616
0.18
20.
492
0.11
10.
485
102.
563
2.1
1.52
8.47
27.3
728
.06
180.
937
.759
.034
4.2
455.
81.
410.
325
0.10
04.
07BD
2445
.547
32-1
22.6
2629
0.23
50.
603
0.15
00.
574
0.14
00.
205
156.
612
82.0
2.31
18.5
166
.1621
.52
136.
133
.444
.860
6.4
683.
52.
400.
770
0.37
014
.29
BD
2545
.528
16-1
22.6
2103
0.21
40.
706
0.22
30.
475
0.14
60.
210
26.9
869.
02.
2125
.54
43.14
30.3
920
0.3
33.6
48.6
445.
356
1.5
1.98
0.52
00.
340
9.99
BD
2645
.523
51-1
22.6
3601
0.16
50.
435
0.18
50.
421
0.14
10.
320
34.8
894.
52.
2216
.69
65.5
622
.98
167.
635
.738
.941
8.6
452.
61.
940.
595
0.62
510
.05
0.24
0
2745
.523
81-1
22.5
5393
0.16
90.
440
0.13
20.
552
0.10
50.
170
33.1
672.
52.
1810
.15
41.4
113
.66
162.
537
.256
.436
4.5
469.
31.
560.
505
0.15
53.
26BD
2845
.517
11-1
22.6
3833
0.20
90.
524
0.11
50.
445
0.13
50.
135
91.2
753.
52.
0812
.04
44.9
617
.68
155.
017
.426
.636
1.6
545.
01.
840.
435
0.79
59.
92BD
43
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
2945
.462
02-1
22.4
8968
0.16
40.
363
0.16
40.
418
0.09
20.
410
42.5
1003
.71.7
66.
2541
.24
8.06
131.
128
.146
.861
5.8
482.
71.
950.
710
0.08
04.
190.
300
3045
.573
65-1
22.5
9888
0.21
20.
521
0.20
10.
629
0.11
90.
630
27.1
798.
23.
2119
.1467
.48
50.1
211
8.2
26.4
38.8
380.
947
6.6
1.81
0.50
51.
830
4.97
0.32
0
3145
.506
34-1
22.5
2350
0.21
10.
486
0.18
90.
418
0.11
90.
665
31.8
731.1
1.67
7.38
32.6
611
.33
164.
831
.121
.441
7.9
490.
41.
360.
460
0.09
52.
69BD
3245
.538
35-1
22.6
5159
0.31
31.1
320.
136
0.48
50.
124
0.09
517
3.9
737.
52.
7325
.1151
.1136
.35
185.
221
.337
.245
0.2
658.
01.
940.
480
0.19
011
.26
BD
3345
.479
15-1
22.6
9419
0.16
40.
357
0.12
00.
540
0.10
10.
835
60.4
934.
11.
2910
.99
184.
1511
.83
129.7
31.6
38.1
410.
242
1.0
2.03
0.54
00.
165
5.86
BD
3445
.584
56-1
22.7
1014
0.19
70.
465
0.13
20.
374
0.11
91.
350
90.9
871.7
2.56
11.9
155
.73
6.29
165.
022
.032
.833
4.2
372.
42.
830.
420
0.21
03.
650.
260
3545
.602
31-1
22.6
7037
0.21
50.
534
0.26
20.
743
0.19
31.
980
75.5
2249
.74.
0585
.05
162.
0855
.12
166.
134
.644
.178
7.3
634.
25.
651.1
101.
090
14.0
70.
630
3645
.511
34-1
22.5
4302
0.13
60.
338
0.11
30.
355
0.08
80.
630
43.0
812.
62.
299.
6650
.90
4.34
130.
928
.036
.344
9.5
330.
81.
450.
550
0.13
54.
140.
265
3745
.584
99-1
22.7
1017
0.26
70.
572
0.19
00.
701
0.15
01.
660
235.
512
92.7
3.16
14.9
665
.28
30.4
411
7.8
47.1
154.
354
8.8
442.
64.
110.
580
0.25
05.
560.
395
3845
.501
24-1
22.6
2694
0.15
30.
448
0.10
40.
380
0.09
00.
590
75.0
1176
.12.
8912
.26
53.9
08.
2715
9.9
21.6
35.9
630.
052
5.7
1.83
0.78
50.
265
10.8
30.
335
3945
.485
77-1
22.74
040
0.18
60.
526
0.12
40.
428
0.09
50.
495
119.
367
2.7
1.30
7.96
51.18
8.55
139.
628
.137
.630
9.0
358.
31.
550.
405
0.21
03.
23BD
4045
.494
53-1
22.7
1698
0.17
80.
437
0.12
60.
652
0.10
40.
430
33.6
610.
60.
8235
7.25
43.9
316
.38
108.
248
.656
.132
0.4
394.
71.
370.
305
0.14
54.
950.
255
4145
.541
84-1
22.6
6452
0.19
20.
472
0.17
30.
762
0.15
00.
600
38.3
1153
.02.
2518
.1779
.26
43.3
611
7.9
50.1
50.7
538.
454
0.5
2.74
0.73
50.
660
12.0
1BD
4245
.517
48-1
22.7
2871
0.18
00.
383
0.13
60.
404
0.09
30.
080
60.4
663.
51.
486.
4144
.91
4.57
132.
929
.731
.824
8.7
291.
61.7
00.
340
0.16
53.
57BD
4345
.571
01-1
22.6
5191
0.15
10.
501
0.14
70.
441
0.12
00.
760
73.4
992.
21.
8522
.25
56.2
311
.25
142.
630
.736
.442
9.0
371.
42.
180.
530
0.22
510
.84
0.30
0
4445
.501
27-1
22.6
2727
0.19
70.
535
0.12
50.
524
0.09
50.
515
84.0
1114
.12.
7710
.62
46.8
026
.35
147.
527
.331
.360
1.0
482.
11.7
80.
710
0.30
07.
870.
440
4545
.466
67-1
22.5
8467
0.27
00.
579
0.18
00.
596
0.10
10.
755
28.4
784.
12.
569.7
528
.97
32.5
612
3.9
31.9
38.8
441.
845
0.2
1.70
0.57
50.
115
3.04
0.26
0
4645
.454
05-1
22.5
1686
0.22
10.
675
0.16
00.
379
0.09
20.
510
292.
875
9.2
1.79
8.91
47.2
89.
3838
2.6
17.9
27.9
446.
055
2.7
1.68
0.53
50.
135
2.27
BD
4745
.471
29-1
22.5
7483
0.24
80.
547
0.19
30.
538
0.12
30.
635
33.4
896.
63.
148.
8257
.65
26.6
022
4.3
35.9
41.0
496.
054
7.71.7
40.
670
0.13
58.
39BD
4845
.541
22-1
22.6
6386
0.23
30.
618
0.15
20.
396
0.14
30.
255
202.
390
1.5
3.48
13.6
713
9.91
18.4
220
5.4
23.6
43.3
424.
341
6.1
2.21
0.65
00.
550
10.6
2BD
4945
.537
46-1
22.5
6834
0.40
10.
653
0.22
00.
779
0.18
90.
480
60.8
1222
.02.
6220
.62
68.4
126
.1010
9.6
54.0
175.
057
2.9
495.
02.
690.
745
1.07
55.
060.
295
5045
.527
63-1
22.6
2106
0.31
20.
590
0.18
80.
826
0.16
40.
365
76.3
1010
.52.
1514
.25
67.7
645
.97
123.
244
.564
.551
6.9
626.
01.
990.
540
0.33
513
.76
BD
5145
.541
96-1
22.4
9547
0.23
70.
601
0.16
40.
673
0.12
81.1
2033
.013
12.2
2.14
16.9
183
.63
33.5
415
2.5
54.6
64.2
637.
347
8.2
3.02
0.74
50.
300
3.69
0.42
0
5245
.525
38-1
22.4
9338
0.22
30.
431
0.13
10.
491
0.09
60.
550
35.8
880.
21.7
123
.83
115.
588.
7395
.334
.030
.947
7.743
3.5
1.91
0.51
50.
100
7.27
BD
5345
.433
09-1
22.6
5384
0.18
60.
469
0.14
40.
380
0.09
30.
605
38.2
511.1
1.57
9.32
41.0
89.
6412
4.4
21.2
33.9
258.
936
9.11.
160.
365
0.18
02.
92BD
5445
.512
09-1
22.5
1412
0.18
10.
424
0.11
00.
490
0.13
70.
490
40.7
847.
61.
457.
9530
.00
9.42
101.
837
.638
.947
1.9
319.
01.
440.
460
0.07
56.
110.
290
5545
.547
32-1
22.6
2629
0.26
50.
468
0.19
80.
586
0.16
70.
510
90.0
1411
.54.
8816
.1172
.76
20.5
512
7.5
27.8
57.7
719.
471
4.5
3.12
0.88
50.
210
14.4
00.
335
5645
.455
69-1
22.6
0137
0.17
50.
496
0.20
90.
395
0.08
30.
775
94.2
516.
26.
477.
4844
.43
7.01
127.
225
.428
.631
1.6
391.
81.
810.
820
0.16
52.
58BD
5745
.496
25-1
22.4
8980
0.22
30.
357
0.12
00.
444
0.09
20.
460
72.0
1047
.11.
278.
7947
.20
10.4
411
6.8
31.4
40.0
647.
540
2.0
1.46
0.56
50.
080
4.85
BD
44
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
5845
.541
96-1
22.4
9547
0.26
80.
569
0.20
00.
637
0.15
51.
545
52.9
2241
.23.
3223
.88
116.
4327
.13
161.
157
.782
.710
78.8
644.
74.
661.
210
0.45
06.
510.
450
5945
.454
95-1
22.74
360
0.16
70.
497
0.14
00.
278
0.12
30.
645
145.
415
57.6
1.85
14.9
319
4.15
4.76
176.
422
.546
.466
5.5
623.
21.
950.
800
0.34
08.
65BD
6045
.517
89-1
22.6
3825
0.17
20.
431
0.21
60.
780
0.11
8BD
84.2
518.
01.
5678
.85
161.1
660
.23
61.8
45.7
37.1
287.
038
8.7
1.26
0.28
50.
555
4.82
0.27
5
6145
.570
19-1
22.6
5226
0.18
00.
489
0.13
00.
723
0.13
30.
870
53.7
1289
.72.
2127
.57
60.2
329
.07
152.
146
.981
.267
0.3
560.
22.
670.
640
0.30
58.
220.
320
6245
.547
75-1
22.6
0657
0.28
00.
604
0.19
70.
411
0.13
3BD
33.3
792.
01.
9411
.96
77.4
67.
5512
7.6
25.4
22.4
423.
647
5.2
1.63
0.50
00.
350
6.30
BD
6345
.531
33-1
22.6
1123
0.37
70.
646
0.18
90.
866
0.18
00.
175
34.5
883.
01.
6319
.84
49.8
165
.23
133.
440
.679
.252
4.9
627.
51.
820.
535
0.70
57.
26BD
6445
.505
35-1
22.5
5064
0.19
70.
439
0.22
00.
667
0.11
20.
450
181.
975
3.1
1.75
7.32
45.3
545
.71
79.7
35.5
81.9
449.
259
8.7
1.70
0.72
50.
145
3.56
0.44
5
6545
.473
64-1
22.5
4831
0.14
70.
352
0.18
40.
613
0.12
60.
850
35.9
1313
.12.
5252
.25
69.6
032
.95
113.
564
.174
.669
1.0
299.
92.
210.
755
0.16
55.
88BD
6645
.539
31-1
22.6
6169
0.31
00.
929
0.15
30.
589
0.14
51.1
4064
.016
75.5
2.87
26.8
311
8.71
44.0
120
0.9
43.0
74.8
694.
475
0.5
3.86
0.88
50.
570
17.0
5BD
6745
.508
51-1
22.6
5086
0.18
10.
570
0.09
70.
349
0.08
70.
655
57.7
729.
62.
2710
.25
64.0
512
.98
190.
420
.132
.735
7.2
358.
01.
930.
520
0.79
513
.22
BD
6845
.477
47-1
22.5
1351
0.13
90.
323
0.14
00.
461
0.11
00.
680
77.4
1225
.11.7
820
.26
112.
309.
8914
6.3
113.
858
.568
8.5
423.
71.7
90.
785
0.14
55.
23BD
6945
.522
59-1
22.5
6967
0.30
60.
700
0.21
10.
499
0.13
80.
400
52.4
1101
.02.
7511
.61
73.8
622
.97
198.
440
.956
.754
7.9
743.
02.
150.
660
0.22
56.
01BD
7045
.464
38-1
22.5
1847
0.27
50.
575
0.17
10.
465
0.10
70.
445
120.
947
2.9
1.61
5.93
46.3
27.
9497
.961
.566
.026
0.9
317.
91.
220.
550
0.21
51.
22BD
7145
.541
70-1
22.7
9429
0.19
60.
434
0.17
30.
642
0.09
20.
345
51.2
447.
20.
685.
7882
.35
23.6
511
1.6
45.8
60.2
220.
326
3.8
1.07
0.50
01.1
301.1
1BD
7245
.522
17-1
22.5
0902
0.18
90.
388
0.10
60.
399
0.10
50.
770
77.8
1048
.31.7
015
.04
70.6
06.
7834
.028
.843
.453
9.9
341.
31.
670.
585
0.14
04.
57BD
7345
.499
89-1
22.74
090
0.28
60.
478
0.20
10.
544
0.18
61.
675
256.
816
57.7
2.23
22.4
911
8.71
18.8
314
3.5
51.4
86.9
666.
250
5.0
3.10
0.86
50.
285
7.66
0.27
0
7445
.516
53-1
22.4
9275
0.13
10.
346
0.08
70.
798
0.13
50.
395
21.0
833.
61.
559.1
831
.06
22.4
710
2.1
61.8
49.6
538.
042
4.3
1.51
0.48
50.
185
2.85
0.47
5
7545
.528
84-1
22.7
8434
0.23
50.
505
0.14
00.
339
0.10
10.
405
104.
277
3.6
1.05
6.36
48.2
06.
4414
9.722
.532
.539
2.8
408.
41.
570.
410
0.14
02.
91BD
7645
.426
11-1
22.7
0844
0.21
00.
356
0.15
20.
395
0.09
60.
710
35.2
727.
61.
638.
1444
.90
6.64
89.0
39.0
57.1
376.
747
2.6
1.52
0.38
50.
140
3.25
BD
7745
.531
95-1
22.7
8238
0.17
90.
347
0.14
40.
563
0.09
20.
575
53.5
656.
11.
097.
4140
.64
19.4
663
.752
.445
.424
9.0
125.
21.
490.
435
0.10
01.
80BD
7845
.517
45-1
22.4
7676
0.17
10.
456
0.14
80.
430
0.11
60.
970
103.
717
33.1
2.19
14.2
212
1.00
5.30
151.
831
.454
.673
1.0
385.
32.
570.
960
0.19
55.
000.
395
7945
.556
84-1
22.7
7936
0.17
90.
474
0.14
40.
284
0.12
60.
735
109.
210
51.8
1.80
8.06
54.6
03.
0315
9.4
21.7
39.7
410.
340
7.72.
060.
555
0.14
05.
23BD
8045
.435
12-1
22.7
3654
0.23
20.
402
0.17
00.
529
0.08
90.
415
54.5
689.
50.
986.
7036
.71
9.71
81.3
40.9
46.8
345.
532
6.8
1.33
0.39
00.
075
2.12
BD
8145
.514
17-1
22.74
843
0.18
90.
416
0.15
80.
360
0.11
30.
680
162.
910
62.1
1.86
9.75
47.10
6.68
112.
923
.734
.242
6.1
463.
62.
720.
480
0.32
04.
57BD
8245
.440
06-1
22.6
9839
0.20
30.
541
0.16
30.
381
0.13
60.
770
76.1
1200
.32.
4210
.00
62.6
09.
8821
6.2
31.1
40.3
516.
436
9.6
2.51
0.67
50.
150
4.63
BD
8345
.485
72-1
22.74
066
0.18
40.
531
0.11
10.
434
0.09
60.
425
197.
879
5.6
1.20
7.22
48.0
07.7
312
5.0
23.1
29.7
315.
514
0.1
1.58
0.45
50.
145
3.68
BD
8445
.510
24-1
22.4
9779
0.11
10.
300
0.09
90.
717
0.11
30.
480
27.0
1056
.31.
939.
6441
.37
17.5
836
.446
.267
.074
3.9
504.
31.
850.
605
0.18
53.
460.
435
8545
.481
83-1
22.4
7439
0.23
40.
553
0.15
10.
535
0.11
90.
480
382.
986
9.8
1.76
8.50
31.3
47.1
386
.125
.841
.348
0.0
331.
31.7
80.
575
0.08
52.
21BD
8645
.493
97-1
22.6
1742
0.29
80.
664
0.21
20.
752
0.14
40.
655
38.3
732.
72.
5125
.39
86.5
638
.80
69.3
40.0
73.8
447.
960
3.0
1.62
0.54
00.
685
5.08
BD
45
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
8745
.470
44-1
22.6
0066
0.22
80.
572
0.18
80.
587
0.11
91.
415
43.6
1113
.67.
0915
.1062
.15
27.0
915
7.8
38.7
86.1
651.
038
1.0
2.26
0.83
00.
400
6.40
0.71
5
8845
.559
03-1
22.6
8497
0.16
70.
342
0.11
40.
709
0.15
10.
500
37.0
1098
.53.
7415
.38
129.
4120
.60
82.7
46.0
90.8
465.
644
4.5
2.88
0.58
50.
260
15.2
20.
285
8945
.426
39-1
22.6
7166
0.18
90.
414
0.16
30.
446
0.08
80.
495
55.6
958.
11.
926.
7135
.1410
.20
90.4
32.0
38.2
427.1
343.
21.
600.
545
0.09
54.
17BD
9045
.450
90-1
22.7
0862
0.28
50.
441
0.20
80.
571
0.12
80.
550
52.9
855.
01.
6112
.27
55.8
231
.30
114.
837
.249
.842
0.6
652.
51.
840.
510
0.17
53.
300.
385
9145
.490
54-1
22.5
6085
0.19
30.
405
0.14
30.
317
0.13
60.
870
86.1
1685
.25.
1917
.1677
.31
5.73
163.
020
.146
.081
1.760
1.5
3.19
1.14
50.
195
7.44
0.27
5
9245
.511
44-1
22.5
4308
0.14
20.
358
0.12
30.
372
0.09
80.
710
43.8
1034
.82.
5012
.03
58.2
04.
0443
.930
.840
.055
8.4
348.
11.7
30.
675
0.16
05.
16BD
9345
.531
01-1
22.7
8244
0.24
00.
506
0.15
60.
391
0.11
20.
840
84.6
702.
11.
299.
8371
.107.
4519
8.3
34.8
45.1
295.
926
6.6
1.58
0.38
50.
125
2.71
BD
9445
.466
51-1
22.6
5024
0.17
50.
515
0.15
80.
540
0.10
90.
565
30.9
762.
01.
919.7
241
.78
24.3
714
4.5
32.5
37.7
391.
333
4.0
1.52
0.45
50.
240
5.48
BD
9545
.513
03-1
22.6
8735
0.22
80.
458
0.13
90.
569
0.17
81.
300
254.
815
16.7
3.21
20.7
614
8.21
9.18
84.1
45.6
75.6
657.7
452.
93.
350.
705
0.23
511
.76
0.25
0
9645
.481
73-1
22.4
7323
0.25
50.
657
0.22
80.
572
0.09
50.
340
38.1
533.
30.
999.
4926
.1039
.70
132.
549
.471
.831
4.4
266.
21.
210.
390
0.11
51.
03BD
9745
.502
57-1
22.4
8744
0.20
40.
651
0.19
30.
382
0.08
80.
455
67.2
1133
.71.
506.
7130
.31
19.9
014
8.5
27.0
55.1
684.
261
6.0
1.72
0.63
00.
100
2.98
BD
9845
.570
14-1
22.6
8977
0.13
20.
443
0.18
20.
685
0.16
21.
350
73.1
1564
.73.
7359
.1011
9.28
28.7
216
4.3
32.9
37.7
688.
359
5.2
4.86
0.81
00.
400
19.9
30.
460
9945
.461
48-1
22.7
3864
0.19
80.
588
0.15
50.
443
0.09
50.
445
244.
070
8.0
1.12
10.8
960
.22
8.15
152.
125
.942
.032
8.1
443.
21.
240.
470
0.24
03.
17BD
100
45.4
6417
-122
.518
320.
235
0.59
20.
211
0.50
90.
102
0.42
562
.353
0.0
1.45
5.56
29.10
28.5
312
8.2
51.2
90.9
312.
936
5.9
1.26
0.36
50.
080
1.17
BD
101
45.4
5049
-122
.662
060.
180
0.34
30.
206
0.54
20.
128
0.70
570
.918
41.7
2.65
19.5
410
4.98
16.2
312
6.9
31.5
59.9
682.
242
3.7
2.81
1.04
50.
240
4.64
0.31
0
102
45.5
7088
-122
.643
570.
215
0.60
50.
163
0.42
20.
124
0.62
031
.579
9.71.7
619
.21
59.8
314
.65
199.1
23.6
31.1
368.
544
5.1
1.82
0.44
00.
330
5.91
0.29
0
103
45.5
4786
-122
.501
540.
265
0.49
20.
159
0.43
80.
131
0.15
059
.711
00.0
1.95
10.2
861
.96
6.29
157.7
24.4
40.7
546.
439
2.6
2.23
0.67
50.
125
3.25
BD
104
45.4
7822
-122
.582
790.
211
0.51
40.
225
0.50
50.
088
0.65
024
.774
8.0
2.75
24.4
533
.53
31.6
111
6.3
35.9
53.7
403.
141
1.8
1.64
0.60
50.
120
4.27
0.32
0
105
45.5
3053
-122
.686
390.
284
0.46
90.
191
0.75
10.
224
3.44
014
2.2
3883
.06.
3452
.20
250.
0638
.00
166.
070
.797
.614
97.4
714.
58.
802.
015
0.67
035
.03
0.45
5
106
45.5
8448
-122
.690
780.
174
0.54
80.
175
0.41
90.
144
1.160
156.
914
77.7
3.00
23.3
285
.63
11.0
621
8.3
27.6
42.1
530.
854
5.2
4.61
0.72
50.
185
7.33
0.26
0
107
45.5
2073
-122
.708
230.
168
0.25
40.
124
0.51
70.
128
0.64
559
.014
97.0
2.83
341.7
010
7.96
5.08
116.
337
.375
.754
7.9
475.
23.
760.
745
0.29
527
.09
0.35
5
108
45.5
8446
-122
.695
880.
204
0.49
10.
135
0.82
50.
150
0.92
554
.313
60.7
2.82
20.9
784
.38
33.7
110
7.2
64.8
82.9
617.
854
0.7
4.49
0.70
50.
270
128.
95BD
109
45.4
9158
-122
.494
440.
225
0.51
00.
186
0.31
60.
078
0.45
580
.112
93.1
1.33
6.23
33.4
03.
2814
7.127
.329
.071
7.5
443.
21.
890.
735
BD1.
91BD
110
45.5
0086
-122
.508
510.
108
0.27
60.
077
0.70
40.
101
0.35
522
.685
4.1
1.27
7.64
48.10
13.7
986
.556
.548
.563
3.0
342.
41.
450.
490
0.13
02.
770.
595
111
45.5
3910
-122
.768
410.
217
0.52
50.
191
0.38
40.
098
0.73
021
6.0
795.
82.
817.
5317
5.75
9.06
112.
719
.332
.236
4.5
295.
92.
340.
420
0.11
53.
47BD
112
45.5
1667
-122
.518
430.
166
0.38
00.
172
0.40
70.
100
0.55
580
.192
6.3
1.77
9.54
49.0
08.
8432
.628
.148
.749
3.1
257.
51.
560.
625
0.14
03.
85BD
113
45.4
7862
-122
.555
560.
248
0.64
10.
208
0.52
30.
102
0.93
534
.111
30.0
3.53
9.45
39.3
728
.87
146.
025
.235
.853
2.1
418.
52.
090.
780
0.16
53.
79BD
114
45.5
2609
-122
.556
190.
153
0.33
80.
122
0.35
00.
107
1.150
57.8
1332
.32.
5917
.31
148.
856.
6748
.234
.150
.965
0.9
525.
82.
200.
810
0.18
07.
22BD
115
45.5
1611
-122
.737
590.
187
0.42
80.
108
0.35
80.
088
0.47
565
.247
0.3
0.70
5.70
39.6
23.
5634
.723
.943
.723
3.6
331.
51.
060.
270
0.25
52.
33BD
46
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
116
45.4
9994
-122
.637
530.
265
0.67
10.
164
0.50
20.
128
0.66
542
.989
2.2
2.49
22.6
992
.31
36.8
116
8.8
36.0
38.8
430.
947
2.5
2.09
0.52
00.
925
14.2
20.
295
117
45.4
4103
-122
.702
950.
178
0.50
20.
151
0.35
30.
136
0.56
529
4.4
849.
82.
277.7
545
.20
3.77
156.
916
.131
.743
9.0
359.
51.
570.
525
0.18
52.
69BD
118
45.4
4673
-122
.7504
30.
189
0.41
00.
153
0.35
40.
093
0.46
522
6.4
702.
31.
066.
2243
.64
4.21
96.8
22.1
27.6
327.
634
7.0
1.30
0.44
50.
100
2.39
0.32
0
119
45.4
5544
-122
.684
000.
302
0.52
70.
173
0.56
70.
140
0.90
557
.911
59.0
1.92
12.6
088
.57
26.3
115
9.8
41.1
48.6
518.
158
8.5
2.49
0.60
00.
250
4.83
BD
120
45.5
7914
-122
.694
730.
184
0.58
20.
202
0.39
40.
125
1.05
044
.210
32.8
2.37
16.3
953
.20
12.4
022
8.9
19.9
30.0
412.
830
8.8
3.43
0.52
00.
160
5.13
BD
121
45.4
5872
-122
.629
170.
151
0.39
60.
178
0.54
10.
111
0.82
539
.178
2.8
5.63
8.63
34.74
29.4
013
6.2
46.3
58.8
383.
341
8.1
2.12
0.62
00.
245
3.45
0.24
0
122
45.4
2651
-122
.680
990.
192
0.39
70.
125
0.50
20.
098
0.40
529
.960
5.6
1.71
5.36
31.7
09.7
784
.330
.817
.729
9.728
2.4
1.36
0.41
50.
100
1.66
BD
123
45.4
6142
-122
.738
890.
245
0.50
20.
156
0.42
20.
101
0.34
012
1.8
505.
50.
937.
4038
.38
8.06
102.
525
.432
.825
0.2
361.
31.7
20.
300
0.21
52.
050.
365
124
45.4
2662
-122
.671
860.
170
0.45
40.
125
0.30
90.
071
0.47
070
.510
48.1
1.72
5.70
42.0
26.
1218
4.5
20.4
44.7
401.
436
2.2
1.69
0.70
00.
135
3.13
BD
125
45.4
6837
-122
.656
950.
316
0.60
70.
176
0.42
00.
153
0.99
030
6.6
1444
.04.
3716
.46
159.
2223
.90
144.
426
.253
.272
7.6
576.
02.
890.
995
0.41
09.
68BD
126
45.5
1363
-122
.630
530.
261
0.52
90.
149
0.59
60.
129
0.55
057
.757
5.8
1.94
12.0
813
1.05
33.9
650
.640
.160
.129
6.4
195.
31.
360.
435
0.50
537
.53
BD
127
45.5
4965
-122
.582
530.
180
0.57
00.
128
0.55
40.
131
0.55
569
.283
9.8
1.98
10.0
542
.60
14.0
817
1.733
.948
.741
4.0
346.
11.
580.
455
0.19
54.
29BD
128
45.4
5421
-122
.506
910.
248
0.61
40.
211
0.39
80.
106
0.33
518
4.8
541.
81.
825.
9729
.1714
.7522
4.6
42.0
76.9
311.1
285.
11.1
50.
495
0.06
01.
93BD
129
45.5
1355
-122
.630
980.
204
0.46
40.
126
0.46
60.
100
0.60
046
.365
5.7
2.21
12.0
640
.70
14.7
364
.231
.727
.934
5.9
401.
91.
590.
420
0.28
012
.65
0.28
0
130
45.5
4356
-122
.595
420.
141
0.47
40.
114
0.50
60.
104
0.51
552
.271
5.3
1.76
21.4
651
.107.
5110
2.7
28.6
39.9
395.
631
6.6
1.34
0.40
00.
305
8.89
BD
131
45.4
9736
-122
.484
500.
247
0.50
10.
180
0.53
60.
146
0.87
076
.618
33.7
2.63
13.3
091
.46
14.6
915
0.0
51.1
82.1
951.7
535.
02.
910.
975
0.27
07.
820.
285
132
45.4
7773
-122
.623
130.
180
0.42
60.
097
0.73
80.
125
0.87
028
.410
47.5
7.57
11.7
240
.38
18.0
766
.136
.335
.152
6.6
324.
72.
320.
705
0.26
05.
950.
360
133
45.5
3765
-122
.554
010.
310
0.55
90.
190
0.60
70.
134
0.67
032
.884
8.3
2.27
14.9
445
.00
39.2
642
.641
.761
.941
6.9
299.
01.
690.
545
0.41
03.
86BD
134
45.4
9941
-122
.658
850.
196
0.47
70.
189
0.69
10.
164
1.165
59.8
1461
.73.
5019
.54
107.
8645
.72
158.
748
.566
.664
8.2
544.
03.
020.
745
0.55
58.
110.
430
135
45.4
6518
-122
.723
290.
307
0.63
50.
210
0.59
20.
132
1.180
54.9
1610
.01.
9819
.55
96.4
720
.05
134.
045
.282
.464
8.1
660.
03.
060.
885
0.22
04.
89BD
136
45.4
6541
-122
.681
340.
223
0.74
60.
153
0.59
10.
127
0.83
022
6.1
975.
02.
1312
.02
65.3
219
.96
183.
543
.810
4.3
496.
661
9.0
2.33
0.55
50.
370
3.57
0.29
5
137
45.5
4397
-122
.772
820.
222
0.58
70.
196
0.34
00.
099
0.50
516
6.4
651.
31.
876.
4741
.70
3.74
119.
637
.537
.830
7.0
271.
21.
660.
525
0.07
03.
25BD
138
45.6
0333
-122
.832
380.
160
0.39
30.
114
0.32
40.
095
0.35
012
4.4
851.
31.
536.
1130
.53
4.66
102.
726
.732
.933
2.0
250.
81.
600.
475
0.11
53.
850.
265
139
45.5
2418
-122
.7592
80.
227
0.47
30.
157
0.66
50.
100
0.53
560
.664
6.8
1.14
7.37
52.0
522
.33
BD61
.457
.727
4.6
275.
91.7
70.
405
0.33
52.
37BD
140
45.4
7721
-122
.600
860.
258
0.63
60.
212
0.50
10.
095
0.99
523
.765
7.5
7.96
16.2
729
.1718
.58
127.7
32.4
48.1
379.
439
6.2
1.83
0.61
50.
120
3.93
0.29
0
141
45.4
6653
-122
.653
170.
208
0.51
50.
146
0.39
60.
114
0.94
555
.813
50.5
2.96
17.7
390
.12
11.5
322
5.9
26.8
44.0
674.
672
0.0
2.73
0.76
00.
255
10.0
10.
270
142
45.5
4961
-122
.582
700.
180
0.70
90.
145
0.63
30.
129
0.59
010
8.0
704.
81.
4910
.1651
.7523
.03
113.
036
.960
.035
9.724
6.7
1.29
0.42
50.
305
3.10
BD
143
45.4
8972
-122
.572
110.
189
0.55
80.
189
0.58
50.
129
0.92
537
.913
62.7
3.04
17.1
359
.61
25.9
817
4.5
38.9
58.8
702.
240
6.5
2.38
0.80
00.
200
4.67
0.54
0
144
45.4
5925
-122
.648
990.
308
0.66
30.
188
0.57
30.
149
0.70
585
.310
11.3
2.63
15.0
660
.90
22.4
717
6.3
42.4
39.6
503.
447
7.72.
080.
610
0.32
56.
660.
450
47
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
145
45.5
2542
-122
.544
920.
239
0.49
10.
115
0.38
40.
096
0.65
033
.986
3.8
2.08
8.93
63.3
54.
6351
.825
.927
.845
3.3
480.
41.
580.
550
0.15
55.
62BD
146
45.5
4629
-122
.670
790.
141
0.31
90.
133
0.38
10.
138
1.44
098
.718
40.8
3.14
19.2
387
.25
18.6
711
4.0
22.9
36.4
697.
443
2.8
3.21
0.84
00.
560
13.0
0BD
147
45.4
8214
-122
.7500
60.
132
0.35
90.
088
0.46
60.
086
0.42
527
.071
9.8
1.37
6.84
40.9
96.
1796
.331
.537
.331
5.9
238.
01.
510.
410
0.10
02.
39BD
148
45.5
5714
-122
.565
020.
302
0.61
70.
153
0.51
80.
171
0.92
091
.811
72.8
2.04
15.16
65.4
010
.80
153.
026
.162
.758
1.9
544.
62.
080.
640
0.17
54.
730.
740
149
45.5
2809
-122
.7497
40.
154
0.44
30.
170
0.29
60.
109
0.71
070
.885
6.7
1.62
16.6
968
.53
5.51
6.6
20.2
55.5
422.
156
4.2
2.15
0.50
00.
210
4.99
BD
150
45.4
7357
-122
.7505
60.
135
0.57
60.
271
0.44
90.
096
0.48
549
.954
0.3
0.77
6.46
25.2
429
.81
159.
326
.821
.325
3.3
330.
41.
020.
295
0.09
51.
16BD
151
45.4
3513
-122
.7413
30.
191
0.38
60.
124
0.39
00.
116
0.80
575
.510
80.6
1.42
10.2
469
.25
4.58
111.
335
.946
.546
6.6
379.
92.
050.
560
0.10
54.
23BD
152
45.5
0232
-122
.581
880.
324
0.64
00.
216
0.53
20.
141
0.68
084
.198
2.7
4.08
10.8
249
.06
39.3
410
6.8
36.1
50.6
489.1
365.
81.
950.
615
0.18
03.
490.
340
153
45.5
5831
-122
.618
450.
269
0.86
90.
201
0.32
60.
138
0.56
014
3.7
752.
31.
9611
.72
93.6
025
.68
258.
620
.639
.636
0.0
251.7
1.58
0.52
00.
280
6.07
0.24
0
154
45.5
6746
-122
.603
680.
269
0.91
20.
233
0.66
80.
211
2.37
012
9.9
4802
.88.
1088
.50
203.
0534
.26
230.
166
.298
.417
13.4
499.1
10.0
42.
520
1.07
523
.30
0.73
0
155
45.4
7369
-122
.674
640.
116
0.34
90.
094
0.57
60.
117
0.99
038
.311
90.0
2.29
12.18
68.2
711
.86
92.2
29.0
33.9
513.
142
3.7
2.67
0.63
50.
265
5.87
0.47
0
156
45.4
9560
-122
.501
340.
244
0.63
50.
176
0.42
20.
139
0.93
513
9.127
73.7
3.70
15.4
999
.61
22.4
221
2.3
36.6
70.5
1419
.245
2.1
4.69
1.34
50.
230
8.18
0.28
0
157
45.5
4055
-122
.519
900.
255
0.79
80.
150
0.37
00.
125
0.67
518
2.1
942.
82.
328.
6189
.40
11.8
519
3.5
21.9
34.9
490.
736
3.1
1.65
0.66
50.
150
6.20
BD
158
45.4
6553
-122
.682
100.
169
0.44
20.
158
0.35
40.
139
1.140
159.
814
70.0
2.83
16.75
91.3
78.
3217
0.9
23.8
62.4
664.
664
7.5
3.08
0.80
50.
230
6.58
BD
159
45.4
7240
-122
.627
190.
194
0.47
80.
140
0.40
80.
076
0.60
527
.651
6.0
5.24
10.1
340
.45
5.37
108.
121
.816
.128
0.9
370.
61.
640.
455
0.22
03.
07BD
160
45.4
6626
-122
.7480
60.
196
0.46
40.
149
0.43
30.
107
0.76
557
.913
83.0
1.51
10.2
569
.32
5.17
121.1
33.0
38.2
494.
233
6.7
2.05
0.77
00.
130
3.68
BD
161
45.4
9599
-122
.7443
50.
234
0.74
00.
195
0.31
20.
116
0.43
585
.960
9.6
0.99
5.88
46.3
013
.58
153.
424
.422
.324
6.5
214.
91.
400.
330
0.08
52.
32BD
162
45.5
8397
-122
.7414
80.
260
0.68
90.
182
0.55
80.
146
0.87
058
.613
57.8
2.46
16.6
467
.15
17.4
717
8.8
24.4
34.0
527.
943
9.3
4.42
0.66
00.
265
10.3
1BD
163
45.4
7476
-122
.525
410.
171
0.48
70.
153
0.66
80.
136
0.41
526
.198
3.0
2.16
40.0
915
7.42
16.17
160.
452
.948
.285
0.1
23.9
1.95
0.52
50.
140
3.74
0.49
0
164
45.4
9579
-122
.7442
70.
138
0.42
60.
158
0.36
70.
096
0.44
522
0.9
729.
61.
417.
9760
.25
6.25
136.
927
.824
.430
8.2
311.
91.
550.
445
0.11
53.
02BD
165
45.4
7883
-122
.709
460.
226
0.51
30.
177
0.38
60.
117
0.51
036
.063
4.7
1.21
14.3
843
.71
10.9
613
3.9
23.3
36.4
303.
619
7.5
1.28
0.34
00.
155
2.65
BD
166
45.4
4025
-122
.702
690.
166
0.48
90.
304
0.34
70.
103
0.45
538
1.5
535.
32.
086.
0634
.44
11.8
410
2.5
28.3
43.8
248.
728
1.6
1.15
0.30
50.
095
1.70
BD
167
45.4
3338
-122
.639
990.
195
0.57
40.
154
0.55
40.
137
0.76
069
.621
10.3
3.33
11.7
286
.95
17.5
415
3.7
39.0
47.1
888.
963
1.12.
501.1
200.
305
6.14
BD
168
45.5
0064
-122
.611
300.
189
0.65
60.
142
0.59
50.
146
0.93
512
2.2
1401
.74.
0214
.95
71.5
124
.80
169.1
29.7
41.8
674.
772
6.5
2.56
0.74
50.
190
8.38
0.41
0
169
45.5
3769
-122
.554
250.
296
0.71
70.
210
0.52
60.
148
0.74
035
.611
37.3
2.80
16.4
147
.25
29.5
919
5.4
36.8
64.6
577.
936
8.3
2.48
0.67
50.
345
4.22
BD
170
45.5
2412
-122
.599
060.
193
0.49
70.
197
0.52
50.
101
0.58
023
.165
9.8
1.83
14.7
340
.67
18.3
548
.236
.832
.636
0.3
385.
11.
420.
405
0.27
05.
62BD
171
45.4
9306
-122
.672
200.
265
0.67
30.
246
0.69
80.
176
1.26
586
.623
82.7
3.12
22.8
386
.46
65.4
715
7.5
32.7
43.8
1019
.292
0.5
4.16
1.31
00.
290
5.41
0.40
5
172
45.4
9290
-122
.732
930.
224
0.63
20.
139
0.39
80.
106
0.46
020
2.8
926.
71.
658.
2149
.71
6.33
184.
134
.462
.548
7.8
622.
52.
150.
495
0.17
03.
67BD
173
45.4
9339
-122
.548
210.
172
0.52
40.
137
0.56
20.
120
0.65
581
.413
92.2
3.11
10.7
854
.56
17.7
014
8.2
40.2
69.9
699.
250
1.5
2.59
0.83
00.
215
6.47
0.40
5
48
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
174
45.4
8123
-122
.718
610.
114
0.33
30.
093
0.54
00.
093
0.39
528
.378
6.5
1.41
6.18
41.2
610
.93
75.0
34.5
37.8
406.
334
9.3
1.76
0.43
50.
120
3.80
BD
175
45.5
0905
-122
.517
360.
224
0.92
40.
181
0.31
10.
104
0.34
014
0.3
756.
81.
448.
5385
.90
19.4
821
6.9
25.8
43.9
432.
733
5.2
1.24
0.50
50.
175
4.05
BD
176
45.5
6034
-122
.639
460.
182
0.64
10.
175
0.51
90.
118
0.57
527
.566
1.3
1.33
13.5
379
.60
18.8
816
6.1
27.5
30.4
327.
831
6.8
1.39
0.43
50.
280
6.44
BD
177
45.4
9884
-122
.658
470.
200
0.49
50.
153
0.53
00.
150
1.30
588
.216
38.7
3.49
15.8
412
4.36
16.5
413
4.0
37.6
56.2
690.
240
9.2
3.21
0.92
00.
435
9.35
0.36
5
178
45.5
4955
-122
.654
200.
240
0.56
30.
150
0.72
60.
158
0.87
041
.112
49.3
2.03
25.9
475
.00
24.3
810
3.0
48.2
65.3
617.
919
8.8
2.50
0.67
00.
580
12.7
1BD
179
45.5
4955
-122
.655
500.
223
0.74
40.
190
0.50
80.
138
0.64
038
.591
6.8
1.67
24.75
58.75
28.7
615
7.2
27.9
37.4
442.
730
5.7
1.75
0.58
50.
370
8.06
BD
180
45.5
4661
-122
.670
060.
144
0.49
10.
128
0.40
40.
134
1.33
088
.914
34.8
2.50
15.18
73.4
523
.7511
6.0
26.6
42.6
569.
455
1.8
2.35
0.68
50.
650
12.2
1BD
181
45.5
5684
-122
.779
360.
155
0.45
00.
139
0.29
90.
119
0.67
510
6.3
1023
.31.
668.
1956
.60
3.93
147.
921
.738
.742
8.6
409.7
1.85
0.59
00.
170
4.88
BD
182
45.5
2099
-122
.529
390.
168
0.46
20.
141
0.62
60.
152
0.63
548
.410
69.3
2.40
14.4
052
.7523
.7560
.943
.247
.667
8.9
534.
82.
070.
640
0.18
06.
16BD
183
45.5
1567
-122
.767
340.
234
0.60
80.
231
0.43
50.
078
0.40
021
.961
5.6
0.83
16.75
24.0
820
.84
139.
331
.328
.728
6.8
310.
91.
230.
340
0.07
01.
38BD
184
45.5
9534
-122
.823
300.
257
0.55
80.
155
0.34
90.
119
0.42
013
5.9
910.
31.7
38.
7136
.09
3.11
156.
029
.039
.851
1.4
504.
11.
500.
565
0.10
52.
44BD
185
45.5
7382
-122
.676
310.
313
0.67
00.
162
0.63
00.
190
1.32
091
.116
93.8
3.26
57.10
139.
9020
.07
157.
832
.753
.467
6.4
344.
34.
900.
775
0.39
514
.94
0.40
0
186
45.4
5042
-122
.672
200.
182
0.43
90.
152
0.43
30.
112
0.65
512
1.3
836.
01.
9010
.41
65.17
8.88
108.
025
.044
.439
7.8
458.
32.
060.
485
0.33
04.
88BD
187
45.4
5076
-122
.717
900.
176
0.59
70.
225
0.41
70.
105
0.55
025
.773
2.0
1.32
15.7
730
.01
18.3
816
1.8
34.6
29.8
365.
750
4.5
1.64
0.44
50.
110
2.11
BD
188
45.5
9650
-122
.764
470.
222
0.55
00.
217
0.46
90.
158
1.23
097
.419
08.8
3.28
29.9
313
8.55
11.2
319
1.5
22.4
30.5
601.
952
5.1
6.21
0.84
50.
420
13.7
80.
240
189
45.4
7902
-122
.633
690.
173
0.42
70.
184
0.45
00.
119
0.76
510
2.0
878.
73.
8111
.50
52.5
625
.49
90.1
21.0
41.6
433.
338
1.9
1.99
0.58
00.
335
4.17
BD
190
45.5
9518
-122
.822
540.
201
0.55
10.
143
0.34
50.
104
0.45
520
8.1
666.
81.
417.
3126
.114.
2215
3.7
35.7
37.2
331.
538
4.5
1.34
0.39
00.
075
2.42
BD
191
45.4
8082
-122
.559
650.
167
0.44
00.
112
0.54
00.
113
0.69
532
.511
54.2
3.83
12.6
663
.1610
.85
107.7
37.5
48.2
615.
766
9.0
2.45
0.86
50.
210
4.97
0.32
0
192
45.4
8571
-122
.576
930.
171
0.52
30.
125
0.64
80.
126
0.76
065
.611
73.7
3.73
11.8
254
.1124
.7513
8.0
45.5
70.6
568.
241
0.6
2.43
0.73
00.
195
6.77
BD
193
45.4
9038
-122
.532
570.
282
0.60
30.
217
0.47
50.
099
0.53
558
.010
00.2
2.18
8.79
184.
5621
.70
130.
534
.646
.155
5.2
624.
51.
820.
635
0.22
54.
910.
265
194
45.5
3446
-122
.714
700.
283
0.54
60.
208
0.55
10.
133
0.98
575
.711
86.8
2.85
16.3
211
3.45
25.8
465
.532
.972
.047
4.3
506.
33.
380.
645
0.37
012
.87
BD
195
45.4
9498
-122
.515
190.
161
0.36
30.
232
0.47
50.
095
0.48
052
.912
53.2
2.02
10.8
845
.81
14.8
410
8.0
45.7
64.0
826.
783
9.5
1.86
0.72
01.1
104.
460.
370
196
45.4
4293
-122
.667
650.
177
0.41
50.
128
0.40
90.
102
0.75
079
.710
87.0
2.23
10.3
463
.82
3.82
96.0
21.3
26.3
494.
547
9.3
2.25
0.68
00.
195
4.55
BD
197
45.5
5805
-122
.581
050.
249
0.59
00.
154
0.50
90.
120
0.64
510
7.8
874.
31.
9813
.1156
.00
19.3
314
7.736
.556
.139
1.8
321.
81.
640.
510
0.33
04.
80BD
198
45.5
0624
-122
.554
550.
255
0.55
40.
167
0.52
70.
128
0.61
054
.312
31.7
3.51
10.5
458
.66
13.8
912
5.2
31.7
44.5
640.
246
0.3
2.49
0.88
50.
315
3.82
BD
199
45.4
8894
-122
.582
150.
160
0.56
00.
198
0.38
20.
114
0.81
513
2.2
1300
.24.
7816
.76
78.0
112
.49
175.
825
.041
.571
8.7
481.
42.
540.
875
0.22
06.
650.
480
200
45.5
5537
-122
.634
730.
280
0.63
50.
186
0.62
40.
169
1.06
540
.514
56.8
2.26
28.4
913
3.30
28.6
514
7.4
34.3
62.8
637.
430
5.6
2.99
0.76
50.
615
10.9
40.
430
201
45.4
5931
-122
.651
570.
234
0.49
70.
150
0.62
80.
109
0.73
030
.386
2.0
2.11
10.6
272
.12
22.2
511
4.5
39.6
48.8
476.
655
6.0
2.03
0.49
00.
395
15.17
BD
202
45.4
8274
-122
.574
100.
244
0.50
20.
182
0.42
90.
111
0.71
552
.312
82.2
3.47
10.9
054
.01
14.8
814
4.1
26.1
47.7
697.
259
9.5
2.42
0.87
00.
180
6.78
BD
49
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
203
45.4
4538
-122
.709
710.
203
0.44
40.
135
0.40
90.
110
0.61
515
2.6
1096
.51.7
411
.32
75.3
24.
4775
.930
.263
.647
2.9
367.
02.
020.
615
0.12
54.
57BD
204
45.5
0937
-122
.677
400.
296
0.55
80.
184
0.51
50.
147
1.69
514
3.8
1739
.23.
2723
.69
129.
8616
.53
104.
132
.958
.566
2.7
458.
64.
070.
850
0.35
57.
410.
245
205
45.4
7245
-122
.703
550.
237
0.63
70.
313
0.65
00.
150
0.64
560
.017
75.5
2.01
10.0
446
.77
46.0
386
.553
.657
.262
5.1
539.
02.
930.
995
0.23
03.
490.
305
206
45.5
4310
-122
.595
410.
201
0.60
40.
185
0.32
70.
138
0.65
537
.787
4.8
2.02
11.2
947
.25
8.68
153.
220
.325
.346
9.734
3.8
1.67
0.51
50.
210
11.5
7BD
207
45.5
3578
-122
.631
350.
198
0.51
50.
128
0.41
90.
115
0.93
599
.110
62.8
2.14
15.7
079
.15
9.31
64.3
28.1
43.6
476.
926
9.8
2.10
0.56
00.
290
7.07
0.27
0
208
45.4
5516
-122
.560
260.
260
0.54
10.
226
0.60
20.
107
0.63
537
.069
6.3
2.95
11.5
932
.1832
.65
132.
861
.586
.531
5.2
267.
81.
430.
605
0.11
51.7
1BD
209
45.4
9736
-122
.484
500.
208
0.47
60.
167
0.47
90.
123
0.64
069
.213
76.7
2.02
10.6
080
.31
12.0
413
7.6
44.9
72.7
735.
242
5.6
2.36
0.80
50.
260
6.51
0.35
0
210
45.5
5718
-122
.606
890.
136
0.44
90.
129
0.49
70.
134
0.81
011
7.4
934.
32.
4213
.21
46.8
513
.41
149.
524
.446
.642
1.3
407.
41.7
90.
525
0.22
58.
230.
265
211
45.5
6016
-122
.640
850.
210
0.44
30.
132
0.36
30.
137
0.75
544
.210
30.3
1.98
20.5
715
3.90
5.77
143.
321
.635
.644
3.1
231.
82.
040.
565
0.32
010
.83
BD
212
45.5
2059
-122
.699
170.
184
0.47
90.
132
0.58
90.
119
1.135
51.8
1078
.82.
0914
.68
144.
1511
.66
64.8
34.0
60.2
475.
045
7.9
2.89
0.55
50.
200
7.92
BD
213
45.4
9545
-122
.500
620.
265
0.59
80.
184
0.49
10.
138
0.81
012
4.1
2108
.72.
8512
.95
74.6
122
.90
248.
045
.261
.511
47.7
925.
03.
681.
040
0.18
06.
070.
250
214
45.5
0672
-122
.559
750.
313
0.64
20.
173
0.42
50.
129
0.76
572
.110
27.8
2.42
12.11
49.75
15.7
611
5.2
34.7
57.5
570.
439
1.5
1.79
0.64
50.
175
4.66
BD
215
45.4
7032
-122
.649
990.
151
0.37
80.
108
0.44
70.
104
0.78
541
.610
95.5
2.68
13.17
49.8
77.
6812
5.8
37.9
35.0
501.
636
4.1
2.28
0.70
50.
340
6.11
0.24
0
216
45.4
9011
-122
.532
690.
292
0.68
80.
247
0.48
20.
095
0.44
543
.473
9.72.
018.
6833
.08
13.8
710
8.5
31.4
40.0
445.
055
2.5
1.56
0.52
50.
105
2.63
BD
217
45.5
9994
-122
.7412
60.
239
0.57
60.
241
0.55
80.
149
2.13
014
7.9
1780
.33.
5412
.1480
.60
32.3
316
5.6
26.8
39.7
519.1
521.
57.
480.
695
0.21
07.
04BD
218
45.4
5653
-122
.569
930.
279
0.70
80.
291
0.45
20.
145
1.24
039
.988
0.8
5.16
17.9
471
.00
13.7
614
8.9
28.3
35.7
375.
532
8.2
2.15
0.95
00.
150
3.11
BD
219
45.4
3562
-122
.7513
40.
189
0.39
90.
212
0.39
90.
117
1.100
250.
813
19.8
1.88
13.0
511
4.65
12.7
813
7.9
22.7
43.8
503.
651
7.0
2.52
0.69
50.
130
3.71
BD
220
45.5
5375
-122
.688
170.
241
0.60
30.
190
0.59
00.
134
1.185
99.3
1284
.32.
7014
.41
62.3
523
.90
153.
136
.472
.454
7.151
0.5
3.12
0.66
00.
345
10.11
0.32
0
221
45.4
8013
-122
.590
110.
243
0.57
00.
104
0.46
30.
131
0.47
024
.560
9.2
4.00
7.72
34.9
06.
7310
8.5
28.7
21.5
310.
619
7.9
1.58
0.51
50.
145
3.66
BD
222
45.4
4671
-122
.7447
70.
223
0.74
50.
154
0.46
00.
100
0.55
522
2.2
682.
21.
307.1
442
.71
13.6
519
7.9
30.9
47.1
313.
219
9.2
1.53
0.40
00.
185
1.92
0.56
5
223
45.4
9050
-122
.628
770.
270
0.54
90.
153
0.36
30.
110
0.95
044
.078
1.73.
3511
.64
51.2
37.
2712
3.1
25.6
31.2
369.
921
5.8
1.68
0.47
50.
195
5.17
0.35
5
224
45.5
9107
-122
.7475
70.
210
0.59
60.
136
0.57
60.
140
0.97
097
.613
48.3
2.65
12.8
374
.80
18.0
616
8.9
28.0
58.1
511.
639
1.5
4.01
0.61
50.
325
8.36
0.24
5
225
45.5
2137
-122
.698
400.
433
0.62
30.
240
0.73
90.
241
2.25
510
2.8
2571
.54.
0843
.90
148.
3633
.51
154.
459
.390
.494
1.9
530.
46.
331.
245
0.97
014
.41
0.40
0
226
45.4
8665
-122
.694
240.
098
0.38
00.
109
0.59
80.
114
0.86
553
.395
2.7
1.89
249.
5044
.98
12.6
711
0.1
41.6
49.7
486.
014
4.6
2.15
0.48
00.
275
5.25
0.62
5
227
45.4
4710
-122
.7447
60.
163
0.44
70.
120
0.40
80.
096
0.65
016
6.3
727.7
1.20
5.73
41.0
25.
4614
1.724
.941
.732
2.0
199.
81.
520.
420
0.12
02.
150.
290
228
45.4
4681
-122
.693
290.
207
0.51
10.
145
0.30
10.
090
0.54
514
9.2
618.
71.
646.
3435
.41
6.24
104.
522
.225
.829
6.8
137.
41.
470.
365
0.10
52.
50BD
229
45.5
4810
-122
.548
040.
227
0.58
60.
226
0.65
50.
164
1.04
054
.215
01.8
2.02
17.10
88.4
541
.87
135.
957
.084
.065
0.1
529.
52.
620.
730
0.27
04.
460.
285
230
45.5
6447
-122
.648
400.
288
0.67
70.
225
0.58
50.
131
0.72
053
.887
6.3
1.33
15.0
135
.66
38.6
610
2.9
92.2
45.8
567.
648
7.2
1.84
0.38
00.
190
5.48
0.36
0
231
45.5
8055
-122
.729
100.
204
0.58
80.
209
0.75
60.
129
1.26
053
.690
5.3
2.41
17.8
355
.7534
.80
91.4
63.2
110.
035
3.4
294.
22.
840.
430
0.42
010
.01
BD
50
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
232
45.5
5243
-122
.595
470.
202
0.48
30.
124
0.64
00.
132
0.57
531
.797
6.3
1.83
15.6
644
.56
20.5
912
3.4
40.2
40.2
432.
629
5.4
1.78
0.55
50.
820
4.83
BD
233
45.5
5995
-122
.668
250.
160
0.47
80.
168
0.66
50.
160
1.26
546
.416
52.3
2.88
37.9
594
.05
29.0
014
3.7
42.0
51.2
652.
640
9.73.
840.
845
0.51
510
.84
0.35
0
234
45.4
8458
-122
.608
570.
181
0.57
50.
112
0.48
90.
105
1.07
015
6.7
1051
.27.
8113
.40
56.6
810
.85
134.
028
.954
.247
0.5
247.1
2.81
0.76
50.
130
6.68
0.28
5
235
45.4
5280
-122
.618
800.
181
0.37
20.
134
0.57
20.
097
1.23
526
.780
8.3
8.96
8.91
39.1
214
.51
77.0
35.2
30.7
368.
036
5.1
2.08
0.69
50.
130
2.87
BD
236
45.5
0500
-122
.732
080.
207
0.49
10.
185
0.48
20.
115
0.42
059
.392
1.5
2.20
10.5
863
.167.
0311
2.2
18.1
34.0
458.
162
0.9
1.99
0.56
50.
165
4.27
BD
237
45.4
4176
-122
.737
670.
183
0.43
90.
144
0.40
70.
109
0.77
514
7.9
836.
71.
368.
7858
.58
8.23
140.
939
.958
.437
5.4
246.
41.
650.
445
0.13
53.
44BD
238
45.5
3647
-122
.627
510.
231
0.60
10.
195
0.48
00.
133
0.74
539
.812
30.0
1.93
15.9
965
.41
22.7
013
6.2
32.4
42.0
562.
959
1.4
2.48
0.66
00.
390
10.16
BD
239
45.5
0890
-122
.619
250.
340
0.68
40.
229
0.60
60.
159
0.53
517
9.4
915.
02.
6313
.33
53.3
644
.96
143.
341
.179
.252
5.4
669.
92.
080.
590
0.22
010
.65
BD
240
45.4
8285
-122
.487
770.
115
0.28
30.
084
0.70
00.
099
0.46
039
.916
73.1
1.74
9.35
51.3
59.
2412
5.6
69.9
54.4
1041
.069
7.2
2.11
0.90
50.
155
5.10
BD
241
45.4
8326
-122
.692
620.
199
0.51
90.
160
0.67
80.
144
0.73
068
.113
88.2
2.35
12.6
559
.98
30.14
152.
849
.652
.554
5.2
385.
22.
800.
735
0.23
04.
220.
290
242
45.5
0440
-122
.707
280.
184
0.51
50.
171
0.44
60.
143
0.74
550
.110
46.0
1.94
13.9
772
.51
9.12
200.
126
.744
.448
3.6
584.
42.
780.
575
0.19
54.
50BD
243
45.4
5372
-122
.544
640.
164
0.37
50.
145
0.31
80.
088
0.43
054
.550
8.3
2.72
72.9
073
.65
3.54
90.1
29.3
30.0
269.
325
2.2
1.52
0.48
00.
080
5.91
BD
244
45.5
3565
-122
.766
080.
246
0.44
90.
221
0.76
60.
129
0.51
573
.858
9.5
1.39
8.74
81.2
129
.57
130.
299
.880
.530
0.2
495.
41.
620.
535
0.25
01.
69BD
245
45.4
8117
-122
.673
740.
143
0.45
70.
132
0.64
60.
146
1.66
515
1.2
1810
.72.
7021
.06
109.
5821
.95
151.7
37.4
58.8
698.
241
6.6
3.64
0.92
00.
245
6.46
0.38
0
246
45.4
9099
-122
.590
600.
202
0.45
40.
113
0.62
20.
140
0.68
026
.795
6.7
5.09
18.0
678
.88
15.0
113
3.8
47.9
65.0
532.
723
9.12.
110.
695
0.30
06.
080.
465
247
45.5
3711
-122
.692
460.
283
0.62
90.
217
0.76
00.
159
2.84
010
1.120
93.0
5.58
26.0
698
.61
46.4
318
7.8
43.1
82.6
741.
947
2.2
5.89
0.98
00.
835
8.16
0.33
0
248
45.4
5190
-122
.583
160.
128
0.40
00.
115
0.61
10.
100
0.66
515
1.3
1130
.35.
518.
6652
.15
12.3
391
.649
.582
.956
1.6
469.
62.
471.
005
0.19
57.
03BD
249
45.4
5068
-122
.717
180.
282
0.51
20.
228
0.45
90.
173
0.82
017
4.5
1557
.22.
6612
.7573
.08
18.9
416
4.3
42.4
62.3
859.
250
1.3
3.05
0.94
00.
325
4.06
0.32
5
250
45.4
9494
-122
.478
930.
279
0.64
30.
210
0.70
60.
097
0.51
043
.691
8.3
1.29
9.30
30.4
422
.97
162.
649
.011
9.3
543.
149
9.5
1.55
0.51
50.
200
1.76
0.51
0
251
45.4
8127
-122
.523
970.
216
0.46
80.
168
0.46
40.
102
0.56
031
.088
5.7
1.99
8.79
45.1
39.
2511
6.3
81.0
49.9
496.
333
8.0
1.64
0.60
50.
190
3.10
0.37
0
252
45.5
4061
-122
.565
550.
184
0.51
90.
145
0.52
50.
125
0.60
539
.085
2.0
2.25
9.29
60.3
610
.03
104.
555
.823
.443
8.5
516.
91.
660.
600
0.26
03.
46BD
253
45.4
7443
-122
.707
370.
156
0.41
10.
147
0.37
90.
096
0.57
570
.215
85.2
1.80
8.06
47.6
87.
0714
8.3
26.0
29.9
656.
236
0.4
2.43
0.97
50.
190
3.73
BD
254
45.5
3584
-122
.780
240.
232
0.56
10.
130
0.30
90.
084
0.50
021
6.0
629.
60.
928.
8958
.94
2.76
218.
912
.827
.229
3.5
549.
31.
200.
440
0.16
01.
980.
330
255
45.5
1610
-122
.602
210.
249
0.65
50.
192
0.72
30.
192
0.82
056
.514
49.0
3.95
23.4
463
.86
45.9
221
1.9
46.6
68.8
710.
974
8.9
3.18
0.82
00.
920
8.49
0.37
5
256
45.4
7538
-122
.733
180.
234
0.54
20.
137
0.40
00.
098
0.48
084
.568
5.2
1.29
8.27
48.2
36.
9712
0.8
24.7
38.9
332.
617
9.4
1.51
0.43
00.
300
3.12
BD
257
45.5
0562
-122
.7486
80.
286
0.46
20.
166
0.43
20.
156
0.81
044
9.8
1258
.83.
1112
.97
115.
2018
.51
139.
828
.242
.756
5.1
454.
92.
750.
880
0.25
06.
570.
665
258
45.5
4665
-122
.571
040.
199
0.55
70.
126
0.66
60.
135
0.61
029
.483
8.3
2.13
64.75
73.1
525
.36
128.
553
.547
.239
6.3
366.
61.
890.
485
0.24
56.
620.
430
259
45.5
3662
-122
.628
430.
280
0.58
90.
195
0.56
40.
144
0.76
081
.111
71.5
2.57
18.9
588
.86
34.5
615
3.1
38.0
47.4
556.
959
6.4
2.87
0.70
51.
200
11.9
30.
455
260
45.5
0535
-122
.528
770.
268
0.51
20.
170
0.47
50.
106
0.39
030
.370
4.5
1.79
11.4
448
.1113
.30
149.7
30.4
40.5
445.
459
3.4
1.50
0.51
50.
220
2.60
0.53
5
51
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
261
45.5
4043
-122
.499
210.
225
0.57
70.
168
0.37
30.
121
0.65
544
.595
8.3
1.85
10.5
761
.50
8.08
208.
928
.134
.845
1.2
315.
01.
830.
580
0.16
03.
480.
260
262
45.4
2379
-122
.698
230.
206
0.58
10.
255
0.50
90.
121
1.150
47.1
1387
.02.
0925
.53
100.
2615
.66
170.
632
.967
.157
1.9
654.
42.
720.
785
0.16
53.
02BD
263
45.6
0517
-122
.659
030.
287
0.61
80.
206
0.38
60.
191
1.43
539
.011
11.8
2.43
28.1
561
.45
15.9
615
3.8
18.3
21.6
410.
342
9.3
2.25
0.54
00.
420
5.77
BD
264
45.4
3382
-122
.735
240.
228
0.49
70.
147
0.44
10.
101
0.55
019
1.0
676.
81.
566.
8952
.00
7.11
105.
728
.741
.329
8.7
258.
31.
410.
430
0.19
02.
20BD
265
45.5
9477
-122
.651
710.
270
0.59
40.
287
0.85
10.
181
1.45
067
.817
74.3
3.59
59.1
515
1.35
83.5
710
7.9
40.1
41.1
679.1
568.
53.
671.
045
1.31
59.
490.
460
266
45.5
2682
-122
.518
660.
211
0.49
10.
274
0.75
30.
147
0.55
043
.110
66.8
2.20
16.2
073
.90
17.1
214
3.7
39.8
39.6
567.
661
9.5
2.34
0.63
51.
085
4.02
0.27
5
267
45.5
1716
-122
.646
270.
155
0.62
90.
216
0.45
30.
143
0.75
088
.310
83.5
3.17
15.9
913
0.16
64.9
127
8.3
32.6
57.4
542.
960
3.4
2.54
0.72
50.
900
18.5
10.
350
268
45.4
2505
-122
.725
010.
233
0.51
70.
214
0.51
90.
107
0.57
535
.272
5.8
1.39
14.2
636
.71
20.11
140.
447
.936
.632
1.4
286.
91.
400.
380
0.12
51.
830.
280
269
45.5
8378
-122
.739
710.
224
0.57
20.
199
0.64
30.
160
1.39
066
.415
90.8
2.96
16.9
668
.15
26.3
315
0.7
37.6
103.
762
3.6
594.
04.
610.
705
0.25
57.
920.
465
270
45.4
6504
-122
.626
160.
318
0.82
30.
167
0.62
60.
159
1.06
594
.715
30.7
6.74
16.0
570
.03
53.3
813
5.3
31.0
61.6
775.
242
3.4
3.32
1.00
00.
780
7.15
0.28
5
271
45.4
8326
-122
.692
620.
175
0.58
30.
175
0.67
30.
136
0.67
560
.511
79.2
1.99
10.3
554
.33
31.8
319
8.1
48.9
44.9
474.
334
2.2
2.13
0.64
00.
195
3.27
BD
272
45.4
7962
-122
.590
750.
140
0.44
80.
191
0.49
30.
125
1.140
61.0
1512
.77.
2815
.29
104.
9315
.1813
8.9
40.3
55.2
775.
735
1.3
3.30
1.06
00.
260
12.2
80.
475
273
45.4
7973
-122
.528
520.
227
0.43
40.
120
0.41
60.
099
0.47
558
.777
6.7
2.35
6.69
43.7
34.
5810
6.8
30.6
46.7
467.1
303.
01.
860.
565
0.29
54.
170.
400
274
45.4
5275
-122
.604
900.
307
0.61
30.
165
0.59
00.
138
1.145
40.7
750.
311
.83
8.06
39.1
926
.54
153.
131
.541
.338
4.3
396.
12.
600.
860
0.33
02.
72BD
275
45.4
6562
-122
.7495
80.
182
0.37
40.
152
0.46
40.
114
1.175
120.
125
28.8
2.84
16.2
514
1.40
5.37
100.
035
.763
.611
61.1
672.
53.
621.
540
0.23
513
.03
0.27
0
276
45.5
1722
-122
.647
070.
293
0.68
90.
151
0.71
10.
167
0.85
551
.310
33.0
2.01
37.4
816
4.46
56.0
117
4.0
51.9
86.4
481.
964
7.4
2.41
0.57
50.
670
9.35
0.37
5
277
45.4
8037
-122
.469
490.
157
0.44
60.
162
0.32
70.
096
0.57
055
.410
51.8
1.75
10.7
163
.05
3.10
162.
619
.223
.452
4.6
431.
61.
810.
635
0.11
52.
800.
510
278
45.4
8019
-122
.470
500.
303
0.69
70.
250
0.59
40.
136
0.82
537
.910
88.3
1.49
15.3
570
.30
29.7
715
2.0
43.4
73.1
616.
148
3.7
1.56
0.64
00.
190
2.32
0.38
0
279
45.5
4647
-122
.571
010.
347
0.69
40.
177
0.54
40.
152
0.68
063
.289
0.3
2.39
13.2
357
.00
31.5
214
9.9
30.9
46.0
408.
336
5.6
1.86
0.48
00.
550
3.58
0.34
5
280
45.5
5514
-122
.634
960.
197
0.56
60.
194
0.53
00.
144
0.75
014
5.7
904.
81.
9217
.77
55.3
527
.73
143.
522
.243
.744
0.0
687.
01.
860.
465
0.27
510
.28
BD
281
45.5
0918
-122
.589
020.
319
0.61
80.
166
0.74
50.
141
0.56
040
.798
6.0
2.99
13.3
360
.66
38.7
711
1.0
40.6
52.7
548.
467
2.9
2.18
0.61
00.
225
3.89
0.27
0
282
45.5
2237
-122
.679
120.
240
0.47
80.
168
0.57
90.
170
1.790
93.2
1589
.53.
9726
.61
131.
5118
.84
173.
535
.763
.360
2.4
649.
44.
380.
885
0.45
017
.30
BD
283
45.4
7907
-122
.620
670.
156
0.36
20.
134
0.47
20.
124
1.55
053
.920
12.7
13.8
118
.1710
5.68
5.18
138.
530
.041
.990
1.2
325.
34.
401.
350
0.26
020
.00
0.29
5
284
45.4
6626
-122
.7480
60.
221
0.47
30.
153
0.45
00.
118
0.86
055
.914
83.5
1.66
11.3
872
.62
5.65
124.
735
.139
.154
3.1
511.
02.
480.
815
0.15
03.
84BD
285
45.5
0117
-122
.644
710.
220
0.51
70.
147
0.76
00.
158
0.97
539
.511
16.5
2.97
31.3
117
9.36
101.
2113
4.0
47.8
77.5
573.
457
1.9
3.09
0.81
04.
380
8.97
0.94
5
286
45.5
2084
-122
.710
610.
254
0.51
20.
192
0.51
60.
123
0.68
052
.510
25.0
1.94
14.1
593
.61
14.74
177.
027
.563
.846
3.2
616.
42.
860.
585
0.30
511
.72
BD
287
45.5
3499
-122
.672
680.
268
0.58
80.
180
0.69
80.
197
2.88
510
9.9
2819
.55.
1826
.58
159.
8644
.1723
4.7
40.4
70.7
1096
.966
9.9
6.21
1.54
01.1
5012
.90
0.48
0
288
45.4
9927
-122
.723
480.
252
0.52
60.
167
0.47
40.
147
0.63
017
5.2
1188
.72.
0410
.49
84.8
36.
6713
3.3
41.0
45.8
480.
220
3.9
2.50
0.56
00.
610
4.98
0.36
5
289
45.4
6725
-122
.630
490.
203
0.56
30.
155
0.57
80.
100
0.73
526
.081
9.73.
828.
7729
.43
12.0
992
.032
.030
.946
2.3
356.
41.7
50.
535
0.18
04.
16BD
52
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
290
45.5
1413
-122
.515
940.
132
0.28
80.
108
0.70
80.
131
0.33
034
.013
62.0
2.27
12.4
840
.1116
.50
117.
440
.445
.774
1.2
876.
72.
130.
750
0.13
04.
050.
810
291
45.5
8185
-122
.709
190.
230
0.59
40.
142
0.40
60.
141
1.64
011
4.3
1388
.33.
7614
.87
65.5
010
.48
177.
021
.447
.951
5.1
393.
04.
280.
640
0.25
55.
770.
275
292
45.4
3225
-122
.722
100.
240
0.42
00.
152
0.36
40.
147
0.76
025
2.1
1069
.82.
0110
.61
67.6
57.
9210
3.8
32.9
53.4
486.
640
2.0
2.15
0.62
00.
210
4.07
BD
293
45.4
9096
-122
.590
180.
220
0.64
50.
199
0.46
10.
115
0.76
012
2.2
609.
24.
498.
9841
.58
15.2
318
0.8
28.7
35.4
330.
322
8.6
1.50
0.51
50.
150
3.99
0.37
5
294
45.5
5170
-122
.552
470.
190
0.55
50.
153
0.58
90.
121
0.58
029
.294
5.3
1.51
10.9
937
.1128
.97
144.
648
.069
.543
1.0
388.
61.7
10.
540
0.23
53.
80BD
295
45.4
5253
-122
.7445
90.
166
0.37
10.
171
0.40
20.
114
0.49
598
.179
9.3
1.27
6.47
52.75
12.5
189
.230
.643
.435
2.7
375.
21.7
20.
415
0.33
02.
840.
330
296
45.4
2253
-122
.732
920.
223
0.41
60.
198
0.50
30.
121
0.74
010
9.189
7.8
1.35
11.9
981
.35
12.7
211
0.4
31.9
47.8
376.
634
5.5
1.71
0.46
50.
125
2.40
0.41
0
297
45.4
8117
-122
.674
630.
203
0.54
00.
137
0.62
10.
110
0.86
074
.586
4.2
1.86
39.2
511
4.23
20.8
910
4.3
36.4
40.8
351.
116
6.6
2.10
0.49
50.
330
4.52
0.27
0
298
45.5
0142
-122
.581
720.
187
0.48
20.
100
0.74
70.
102
0.40
030
.812
19.0
3.00
124.
9049
.91
15.5
510
2.1
48.6
59.3
681.
480
3.4
2.41
0.79
50.
210
4.28
0.27
5
299
45.4
9530
-122
.671
950.
288
0.63
50.
205
0.74
60.
171
1.735
74.7
2054
.53.
7323
.53
131.
8131
.70
152.
646
.556
.381
9.4
521.
44.
531.1
050.
430
7.19
BD
300
45.5
3427
-122
.596
690.
229
0.50
20.
188
0.46
50.
139
0.72
545
.311
70.0
3.02
16.0
366
.1613
.28
206.
138
.140
.957
9.4
589.
92.
740.
655
0.25
56.
77BD
301
45.4
2985
-122
.644
290.
101
0.33
10.
085
0.68
90.
105
0.59
024
.586
8.8
2.39
14.5
736
.92
15.3
211
0.5
37.8
32.7
446.
741
2.5
1.71
0.44
50.
250
3.34
0.42
0
302
45.5
4741
-122
.642
090.
255
1.21
20.
145
0.45
00.
133
0.52
510
1.8
656.
81.
5518
.12
57.9
026
.34
186.
823
.818
.729
2.2
301.
21.
580.
360
0.29
06.
04BD
303
45.4
6416
-122
.691
780.
172
0.34
10.
126
0.38
80.
119
0.75
065
.311
88.2
2.26
16.6
812
9.87
4.38
128.
835
.547
.359
2.9
559.
92.
530.
635
0.26
09.
61BD
304
45.5
6452
-122
.649
220.
192
0.53
20.
168
0.54
00.
121
0.63
564
.560
2.3
1.29
12.6
535
.12
24.5
712
4.0
34.2
48.3
320.
039
0.9
1.33
0.29
00.
165
7.45
0.24
5
305
45.5
2666
-122
.649
970.
165
0.38
30.
124
0.52
00.
151
1.23
014
0.5
1615
.54.
2324
.38
87.7
114
.28
154.
349
.953
.871
1.4
727.
43.
420.
845
0.45
510
.91
0.41
5
306
45.5
7057
-122
.665
710.
171
0.74
90.
133
0.64
20.
158
0.86
086
.996
7.3
2.02
25.5
758
.60
31.9
622
8.3
31.3
52.6
414.
244
6.8
2.59
0.47
50.
365
26.4
50.
380
307
45.5
3392
-122
.533
250.
096
0.32
50.
213
0.58
50.
120
0.71
511
5.6
916.
21.
8010
.83
42.5
324
.35
134.
435
.171
.744
6.3
411.
51.
620.
480
0.21
54.
470.
295
308
45.5
7057
-122
.665
710.
172
0.55
40.
105
0.68
60.
128
0.72
056
.662
4.8
1.56
15.8
749
.90
23.1
315
3.5
33.1
51.4
278.
633
8.6
1.66
0.31
50.
240
32.75
0.26
5
309
45.5
0124
-122
.479
510.
191
0.47
60.
141
0.38
10.
086
0.38
093
.666
7.71.
065.
7632
.72
10.0
621
7.4
18.1
28.0
382.
839
7.5
1.23
0.43
50.
125
2.66
0.30
0
310
45.5
4995
-122
.527
360.
273
0.60
20.
129
0.50
10.
123
0.79
530
.910
94.8
2.28
18.8
844
.42
11.4
715
2.6
37.0
29.4
525.
148
0.2
2.11
0.62
00.
180
4.80
BD
311
45.5
5243
-122
.595
480.
177
0.47
30.
119
0.58
90.
123
0.58
028
.589
0.7
1.60
11.4
942
.02
17.4
111
9.2
38.2
45.9
492.
756
2.9
1.86
0.53
00.
565
4.53
0.28
5
312
45.5
3392
-122
.533
250.
099
0.34
40.
208
0.64
60.
122
0.54
588
.882
3.5
1.60
10.3
242
.57
28.6
214
1.139
.172
.443
8.6
664.
91.7
90.
415
0.25
03.
300.
500
313
45.4
7192
-122
.606
020.
224
0.52
40.
137
0.48
80.
137
2.01
032
.286
6.2
19.3
311
.06
50.0
713
.47
139.7
40.4
70.5
520.
457
4.4
3.49
1.115
0.26
54.
900.
515
314
45.5
3703
-122
.692
050.
324
0.60
80.
204
0.72
80.
170
3.10
510
7.119
08.7
5.11
28.2
610
9.22
55.3
016
7.742
.698
.573
2.4
552.
45.
840.
895
0.60
07.
810.
345
315
45.4
6789
-122
.609
080.
237
0.62
30.
238
0.56
70.
148
3.77
012
5.6
1535
.743
.45
18.4
768
.57
36.7
618
2.7
39.1
79.5
882.
468
0.4
6.68
2.15
00.
275
6.98
0.82
5
316
45.4
7247
-122
.702
440.
221
0.56
40.
198
0.46
00.
124
0.62
054
.515
12.2
2.63
15.8
946
.13
18.5
413
3.1
41.7
57.4
594.
229
9.6
4.10
0.81
50.
175
4.05
0.37
5
317
45.4
8983
-122
.612
040.
129
0.43
30.
152
0.35
60.
106
0.67
015
5.4
933.
24.
2523
.68
175.
679.
2615
5.9
17.2
28.0
512.
944
9.0
2.10
0.68
50.
320
6.00
0.41
5
318
45.5
3615
-122
.531
570.
209
0.42
60.
151
0.52
10.
142
0.62
512
1.8
987.
32.
7010
.49
47.2
011
.07
120.
833
.654
.346
9.2
477.
91.
920.
605
0.23
55.
040.
485
53
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Tabl
e 6—
Mos
s-de
rive
d el
emen
t con
cent
ratio
n da
ta (c
ontin
ued)
Lat
itude
a (d
egre
es)
Lon
gitu
dea
(deg
rees
)P
KM
gC
aS
Mo
Mn
FeN
iC
uZ
nB
Na
SrB
aA
lSi
Cr
Co
Cd
PbA
s
- - P
erce
nt o
f dry
mos
s wei
ght -
-- -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
mg
/ kg
of d
ry m
oss -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
319
45.5
5498
-122
.577
640.
251
0.59
20.
200
0.73
40.
146
0.73
056
.496
4.7
2.15
15.9
671
.77
37.3
714
2.3
59.3
121.1
539.
460
4.4
1.92
0.56
00.
605
5.33
BD
320
45.4
8927
-122
.611
910.
207
0.53
40.
179
0.50
60.
123
0.76
532
.282
9.74.
8812
.84
42.1
515
.1713
4.4
27.8
33.7
403.
321
4.7
1.91
0.53
00.
225
4.77
0.37
5
321
45.4
4739
-122
.641
100.
212
0.39
20.
123
0.41
80.
136
1.30
584
.113
01.2
6.79
14.4
810
3.87
8.61
92.0
27.9
50.2
594.
951
3.4
3.55
0.88
00.
445
7.44
BD
322
45.4
7818
-122
.620
700.
160
0.43
50.
136
0.45
10.
113
1.25
050
.214
81.7
11.7
114
.84
67.6
37.
3711
4.5
25.4
37.0
733.
231
4.4
3.20
1.130
0.26
59.
850.
340
323
45.5
5817
-122
.624
540.
216
0.56
70.
153
0.48
50.
147
0.73
038
.711
22.7
2.32
37.9
371
.22
16.8
818
3.6
24.8
39.4
540.
941
8.1
2.51
0.62
00.
315
6.38
0.36
0
324
45.4
8758
-122
.485
100.
221
0.63
10.
173
0.43
20.
120
0.55
018
9.0
1149
.71.
6910
.90
64.7
77.
9118
8.3
33.4
47.3
681.
974
7.9
1.67
0.69
00.
165
22.8
20.
290
325
45.5
1420
-122
.682
350.
190
0.48
20.
198
0.66
10.
229
3.39
512
2.9
3614
.07.
4345
.49
154.
1124
.59
185.
843
.578
.211
68.9
685.
98.
071.
410
0.43
034
.750.
320
326
45.5
2265
-122
.539
010.
234
0.64
90.
173
0.66
90.
195
1.720
226.
917
76.2
2.61
30.0
011
5.52
26.7
217
8.6
53.3
89.6
888.
981
1.9
2.73
0.95
50.
215
7.09
0.37
0
327
45.5
1588
-122
.619
270.
230
0.53
30.
159
0.53
40.
131
0.65
092
.510
12.2
3.17
15.0
466
.77
17.9
317
0.8
35.4
54.0
542.
962
4.9
2.22
0.58
00.
450
10.2
60.
290
328
45.5
1793
-122
.613
370.
216
0.47
80.
175
0.54
30.
137
0.56
535
.993
3.0
2.55
16.2
557
.36
15.8
414
7.3
33.5
44.0
480.
757
2.4
2.09
0.53
00.
345
11.2
0BD
329
45.4
9944
-122
.601
850.
186
0.59
00.
123
0.48
00.
111
0.63
517
0.0
992.
74.
6012
.32
54.5
711
.1617
1.4
28.6
63.7
524.
949
5.3
2.11
0.67
00.
250
7.16
0.28
0
330
45.4
4731
-122
.641
370.
191
0.41
20.
124
0.47
30.
168
1.86
012
9.0
1876
.26.
9617
.36
230.
0711
.1813
6.4
35.1
57.4
885.
460
2.4
4.24
1.130
0.26
512
.73
0.30
0
331
45.4
6143
-122
.523
370.
209
0.40
60.
147
0.34
30.
107
0.53
554
.770
2.7
2.04
9.60
46.5
75.
2416
9.3
35.7
53.0
396.
143
3.0
1.66
0.52
50.
120
2.09
BD
332
45.5
0440
-122
.707
280.
181
0.42
90.
151
0.39
50.
129
0.73
544
.387
0.2
1.52
11.7
263
.47
9.22
168.
723
.341
.738
8.7
451.
01.
900.
465
0.19
53.
94BD
333
45.5
5797
-122
.624
570.
200
0.56
60.
146
0.46
30.
138
0.66
034
.389
2.1
1.78
37.6
552
.69
17.8
315
5.5
26.6
38.9
470.
664
6.2
1.92
0.54
00.
290
5.19
BD
334
45.4
6461
-122
.549
970.
166
0.78
00.
198
0.26
00.
116
0.62
023
5.0
703.
22.
668.
6679
.32
11.1
927
0.6
18.1
34.0
421.
846
8.3
1.39
0.65
00.
180
3.27
0.38
0
335
45.5
2075
-122
.766
050.
184
0.43
80.
128
0.37
60.
098
0.39
016
1.8
561.
91.
226.
5952
.72
10.0
614
6.2
25.5
37.7
308.
651
3.1
1.39
0.44
00.
130
1.84
0.41
0
336
45.5
2694
-122
.517
280.
196
0.52
40.
291
0.51
70.
132
0.46
019
0.7
992.
42.
678.
8535
.1025
.73
136.
841
.183
.159
3.1
1041
.91.7
80.
600
0.49
02.
69BD
337
45.4
7372
-122
.524
520.
155
0.43
10.
127
0.32
40.
076
0.44
538
.871
2.2
1.91
9.11
37.4
93.
4614
1.9
25.9
37.5
452.
956
5.9
1.59
0.55
00.
130
3.00
0.45
5
338
45.5
2257
-122
.539
300.
219
0.50
10.
141
0.51
20.
181
2.10
030
5.9
2513
.43.
4384
.29
121.
8313
.25
227.
448
.612
5.5
1141
.913
24.9
3.35
1.24
00.
210
10.16
BD
339
45.5
1498
-122
.515
930.
165
0.43
60.
106
0.84
50.
131
0.38
518
.270
0.7
1.39
9.07
28.5
438
.1499
.845
.445
.749
7.3
508.
41.
350.
440
0.15
53.
120.
400
340
45.4
6950
-122
.506
860.
128
0.52
80.
172
0.35
00.
084
0.61
019
1.5
786.
21.
618.
4441
.56
7.01
178.
627
.934
.848
2.7
558.
41.
350.
540
0.16
52.
380.
470
341
45.5
4629
-122
.670
790.
200
0.42
00.
163
0.49
00.
182
1.82
512
6.5
2323
.24.
6225
.41
97.4
718
.20
146.
728
.649
.687
3.4
713.
94.
591.
035
0.81
018
.160.
270
342
45.5
3567
-122
.609
850.
191
0.44
80.
180
0.69
00.
141
0.63
067
.910
23.4
1.84
15.16
49.8
026
.06
99.5
41.9
87.3
628.
088
2.5
2.98
0.59
00.
330
9.50
0.77
0
343
45.5
9437
-122
.651
320.
192
0.51
90.
197
0.71
60.
127
0.92
545
.810
26.8
2.18
33.0
411
3.90
44.2
210
8.2
31.8
28.8
415.
939
6.0
2.17
0.64
01.1
255.
460.
535
344
45.5
4168
-122
.512
850.
109
0.27
90.
091
0.68
90.
119
0.65
030
.094
5.5
1.56
10.2
744
.1718
.98
112.
344
.361
.758
3.8
814.
21.7
60.
540
0.15
02.
50BD
345
45.5
0882
-122
.569
020.
128
0.33
00.
140
0.73
70.
135
1.120
48.9
2146
.24.
8621
.24
90.4
215
.43
118.
961
.382
.110
26.9
662.
93.
371.1
750.
290
9.07
0.39
034
645
.472
40-1
22.6
2679
0.23
90.
555
0.16
10.
520
0.11
81.1
2042
.314
11.2
9.13
13.3
721
2.28
10.8
110
1.3
29.7
29.3
711.7
402.
83.
460.
940
0.31
56.
630.
240
a Lat
itude
and
long
itude
of s
hift
ed lo
catio
ns. S
ee th
e “M
appi
ng”
sect
ion
in “
Met
hods
” fo
r det
ails
.b B
D in
dica
tes c
once
ntra
tion
belo
w d
etec
tion
limits
.
54
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-938
GEOGCS[“WGS 84”, DATUM[“WGS_1984”, SPHEROID[“WGS 84”,6378137,298.257223563, AUTHORITY[“EPSG”,”7030”]], AUTHORITY[“EPSG”,”6326”]], PRIMEM[“Greenwich”,0, AUTHORITY[“EPSG”,”8901”]], UNIT[“degree”,0.01745329251994328, AUTHORITY[“EPSG”,”9122”]], AUTHORITY[“EPSG”,”4326”]]
Figure 6—Global positioning system recorded sample coordinate system definition.
PROJCS[“NAD_1983_HARN_StatePlane_Oregon_North_FIPS_3601_Feet_Intl”, GEOGCS[“GCS_North_American_1983_HARN”, DATUM[“D_North_American_1983_HARN”, SPHEROID[“GRS_1980”,6378137.0,298.257222101]], PRIMEM[“Greenwich”,0.0], UNIT[“Degree”,0.0174532925199433]], PROJECTION[“Lambert_Conformal_Conic”], PARAMETER[“False_Easting”,8202099.737532808], PARAMETER[“False_Northing”,0.0], PARAMETER[“Central_Meridian”,-120.5], PARAMETER[“Standard_Parallel_1”,44.33333333333333], PARAMETER[“Standard_Parallel_2”,46.0], PARAMETER[“Latitude_Of_Origin”,43.66666666666666], UNIT[“Foot”,0.3048]]
Figure 7—Definition of sample coordinate system used in mapping.
55
Elemental Atmospheric Pollution Assessment Via Moss-Based Measurements in Portland, Oregon
Figure 8—Skewness coefficients for a set of sample distributions: A and B are symmetric, C skewed to the left, and D skewed strongly to the right.
Pacific Northwest Research Station
Website http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/Telephone (503) 808–2592Publication requests (503) 808–2138FAX (503) 808–2130E-mail [email protected] address Publications Distribution Pacific Northwest Research Station P.O. Box 3890 Portland, OR 97208–3890
U.S. Department of Agriculture Pacific Northwest Research Station 1220 SW 3rd Ave., Suite 1400 P.O. Box 3890 Portland, OR 97208–3890
Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300