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THE EFFECTS OF PLANNINGON FLUENCY, COMPLEXITY,

AND ACCURACY IN SECONDLANGUAGE NARRATIVE WRITING

Rod EllisUniversity of Auckland

Fangyuan YuanUniversity of Pennsylvania

Building on previous studies of the effects of planning on second

language (L2) learners’ oral narratives and drawing on Kellog’s (1996)

model of writing, this article reports a study of the effects of three

types of planning conditions (pretask planning, unpressured on-line

planning, and no planning) on 42 Chinese learners’ written narra-

tives elicited by means of a picture composition. The results show

that, whereas pretask planning resulted in greater fluency (syllables

per minute, p < .01) and greater syntactic variety (number of differ-

ent verb forms, p < .01), the opportunity to engage in unpressured

on-line planning assisted greater accuracy (error-free clauses, p <

.05). It is proposed that the two types of planning impact on different

aspects of L2 writing processes, with pretask planning promoting for-mulation and unpressured on-line planning providing better opportu-

nities for monitoring. Writers in the no-planning condition were faced

with the need to formulate, execute, and monitor under pressure, with

negative consequences for the fluency, complexity, and accuracy of

the written product in comparison to the planning groups.

This study draws on two different but potentially commensurable research

areas: task-based research in SLA , and first ~L1! and second ~L2! language writ-ing+ Task-based research has been primarily concerned with the effects of task

The authors would like to thank the anonymous SSLA reviewers of an earlier version of this articlefor their perceptive and constructive criticism+

Address correspondence to: Rod Ellis, Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics,

University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand; e-mail: r+ellis@auckland+ac+nz+

SSLA, 26, 59–84+ Printed in the United States of America+

DOI: 10+10170S0272263104261034

© 2004 Cambridge University Press 0272-2631004 $12+00 59

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design and implementational variables on the fluency, complexity, and accu-

racy of language in oral production+ Psycholinguistically oriented writing

research has typically used data collected from think-aloud protocols to iden-

tify the strategies used by writers and to model the mental systems responsi-ble for the production of written text+ Clearly, these are very different traditions+

However, as Kellog ~1996! noted, it is reasonable to assume that processes

involved in oral and written production have much in common+ Thus, we main-

tain, much is to be gained by drawing on insights from both research areas+

TASK-BASED RESEARCH: THE EFFECTS OF PLANNING

A number of studies have investigated the effects of planning on L2 learners’performance of oral narratives ~e+g+, Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega,

1999; Robinson, 1995; Skehan & Foster, 1997, 1999; Wendel, 1997; Yuan & Ellis,

2003!+ These studies showed that giving learners the opportunity to plan a

narrative before they speak it ~i+e+, pretask planning! resulted in significant

gains in both fluency ~whether measured in terms of temporal variables such

as number of syllables per minute or hesitation variables such as frequency

of reformulations! and complexity ~measured most commonly in terms of the

degree of subordination!+ However, these studies produced mixed results when

the focus was accuracy, as measured, for example, by the percentage of error-free clauses+ Although Ellis found that pretask planning led to increased accu-

racy in the use of regular past-tense verbs in oral narratives in English, Wendel

found no effect on accuracy in Japanese learners’ narrative productions+ Other

studies have also produced mixed results where accuracy is concerned+ For

example, Ortega found that pretask planning led to greater accuracy in the

use of noun modifiers in L2 Spanish but not in the use of articles+ Overall,

these studies demonstrated that pretask planning aids fluency and complex-

ity but not necessarily accuracy in L2 learners’ oral narratives+

Although a number of studies have investigated the effects of pretask plan-ning, only a few studies have examined on-line planning ~i+e+, the planning that

occurs during a speech event!+ Drawing on Levelt’s ~1989! model of speaking,

Yuan and Ellis ~2003! suggested that, when learners have the time to plan what

they are going to say, they use this time to both formulate their message more

carefully and monitor the output of the formulation and articulation phases

of production+ Both operations involve greater attention to form+ Two other

studies have also examined this type of planning+ Hulstijn and Hulstijn ~1984!asked learners of L2 Dutch to perform short oral narratives under four condi-

tions that involve combinations of two variables: time ~i+e+, the subjects weretold to speak as quickly as they could or to take as much time as they wanted!and focal attention ~i+e+, learners were instructed to focus on either form or

meaning!+ They found that time pressure by itself did not affect the accuracy

of word order but that, in combination with a focus on form, it had a pro-

found effect+ Yuan and Ellis found that, like pretask planning, on-line planning

60 Rod Ellis and Fangyuan Yuan

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~operationalized as unpressured performance! resulted in increased complex-

ity of oral language use+ However, whereas pretask planning did not result in

greater accuracy in L2 learners’ narrative production, on-line planning did,

although no opportunity for pretask planning was provided+ These results sug-gest that L2 learners of limited proficiency are only able to improve the accu-

racy of their oral production when they are focused on form and have sufficient

time to formulate what they want to say and monitor their output+

Yuan and Ellis’s ~2003! results support the contention that L2 performance

is characterized by competing demands, such that attention to one aspect of

language detracts from learners’ ability to attend to another aspect+ Foster

and Skehan ~1996! proposed that the trade-off is between accuracy and com-

plexity+ In contrast, Wendel ~1997! proposed that pretask planning promotes

fluency, whereas on-line planning enhances accuracy+ Thus, he saw the trade-off as involving fluency and accuracy+ Yuan and Ellis’s study lended greater

support to Wendel’s position+ Thus, whereas both types of planning result in

enhanced complexity, pretask planning aids fluency but not accuracy, whereas

on-line planning has a detrimental effect on fluency ~as might be expected!but improves accuracy+

In contrast to the number of studies that have investigated the effects of

planning on oral narratives, there have been very few task-based studies of

the effects of planning on written narratives+ Ellis ~1987! examined the accu-

racy levels of a mixed group of learners’ use of three English past-tense forms~regular, irregular, and copula! in a written narrative completed without any

time pressure ~thereby allowing for on-line planning!+ He found that overall

accuracy levels were higher in this task than in two oral tasks ~one with and

one without pretask planning! but that only the difference for regular past

tense was statistically significant+ In other words, on-line planning assisted

grammatical accuracy in the written narrative but only in the case of a fea-

ture for which there was a simple, “portable” rule+ Ellis did not investigate

fluency or complexity+

WRITING RESEARCH: THE ROLE OF PLANNING

In writing research, planning has been viewed as one of several processes

involved in the production of written text+ Its role, therefore, needs to be con-

sidered in relation to the other composing processes+ This has been addressed

through models of the complete writing process+ Cumming ~in press! pointed

out that there is no universally accepted theory of L2 writing+ Nor, as Grabe~2001! pointed out, are there any specifically L2 theories of writing+ However,

the available theories ~e+g+, Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Flower & Hayes, 1980;

Grabe; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Kellog, 1996; Zimmerman, 2000! posit a very

similar set of processes, and there is general acceptance that these are broadly

similar in both L1 and L2 writing+

Effects of Planning on L2 Narrative Writing 61

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We have chosen Kellog’s ~1996! model as the basis of this study+ This model

draws heavily on earlier models of writing ~e+g+, Flower & Hayes, 1980! in pos-

iting three basic processes involved in writing+ However, it also extends the

earlier models by relating these processes to Baddeley’s ~1986! model of work-ing memory+ Kellog’s model is limited in that it does not take account of the

role of the task environment nor of affective factors in writing ~see Hayes’s,

1996, extension of the original Flower and Hayes model for an ambitious

attempt to incorporate these factors!+ However, this model fits our purposes

well in that our study is not designed to investigate the effects of task envi-

ronment, and it affords a relatively simple framework that is nevertheless capa-

ble of explaining the complex nature of writing processes+

The model ~shown diagrammatically in Figure 1! distinguishes three basic

systems involved in text production+ Each system has two principal compo-nents or processes+ Formulation entails planning, during which the writer estab-

lishes goals for the writing, thinks up ideas related to these goals, and organizes

these to facilitate action, and translating, when the writer selects the lexical

units and syntactic frames needed to encode the ideas generated through plan-

ning and represents these linguistic units phonologically and graphologically

in readiness for execution+ Execution requires programming, where the output

from translation is converted into production schema for the appropriate motor

system involved ~e+g+, handwriting or typing!, and executing or the actual pro-

duction of sentences+ Monitoring consists of reading, where the writer reads

Figure 1. Kellog’s model of writing processes+ Adapted with permission from:

Kellog, R+ ~1996!+ A model of working memory in writing+ In C+ Levy & S+ Rans-dell ~Eds+!, The science of writing ~p+ 59!+ Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum+


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his or her own text ~“a necessary but not sufficient condition for writing well”;

Kellog, 1996, p+ 61!, and editing, which can occur both before and after execu-

tion of a sentence and can involve attending to micro aspects of the text such

as linguistic errors, macro aspects such as paragraph and text organization, orboth aspects+ The extent to which a writer is able to engage in monitoring

depends in part on whether the writer has the time to adopt a polished draft

strategy or is engaged in pressured text production, as in Elbow’s ~1981! free-

writing+ Kellog, like the authors of similar models, emphasized that writers

simultaneously activate formulation, execution, and monitoring processes

although the extent to which this activation is achievable depends on working

memory+

Kellogg ~1996! detailed how the different components of the model relate to

different components of working memory+ He argued that the central execu-tive, a multipurpose system responsible for problem solving, mental calculation,

and reasoning, is involved in all the subprocesses with the exception of execut-

ing, which, he argued, is usually accomplished without the need for controlled

processing+ It should be noted, however, that this assumes an adult, nativelike

automaticity in handwriting or typing, which may not be present in young chil-

dren ~see, e+g+, Bourdin & Fayol, 1994! or in some L2 learners, especially those

whose L1 employs a different script+ It is possible, therefore, that the central

executive may be called on by some L2 writers during execution + Kellog sug-

gested that the visuospatial sketchpad, which stores and processes visual andspatial information in working memory, is only involved in planning+ Finally, he

proposed that the phonological loop, which stores and processes auditory and

verbal information, is required for both translating and reading+ The key fea-

ture of Kellog’s model is that the central executive has limited capacity, with

the result that a writer may have to make decisions about which writing pro-

cess to prioritize when under pressure to produce text rapidly+ This is reflected

in a trade-off of attention directed at the different processes+ Previous research

~e+g+, Brown, McDonald, Brown, & Carr, 1988! has suggested that formulation

demands are critical and take priority over execution and monitoring+It is clear that Kellog’s ~1996! model of writing is very similar to Levelt’s

~1989! model of speech production+ Thus, Kellog’s “planning” corresponds to

Levelt’s “conceptualization,” “translating” is equivalent to Levelt’s “formula-

tion,” and “execution” to “articulation+” Both models recognize the role of mon-

itoring and also acknowledge that it can influence all the other processes + In

one crucial respect, however, writing differs from speech production+ Speak-

ing has to be accomplished in real time, whereas writing allows the writer

much greater control over the time spent in formulation and monitoring+ In

the case of L2 learners with limited proficiency, this may be crucially impor-tant+ Because speaking typically entails pressure to perform in real time , it

may lead to greater levels of anxiety in L2 learners than writing, with the obvi-

ous exception of fast writing+1

Although designed to account for L1 writing, Kellog’s ~1996! model is also

applicable to L2 learners+ Nevertheless, it is important to ask in what ways L2


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writing differs from L1 writing+ Differences are likely to arise as a result of

the increased pressure on working memory that L2 writers experience due to

limited proficiency+ For example, learners who have limited L2 linguistic

resources or difficulty in accessing these resources are likely to find translat-ing problematic+ De Larios, Marin, and Murphy ~2001! found that L2 writers,

especially those with a lower level of proficiency, need to concentrate on trans-

lation at the expense of on-line planning and revising+ In other words, they

attend more to form+ They explained this by suggesting that the central exec-

utive inhibits some processes while activating others to ensure completion of

the task+ Such differences are best seen as quantitative rather than qualita-

tive in nature+

There is, however, one potential qualitative difference between L1 and L2

writing+ This concerns the L2 writer’s use of the L1+ However, Zimmerman~2000! and Raab ~1992, as cited by Zimmerman! found little evidence of L2

writers using their L1 during translation, although they did report its use for

global planning to assist lexical searches and as an aid during editing+ Woodhall

~2002! reported that how often L2 writers used their L1 depended on their

proficiency, with advanced learners relying on it less than intermediate learn-

ers+ In contrast, the length of language switches was related to task difficulty,

with the more difficult of the two tasks leading to the use of the L1 for longer

periods of time+ This study failed to find a linear relationship between use of

the L1 and text quality for the writers as a whole, but in the case of writerswhose L1 was cognate with the L2, use of the L1 assisted performance in the

more difficult of the two tasks+ The L1 is best seen as a resource that learners

draw on variably+

We now consider in greater detail how planning has been defined in writ-

ing research and how these definitions relate to the distinction between pre-

task and on-line planning+ Hayes and Gradwohl Nash ~1996! saw planning as a

type of reflection, to be considered with other reflective processes such as

decision making and inferencing ~as in Hayes’s, 1996, revised model!+ How-

ever, they argued that planning can be distinguished from other types of reflec-tion in that it occurs in an environment different from the environment of the

task itself+ They were clearly thinking of what we have called pretask plan-

ning+ They distinguished two types of such planning+ Process planning is

focused on the writer and how the task is to be performed ~i+e+, identifying

strategies for accomplishing the task!+ Text planning is focused on the con-

tent and form of what is to be written+ This can entail abstract text planning

that leads to the production of ideas, notes, and outlines involving content

and rhetorical organization, language planning, or both+ Hayes and Gradwohl

Nash also recognized what we have called on-line planning by acknowledgingthat planning and text production are often interwoven+ They defined construc- tion tasks as “tasks that produce their own output gradually with consider-

able interleaving of plans and action, and the output influences the subsequent

planning” ~p+ 41!+ Whether planning occurs inside or outside the task environ-

ment is, then, the distinguishing feature of on-line and pretask planning+


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Whalen and Menard ~1995! discussed planning in terms of the discourse

levels involved+ Pragmatic planning involves defining pragmatic objectives ~i+e+,

identifying audience and a personal or professional reason to write and detail-

ing the topic content!+ Textual planning entails determining an appropriate texttypology and how to achieve coherence between idea sequences+ Finally, linguistic planning occurs when the writer attempts to solve a linguistic problem

to formulate an idea+ In their study, they did not make a clear distinction

between pretask and on-line planning, with the implication that the three types

of planning and the strategies associated with them apply to both+

There have been a number of studies of the effects of pretask planning +

Hayes and Gradwohl Nash ~1996! reviewed a number of L1 writing studies+

They concluded that “the effect of planning on text quality is almost entirely

attributable to time on task” and that “planning is neither more nor less valu-able than other writing activities” ~p+ 53!+ In other words, pretask planning

leads to better quality texts and greater fluency in writing simply because it

affords learners more time overall+ This conclusion contradicts Grabe’s ~2001!assertion that “a writer who plans for no more than 10 seconds will write a

predictable essay with less information ~and most likely a lower quality essay!than a student who plans for 4 minutes” ~p+ 40!+ It should be noted, however,

that many of the studies Hayes and Gradwohl examined employed holistic

ratings of writing as measures of text quality rather than measures of infor-

mation content or of specific linguistic and discourse variables+There have been few studies of the effects of pretask planning on L2 writ-

ing+ To address the question “What does time buy?” Kroll ~1990! compared

the written compositions produced in class by L2 writers with a 60-minute

time limit with those produced at home+ She found that the learners pro-

duced more accurate language and more highly rated writing in the composi-

tions produced at home, but the difference was not statistically significant+

As Kroll recognized, a problem with this study is that there was no way of

knowing how long the writers spent on the compositions written at home or

whether the two conditions resulted in different planning behaviors+ Fried-lander ~1990! explored the hypothesis that L2 writers plan their writing more

effectively and write better texts containing more content when they are able

to plan in the language in which they acquired information about a topic+ This

hypothesis was supported+ However, the plans and essays in the matched and

unmatched conditions, overall, received identical ratings regardless of the lan-

guage they planned in+

Whalen and Menard ~1995! compared the types of planning used in an argu-

mentative writing task in their L1 and L2+ They found that pragmatic and lin-

guistic planning was more likely to occur in their L1 writing but that therewas no difference in the quality of their planning in the two languages+ Their

study used think-aloud protocols+ Like all such studies that have investigated

the processes involved in on-line assembly using this method ~e+g+, Zimmer-

man, 2000!, planning seemed to have afforded writers plenty of time to com-

pose; thus, their study can be assumed to have investigated within-task


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planning+ De Larios, Marin, and Murphy ~2001! also investigated within-task

planning+ They found that formulation ~i+e+, translation in Kellog’s, 1996, model!played a dominant role in the production of an argumentative text in relation

to other composing processes such as planning+ The L2 writers with greaterproficiency, however, were better able to attend to planning+ These studies do

not allow clear conclusions regarding the role that planning plays in L2 writ-

ing+ There is some evidence that it matters little whether the pretask planning

is done in the L1 or L2 unless knowledge of the topic was initially acquired

through the L1+ There is also some evidence that the attention L2 writers need

to pay to translation may detract from their ability to engage in planning con-

ceptual content on-line+

In general, then, in the case of L2 writing, the role that either pretask or

on-line ~i+e+, within task! planning plays in the production of written text remainsunclear+ This is in part because of the failure to make a clear distinction

between the two types of planning and also because research to date has

tended to rely on holistic ratings rather than the kind of specific linguistic

measures that have figured in SLA task-based research+ In this study, we explore

the differential effects of the two types of planning on the fluency, complexity,

and accuracy of L2 written texts+

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study was designed to answer the following research questions:

1+ Do L2 learners produce more fluent, complex, and accurate language when they

have the opportunity to plan a written narrative in advance than when they have

no such opportunity?

2+ Do L2 learners produce more fluent, complex, and accurate language when they

have time for careful on-line planning than when they have limited time?

3+ What type of planning ~pretask planning or careful on-line planning! has the greater

effect on the fluency, complexity, or accuracy of L2 learners’ production of writ-ten narratives?

We hypothesize that the two types of planning will result in attention being

assigned to different components of the composing process with correspond-

ing effects on textual output+ The opportunity for pretask planning will encour-

age process and text planning, including, in some cases, language planning+

Thus, writers who have time for pretask planning can be expected to benefit

in fluency ~defined by Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001, as the rate of production of

text! and also in complexity ~i+e+, they will be able to encode more complexideas!+ However, pretask planning is less likely to contribute to translation,

execution, and monitoring and thus may have limited effect on accuracy+ In

contrast, the provision of time for on-line ~within task! planning will assist

translation, execution, and, in particular, monitoring+ It will likely have an

adverse effect on fluency, but it may lead to fewer dysfluencies ~e+g+, false starts


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and corrections! as writers will be able to iron out linguistic problems before

execution+ On-line planning time may also foster accuracy but at the price of

complexity+ Of course, on-line planning must occur in all written production,

and the extent to which writers plan on-line is a matter of degree+ The com-parison intended here is between the effects of pretask planning and the “care-

ful” on-line planning made possible by ensuring that the participants are under

no pressure to write quickly+

METHOD

Design

This study is a single-factor, between-participants design with three levels ofplanning conditions ~no planning, pretask planning, and on-line planning!+ Forty-

two participants were administered a pretest to ensure that the three groups

had equivalent English proficiency at the outset of the study+ Each group pro-

duced a written narrative elicited by means of a set of related pictures in one

of the three conditions+ Their textual products were then analyzed in terms of

fluency, complexity, and accuracy+

Participants

The participants were 42 full-time undergraduate English majors in the Inter-

national Business Department of a Chinese university ~i+e+, foreign language

learners of English!—a departure from other planning studies to date, which

have focused on “second” rather than “foreign” language learners+ The par-

ticipants in this study had learned their English more or less entirely in an

instructed setting+ They were between 18 and 20 years old+ At the time of data

collection, most of them had been learning English as a foreign language in

Chinese schools for 8 years, first in elementary school and middle school andthen in college+ None had ever been to an English-speaking country, and they

had had little opportunity to use English for communicative purposes outside

the classroom+ Their scores in their Higher Education Bureau Examination were

between 100 and 120 ~maximum possible 150!, with grades between A and

B in the oral component of this examination+2 The participants can be con-

sidered to constitute a fairly homogeneous group in terms of their learning

history and English proficiency+

As college students, they had 6 hours of English per week—4 hours for

reading and writing and 2 hours for listening and speaking+ Every 2 weeks,they had a 1-hour oral English class with a native speaker of English from

Canada+ All the students in two first-year classes were invited and agreed to

participate in the study+ They were told that the test and tasks were for pur-

poses of research only, and, given that their teachers were not involved in the

data collection in any way, it seems likely that they accepted this at its face


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value+ They were not told the precise purpose of the study and were assured

that the information collected would not impact their course grades+

The students were divided randomly into three groups of 14 each+ The gen-

der composition of each group was as follows: The no-planning group con-sisted of 8 males and 6 females, the pretask-planning group consisted of 6

males and 8 females, and the on-line-planning group consisted of 5 males and

9 females+ No participants withdrew from the study+

Pretest Material

The pretest material was a version of the Test of English as a Foreign Lan-

guage ~TOEFL!: Test 1 from Reading for TOEFL Workbook ~Educational Testing

Service, 1987!+ The total test scores and the scores of the listening section

were calculated and entered into one-way ANOVAs ~with the alpha set at +05!+

The listening-section scores were examined separately on the grounds that

they provide an indicator of the participants’ on-line processing ability, as the

listening tasks required learners to process language in real time+ The results

of the ANOVAs revealed no significant differences across the three treatment

groups in either overall TOEFL scores, F ~1, 2! 0+39; p +95, or listening scores,

F ~1, 2! 0+464; p +63+ Thus, it can be concluded that the three groups were

equivalent in their English proficiency+3 Descriptive statistics are shown in

Table 1+

Task

The task required participants to write a story based on a set of six pictures

from Heaton ~1975!+ A written narrative task was chosen to permit compari-

son with the results of studies that have investigated the effects of planning

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for TOEFLscores across groups

Group scores M SD

On-line planningTotal 446+71 35+34Listening 42+79 3+68

Pretask planningTotal 447+78 27+84Listening 42+36 3+65

No planningTotal 460+86 26+57Listening 43+64 3+46


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on similar oral tasks ~e+g+, Foster & Skehan, 1996; Wendel, 1997!+ We sought to

ensure that the task was reasonably demanding on the participants and thus

would stretch their linguistic resources+ Previous research on oral tasks ~e+g+,

Skehan & Foster, 1999! has indicated that this can be achieved by selecting apicture story that requires interpretation on the part of the learners+

The story was about a boy who got off a bus when it was dark and dropped

one of the packages he was carrying+ The boy set off for home without notic-

ing the lost package+ A man picked up the package and ran after him to return

it+ The boy saw the man following him and was frightened+ He began to run,

but eventually the man caught up with the boy and returned the package +

This was the same picture story that Ellis ~1987! used+ The picture story,

although clearly structured with a chronologically ordered series of events,

requires interpretation on the part of the learners because it is not initiallyclear that the man had picked up the package, and thus his motive for follow-

ing the boy is uncertain until the final picture+

The task instructions were given in Chinese+ All the participants were given

the same prompt to establish the narrative genre required by the task: “This

afternoon, Tom+ + + +”

Task Conditions

In this study, planning was operationalized at three levels: no planning ~NP!,

pretask planning ~PTP!, and on-line planning ~OLP!+ The participants per-

formed the task in their normal classroom setting+ Both their regular teacher

and the researcher were present+

In the NP condition, participants were required to finish the task within 17

minutes and were asked to write at least 200 words+ This was intended to

limit the amount of time for extensive on-line planning while ensuring that

it was possible for the participants to complete the story+ A pilot study involv-

ing similar participants had been carried out to establish the time to be allowedto write the story+ In that study, no time limit was set, and the participants’

different times were noted+ The pilot study had established that the fastest

writer completed the story in 17 minutes, whereas the slowest took 24 min-

utes+ Thus, this condition required “speeded” writing+

In the PTP condition, as in the NP condition, participants were requested

to finish writing the story within 17 minutes and to produce at least 200 words+

In this way, the participants were pressured to perform the task with limited

opportunities for on-line planning+ However, in this condition they were given

10 minutes to plan their performance of the task+ The choice of planning timewas based on Crookes ~1989!, Foster and Skehan ~1996!, and Wendel ~1997!+

Mehnert’s ~1998! study showed that only when at least a 10-minute planning

time was provided were there measurable effects on all three aspects of lan-

guage use—fluency, accuracy, and complexity—in the case of oral produc-

tion+ No detailed guidance was provided, but the participants were asked to


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plan their narratives in terms of content, organization, and language+ This

again followed the studies of Crookes, Skehan and Foster, and Wendel+ The

participants were given a sheet of paper to write notes but told not to write

out the whole story+ The notes were taken away before they started the task+This achieved two purposes+ First, removing the notes ensured that the lan-

guage elicited by all the tasks was produced within the specified time limit +

Second, the notes could be used as evidence regarding how individual

students undertook the planning and could be referred to in the posttask

interview+

In the OLP condition, the participants were given a piece of paper and told

to write down the story+ They were told they could take as long as they liked,

and a researcher ensured that they began writing immediately+ The researcher

noted the time the participants spent on task to check that this was indeedlonger than the time taken by the other two groups+ Unlike the other two

groups, however, the participants were not required to write a minimum of

200 words, as this may have been interpreted as requiring them to write

quickly+ Thus, the participants in this condition were allocated no time for

pretask planning but ample time for on-line planning+ The task conditions are

summarized in Table 2+

Questionnaires and Interviews

All participants in the planning groups were asked to complete a question-

naire in Chinese immediately after completing the task+ The questionnaire con-

sisted of open-ended questions on how the participants felt about the tasks

and how they made use of the planning time ~i+e+, whether they attended to

the organization of the narrative events, content, or form!+ Additionally, four

participants were randomly selected from each group for a retrospective ,

in-depth interview in Chinese with the researcher+ The notes made by the pre-

task planners and the participants’ written responses to the questionnaireserved as a basis for the interview questions+ The data from the question-

naire and interview were used to help interpret the findings of the statistical

analysis+

Table 2. Task conditions

Task condition n Pretask planning On-line planning

No planning 14 None Limited timePretask planning 14 10 minutes Limited timeOn-line planning 14 None Unlimited time


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Measures

Measures of accuracy, fluency, and complexity were developed to evaluate the

quality of the participants’ written production+ Insofar as possible, these mea-sures were the same as those used in studies of oral production ~e+g+, Foster

& Skehan, 1996; Wendel, 1997; Yuan & Ellis, 2003!+ However, changes to the

fluency measures were needed to make them appropriate to written produc-

tion as temporal phenomena, such as length of pauses, cannot be measured

in writing+ Additionally, to determine whether the participants in the OLP group

engaged in significantly more on-line planning than the other two groups, the

length of time taken and the number of syllables produced by the partici-

pants in all three groups were also calculated+ In this way, it was possible to

determine whether the participants had performed the tasks in accordancewith the stipulated planning conditions+

Planning ~independent variable! was measured by the following: ~a! length

of time—the total number of minutes on task was counted for each partici-

pant; ~b! words—the total number of words produced by each participant;

and ~c! syllables—the total number of syllables produced by each partici-

pant+ The length of time and number of words were designed to provide mea-

sures of learners’ productivity+ It was assumed that productivity would vary

in accordance with the planning conditions of the three groups and that it

would thus be possible to demonstrate the validity of the conditions by ref-erence to these variables+

The dependent variables consisted of the following:

Fluency measures

1+ Syllables per minute—the total number of syllables produced divided by the total

number of minutes a participant took to complete the task+ This is the same mea-

sure used by Chenoweth and Hayes ~2001!+ It is preferred to words per minute,

which Kellog ~1996! recommended as “an average measure of fluency” ~p+ 65!,

because it takes the variable lengths of words into account+

2+ Number of dysfluencies—the total number of words a participant reformulated

~i+e+, crossed out and changed! divided by the total number of words produced+

Complexity measures

1+ Syntactic complexity—the ratio of clauses to T-units in the participants’ produc-

tion+ T-units rather than c-units were used because the task performance was mono-

logic and contained few elided utterances ~see Foster, Tonkyn, & Wigglesworth,

2000, for a discussion of the relative merits of using T-units or c-units!+4

2+ Syntactic variety—the total number of different grammatical verb forms used in

the task+ Grammatical verb forms included tense ~e+g+, simple past, past continu-

ous!, modality ~e+g+, should , have to!, and voice ~e+g+, passive voice in the past!+

3+ Mean Segmental Type-Token Ratio ~MSTTR!+ The participants’ narratives were

divided into segments of 40 words and the type-token ratio of each segment cal-

culated by dividing the total number of different words by the total number of

words in the segment+ The MSTTR ~Malvern & Richards, 2002! was computed for

each participant by adding the mean scores for his or her segments and dividing


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the total by the total number of segments in the narrative+ This procedure was

followed to take account of the effect of text length on the type-token ratio +5

Accuracy measures

1+ Error-free clauses—the percentage of clauses that did not contain any errors+ Allerrors in syntax, morphology, and lexical choice were considered+ Lexical errors

were defined as errors in lexical form or collocation ~e+g+, * I was waiting you!+

2+ Correct verb forms—the percentage of accurately used verbs in terms of tense ,

aspect, modality, and subject-verb agreement+

The reliability of these measures was determined by a second researcher who

coded the data for five of the learners in each group + Pearson Product Moment

correlation coefficients for the scores of the two coders ranged from a high of

+99 for MSTTR to a low of +82 for dysfluencies, with only two below +90+

Data Analysis

The normal distribution of the three groups’ scores on all variables was tested

in terms of skewness and kurtosis+ A series of one-way ANOVAs were sub-

sequently performed followed by post hoc Scheffé tests where appropriate

~i+e+, if the F score was statistically significant!+ In the one variable where nor-

mal distribution was not evident ~i+e+, correct verbs!, a Kruksal-Wallis Test wasrun, followed by independent t -tests to compare the pairs of groups+ The alpha

for achieving statistical significance was set at +05+ Additionally, effect sizes

were calculated using the formula provided in Norris and Ortega ~2000, pp+ 442–

443! to examine the size of the effect of the different kinds of planning on

performance of the task+ Following Norris and Ortega, effect sizes larger than

0+8 were considered large, sizes between 0+5 and 0+8 medium, between 0+2 and

0+5 small, and less than 0+2 negligible+

RESULTS

Planning: Independent Variables

The means for the independent variables are shown in Table 3+ They reveal

that the OLP group took longer to complete the task ~ M 21+00 min+! than the

participants in the NP group ~ M 17+00 min+! and those in the PTP group

~ M 17+00 min+!+ The mean lengths of time spent by the NP and PTP groups

were identical, corresponding to the time allocated to these groups for com-pleting the writing task+ A one-way ANOVA shows that the difference in time

taken to complete the task across the groups was statistically significant with

the OLP group taking longer than both the NP and PTP groups+

For both syllables and words, there is also an overall statistically signifi-

cant difference among the three groups+ The Scheffé results show that the


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PTP group produced significantly more syllables and words than the NP group+

The OLP also produced more syllables and words than the NP group, but these

differences were not significant+ In general, these results indicate that, as antici-

pated, the OLP group could be distinguished from the PTP and NP groups in

terms of the amount of time spent on task+ Also, both planning groups could

be distinguished from the NP group in terms of the amount of writing pro-

duced although these comparisons were only statistically significant in the

case of the PTP group+

Dependent Variables

As previously indicated, three aspects of language use were examined to see

how the participants in the three treatment conditions performed the writing

task+ The results of one-way ANOVAs are reported separately for fluency, com-

plexity, and accuracy+6 Effect sizes are also reported+

Table 4 presents the results for the fluency variables + The PTP group

obtained the highest fluency score ~ M 16+21 syllables per min+!+ Thus, the

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and results of ANOVA and Schefféprocedures for independent variables

Means of

planning conditions ANOVA

Location of significance:

Scheffé p

Independent variables NP PTP OLP F p NP-PTP NP-OLP PTP-OLP

Length of time ~min+! 17+00 17+00 21+00 47+98* +000 1+000 +000 +000Words 181+4 231+1 206+9 7+65* +002 +002 +146 +177Syllables 213+14 277+21 242+64 6+74* +003 +003 +253 +155

* p , +05+

Table 4. Descriptive statistics, results of ANOVA and Scheffé procedures,

and effect sizes for fluency

M ~ SD! ofplanning conditions ANOVA


Scheffé p ~effect sizes!

Fluency variables NP PTP OLP F p NP-PTP NP-OLP PTP-OLP

Syllables per 12+22 16+21 12+19 9+80* +000 +002 1+00 +002minute ~2+11! ~3+34! ~2+70! ~1+45! ~0+01! ~1+33!

Dysfluencies 8+24 4+72 4+86 3+74* +032 +066 +080 +996~5+73! ~1+81! ~2+88! ~0+93! ~0+78! ~0+06!

* p , +05+


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pretask planners wrote faster than both the no-planners and on-line planners,

and these differences were statistically significant ~ p , +01! and reflected in

large effect sizes ~d 1+45 and 1+33, respectively!+ The OLP and NP groups

were equally fluent with regard to syllables produced per minute+ A differentpicture emerges, however, with regard to the rate of dysfluencies produced

by the three groups, with both planning groups manifesting a lower rate than

the NP group+ Although the differences among the groups were statistically

significant overall ~ p , +05!, no paired comparison reached statistical signifi-

cance+ However, in both cases, the d scores indicated a substantial effect for

both types of planning ~0+93 in the case of PTP and 0+78 in the case of OLP!+

Overall, these results indicate that the PTP group wrote faster than the NP

and the OLP groups and that the PTP and OLP groups repeated and reformu-

lated less than the NP group+Three variables were assessed to measure the complexity of language use

in the participants’ written narratives: syntactic complexity, syntactic variety,

and lexical variety+ Results are shown in Table 5+

In the case of syntactic complexity, the two planning groups outperformed

the NP group+ Although these differences did not reach statistical signifi-

cance, the d scores ~0+73 and 0+56! indicated a medium level effect for plan-

ning+ There was little difference in the syntactic complexity of the language

produced by the two planning groups ~d 0+21!+ The same ranking for the

three groups can be observed for syntactic variety, and in this case the differ-ences were statistically significant+ The principal difference lies between the

PTP and the OLP and NP+ The difference in scores between the PTP and the

NP was statistically significant ~ p , +01!, and the effect size was large ~d 4+42!+ The difference between the PTP and the OLP approached significance

~ p +079! with the effect size again large ~d 0+94!+ The OLP also produced

more syntactically varied language than the NP ~d 0+73!, but the difference


and effect sizes for complexity




Complexity variables NP PTP OLP F p NP-PTP NP-OLP PTP-OLP

Syntactic complexity 1+68 2+01 1+92 2+71 +079 — — —~0+26! ~0+34! ~0+52! ~0+73! ~0+56! ~0+21!

Syntactic variety 16+21 22+07 18+86 9+05* +001 +001 +173 +079~4+01! ~3+58! ~3+21! ~4+42! ~0+73! ~0+94!

Lexical variety 0+87 +88 +88 0+18 +837 — — —~+03! ~+03! ~+04! ~0+06! ~0+05! ~0+0!

Note+ Dashes indicate the Scheffé procedure was not performed+

* p , +05+


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was not statistically significant+ The three groups performed almost identi-

cally where lexical variety ~measured by MSTTR! was concerned+

Overall, these results show that both types of planning result in language

that is more complex and varied syntactically but that they have no effect onlexical variety+ PTP has the larger effect, especially in the case of syntactic

variety+

Accuracy was measured in two ways: error-free clauses and error-free verb

forms ~see Table 6 for the results!+ The OLP group had the highest mean on

both measures, followed by the PTP group, and the NP group had the lowest

mean+ The ANOVA failed to show these differences to be statistically signifi-

cant in the case of both variables+ However, the difference between groups on

error-free clauses did approach significance ~ p +059!, with OLP outscoring

the NP ~ p

+062!+ The d scores indicate a large effect size for on-line planningboth when compared to NP ~d 2+25! and to PTP ~d 1+25!+ As the scores for

correct verbs were not normally distributed, a Kruksal-Wallis Test was also

run+ This proved significant, x2 6+72, p , +05+ Independent t -tests showed

that only the difference between the OLP and NP scores was statistically sig-

nificant, t 2+71, p , +05+ The effect size for this comparison was large ~d 1+75!+ Medium size effects were also evident in the differences between the

OLP and PTP groups ~d 0+40! and between the NP and PTP groups ~d 0+43!+ Overall, these results indicate that the opportunity for on-line planning

resulted in more accurate written production but that pretask planning hadmuch less effect+

Questionnaires and Interviews

The data obtained from the questionnaires and interviews provide informa-

tion regarding the nature of the pretask planning activities engaged in by the

PTP group and the approach adopted by each group during the writing task +


and effect sizes for accuracy




Accuracy variables NP PTP OLP F p NP-PTP NP-OLP PTP-OLP

Error-free clauses 0+77 0+81 0+86 3+39 +059 +656 +062 +326~0+01! ~0+01! ~0+07! ~0+0! ~2+25! ~1+25!

Correct verbs 0+85 0+88 0+92 1+98 +152 — — —~0+01! ~0+13! ~0+06! ~0+43! ~1+75! ~0+40!

Note+ Dashes indicate the Scheffé procedure was not performed+


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The data were analyzed by counting the number of learners in each group

who referred to each of four aspects of the narrative task: ~a! understanding

the pictures, ~b! planning the organization of the story, ~c! planning the con-

tent of the story, and ~d! language planning+ Additionally, the number of learn-ers who reported using their L1 was recorded+ Table 7 reports the results of

this analysis+ A minority of participants in each group reported first trying to

understand the pictures+ The majority of the participants in all three groups

reported that they engaged in rhetorical planning of the story ~e+g+, outlining

the key events and establishing links between each picture!+ Most of the par-

ticipants also reported working on content ~e+g+, seeking to be clear, trying to

make the story interesting, and adding details! and also attending to the lan-

guage needed to encode the story+ Interestingly, however, they varied consid-

erably in the aspect of language they were planning, with some prioritizingvocabulary and others grammar+ A few participants in all three groups specif-

ically reported not engaging in language planning+ Very few participants com-

mented that they used their L1+

The PTP group was able to divide their attention to these different aspects

between the pretask planning period and the time allocated for writing+ In

general, they prioritized understanding the pictures, organizing the story, and

planning the content during the 10 minutes allocated to pretask planning while

they spent their writing time attending to form+ In contrast, the OLP and NP

groups were obliged to attend to all four aspects of the task while producingthe written narrative+

None of the participants mentioned feeling any anxiety when they per-

formed the written task+ However, a number of learners in the PTP and NP

groups indicated they felt under pressure to finish, and this created a prob-

lem for them+ For example, one PTP learner commented that her vocabulary

was restricted because the limited time made it difficult for her to find appro-

priate words+

Table 7. Numbers of participants in each group attending to differentaspects of writing task

GroupPicture

comprehensionRhetoricalplanning

Contentplanning

Languageplanning Use of L1

PTP

Before task 5 12 12 4 0During task 0 2 4 13 0

OLPDuring task 4 8 11 10 2

NPDuring task 5 14 10 8 1


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DISCUSSION

We first consider the results for the independent variables and then consider

the three research questions+ We also examine differences between the resultsfor the effects of planning on written narratives with the parallel results

obtained for oral narratives, as reported by Yuan and Ellis ~2003!+ To facilitate

this discussion the results of Yuan and Ellis’s study and of the present study

are summarized in Table 8+

To establish that the two planning conditions worked as anticipated, the

length of time the participants in the three groups spent on task and the num-

ber of words and syllables they produced were measured+ In accordance with

the instructions given to the three groups, the OLP group spent longer on

task than the other two groups+ The fact that the PTP group produced morewords and syllables than the participants in the NP group indicates that the

pretask planners did in fact use the time to plan their written narratives+ This

conclusion is also supported by the participants’ answers to the posttask ques-

tionnaire+ Overall, the three groups appear to have performed in accordance

with the instructions they received and with the researchers’ expectations+

The first research question addressed the effects of pretask planning on

fluency, complexity, and accuracy in written narratives+ The PTP group out-

performed the NP group in the number of syllables per minute+ Thus, provid-

ing an opportunity for pretask planning was not only advantageous in termsof the quantity of writing produced but also in terms of the production speed+

It should be noted, however, that, although the pretask planners wrote more

quickly, they spent more time on task than the on-line planners overall—a

total of 27 minutes ~10 minutes for planning followed by 17 minutes for writ-

Table 8. Summary of the effects of two types of planning on L2 oral andwritten narratives

Taskmedium

Planningtype Fluency Complexity Accuracy

Oral Pretask No effect Increased syntactic complexity No effect

On-line No effect Increased syntactic complexity Increased accuracy

Written Pretask Increasedfluencyand fewerdysfluencies

Marked increase in syntacticcomplexity and variety

Little effect

On-line Decreasedfluencybut fewerdysfluencies~tendency!

Some increase in syntacticcomplexity and variety butnot statistically significant

Increased accuracy


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ing!, as opposed to 17 minutes for the no-planners+ Pretask planning also

resulted in fewer dysfluencies in the textual output, a difference that

approached statistical significance+ The pretask planners produced fewer false

starts and self-corrections+In terms of the model of writing in Figure 1, it can be surmised that pretask

planning aids fluency in writing in two principal ways+ First, it facilitates pro-

cess and text planning for content and organization+ This is reflected in the

pretask planners’ responses to the questionnaire and their comments in the

posttask interview+ Twelve of the 14 pretask planners reported engaging in

rhetorical and content planning+ A writer who has a clear idea as to the text

type required ~narrative! and the point of the story depicted in the pictures,

organizes the information that needs to be conveyed, establishes the setting

and describes the characters, identifies the main events, and evaluates themwill find the pressure on working memory lessened during on-line assembly

~Raab, 1992, cited by Zimmerman, 2000!+ Second, pretask planning may help

to increase L2 writers’ confidence in their ability to write clearly and effec-

tively and, for this affective reason, may reduce their need to engage in exten-

sive monitoring+ Zimmerman found that writers revise more when writing in

their L2 than in their L1; thus, one of the effects of allowing time for pretask

planning may be to reduce the number of revisions undertaken in L2 writing ,

with the result that it resembles L1 writing more closely+ Chenoweth and Hayes

~2001! found that L2 writers who were more proficient wrote more fluentlythan less proficient writers; pretask planning, therefore, may compensate for

lack of L2 proficiency where fluency is concerned+

Pretask planning also has some effect on complexity+ The pretask planners

used more subordination and a greater variety of verb forms in their written

narratives than the NP group although only the comparison for syntactic vari-

ety achieved statistical significance+ Pretask planning had no effect on lexical

variety+ These results suggest that pretask planning time was used by the learn-

ers to focus attention on the propositional content of the story by specifying

the key actions depicted in the pictures ~i+e+, identifying the main narrativeevents!+ This focus on planning the events was presumably accompanied by a

search for verb forms to encode temporal and modal meanings+ In this respect,

it can be noted that, in the posttask interviews, a number of the PTP-group

participants specifically commented on having attended to verb tense when

planning the task+ These verb forms were then stored and subsequently

accessed during the translating process+ That pretask planning has no effect

on lexical variety may reflect the fact that, given the importance of locating

the relevant vocabulary to encode the propositional content of the story, all

the writers prioritized lexical search during on-line assembly+ In Levelt’s ~1989!speaking model, lexis takes precedence over grammar during formulation ~or

translation in Kellog’s, 1996, model!+ Given that writing, even when pressured,

allows more time for formulation, this is even more likely to be the case+

Pretask planning had some effect on linguistic accuracy, but the compari-

sons for both error-free clauses and correct verbs did not achieve statistical


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significance+ Enhanced accuracy in writing may be due primarily to the mon-

itoring that occurs when writers revise the output of translation ~as in Kellog’s

model!, using explicit knowledge of their L1, L2, or both+ Pretask planning does

not contribute to this in any significant way+ The variable results obtained forthe effects of pretask planning on accuracy in previous task-based research

may simply reflect the extent to which the participants in those studies had

sufficient time to engage in editing during the task, a variable that was not

controlled for+

In summary, pretask planning has a marked effect on written fluency, a rel-

atively strong effect on linguistic complexity ~especially the variety of verb

forms!, and very little effect on accuracy+ We have suggested that this can be

best explained by hypothesizing that pretask planning assists internal goal

setting, the rhetorical organization of the text to be produced, and the prep-ositional content to be encoded+ This reduces the pressure on the central exec-

utive in working memory and thus facilitates the process of translating what

has been planned into verbal schema, even when this has to be undertaken

under pressure of limited time+ The opportunity for pretask planning may also

add to the learners’ confidence during task performance+ In the posttask inter-

views, the pretask planners in particular reported that they felt they were able

to handle the task easily+ However, pretask planning does not contribute to

editing when writers are pressured to write quickly+

These results are comparable to the results obtained for pretask planningof oral narratives in a number of ways+ Yuan and Ellis ~2003! found that pre-

task planning resulted in more speech and greater complexity in comparison

to no planning+ It had no statistically significant effect on fluency or on accu-

racy+7 Thus, pretask planning would appear to increase quantity of output and

enhance some aspects of linguistic complexity but not accuracy, in both speech

and writing+ The main difference arises with regard to fluency+ However, other

studies ~e+g+, Crookes, 1989; Foster & Skehan, 1996! have shown a positive effect

for pretask planning on fluency in oral performance+ It is possible that Yuan

and Ellis failed to find an effect in their study because the pretask plannerswere only allowed limited time for on-line assembly, whereas in the other stud-

ies on-line production was not pressured+ The lack of time for on-line assem-

bly may have induced anxiety ~that the participants performing the oral task

reported experiencing!, which in turn had a negative effect on oral fluency+ In

this study, the pretask planners were also given limited time to perform the

task, but perhaps this was less threatening, given that writing, even when pres-

sured, does not require learners to perform in real-time+

The second research question concerned the effects of on-line planning+

As might be expected, encouraging learners to plan on-line does not result ingreater fluency+ However, it does not appear to inhibit fluency, either, given

that the words per minute score for the OLP group was almost identical to

that of the NP group, which was pressured to write quickly+ Furthermore, it

tends to reduce dysfluencies ~although the difference between the OLP and

the NP did not reach statistical significance, the effect size was quite large!+


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Writers may take advantage of the time available for on-line planning to mon-

itor their internally processed output during translation before they execute

the text+ In contrast, when pressured to write quickly, writers rely more on

editing and correcting actual textual output+ On-line planning has some effecton complexity, but the differences in both syntactic complexity and variety

were not statistically significant+ It had a clear effect on accuracy, with the

OLP group producing text that was more accurate in terms of both error-free

clauses and correct verbs than the NP group and with the difference achiev-

ing statistical significance in the case of the former variable+ It is likely that

the on-line planners used the additional time at their disposal to attend care-

fully to linguistic accuracy by editing their internal and external output+ Writ-

ing allows learners access to observable units of text and thereby induces

attention to form+ When on-line assembly is unpressured, this inherent ten-dency in writing may be accentuated+ In support of this, it can be remarked

that the on-line planners noted in their posttask interviews that they attempted

to attend to everything, which suggests that they monitored the output of

translation extensively before and after execution+

Yuan and Ellis ~2003! found that opportunities for extensive on-line plan-

ning had no effect on fluency but promoted syntactic complexity and accu-

racy in comparison to no planning+ It also resulted in greater lexical variety

than pretask planning+ The main difference between the results for the oral

and written tasks, then, concerns complexity+ It should be noted, however,that the means of the OLP group in the present study for syntactic complex-

ity ~ M 1+92! and syntactic variety ~ M 18+86! were higher than those for the

NP group ~ M 1+68 and 16+21, respectively! and in this respect mirror the

results obtained for the oral narrative in Yuan and Ellis+ That the differences

were not statistically significant may reflect the fact that, given the nature of

writing, the NP group found time to reflect on propositional content despite

the pressure to write rapidly+ Similarly, the resemblance in lexical variety scores

in the three groups may indicate that in the written task all learners had

sufficient time for lexical searching and prioritized this aspect of verbalprocessing+

The third research question addressed the relative effects of the two types

of planning+ The pretask planners were found to be more fluent than the on-line

planners and tended to use a greater variety of verb forms ~d 0+94!+ They

were less accurate than the on-line planners although this difference was not

statistically significant+ The results of this study, therefore, suggest that the

two types of planning have different effects on the quality of textual output

when measured by means of specific linguistic measures+ We explain this by

positing that they facilitate different components of the writing process + Thatis, pretask planning assists Kellog’s ~1996! formulation component, whereas

unpressured on-line planning allows time for monitoring+

The results obtained in the present study differ from those in Yuan and

Ellis ~2003! for complexity+ Whereas this study found some evidence of greater

complexity in the PTP group, Yuan and Ellis found no difference between the


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two groups+ We hypothesize that this again reflects the fact that, in compari-

son to the oral task in Yuan and Ellis, the writing task did provide the pretask

planners with opportunities for some controlled on-line planning, despite the

time pressure+ Thus, the pretask planners in this study benefited from timefor both planning and translating+

In summary, it is clear that pretask planning enhances learner output in a

written task+ This is manifested in greater quantity, fluency, and complexity of

language, although such planning appears to have little effect on accuracy+ It

should be noted, however, that the pretask planners’ total time on task

exceeded that of both the no-planners and the on-line planners+ Thus, as Hayes

and Gradwohl Nash ~1996! pointed out, it cannot be concluded that pretask

planning is more efficient than on-line planning+ The opportunity to plan on-line

also confers benefits, but of a different kind+ Although it does not lead to greaterfluency ~as might be expected!, it does reduce the number of dysfluencies+ It

also results in more accurate use of the L2+ Arguably, if the goal is to ensure

that L2 writers produce their highest quality work, they need time for both

types of planning+

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this article was to explore the effects of two types of planning~pretask and on-line! on textual output+ We did not attempt to explore the

actual strategies and processes involved in these two types of planning in any

detail; rather, we used Kellog’s ~1996! model of L2 writing ~as in Figure 1! to

explain the effects we found+ We believe that our results are explicable in terms

of this model+ Table 9 identifies the components of the writing process likely

to have been attended to by writers in the different planning conditions+ Clearly,

Table 9. Attention to different components of the composing processaccording to planning condition

Composing process components

Planning condition Formulation Execution Monitoring

PTP Extensive Yes LittlePretask planning timeOn-line planning time

OLP Some Yes ExtensivePretask planning timeOn-line planning time

NP Limited Yes LittlePretask planning timeOn-line planning time


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however, there is a need to examine more closely the relationship between

“process” and “product” using the same experimental design but probing more

deeply what L2 writers actually do when they engage in pretask and on-line

planning+ Ideally, the pretask and on-line planners need to spend the sameamount of total time on task although this might be difficult to achieve with-

out imposing undue pressure on the pretask planners when they begin to write+

There is also a need to include a third experimental condition, in which the

participants have the opportunity for both pretask and unpressured on-line

planning+

Although there have been studies investigating what L1 writers do when

they plan, few have focused on the effects of planning on L2 written output+

This is surprising, given the importance attached to the “planning stage” in

pedagogic discussions of process writing+ Hedge ~2000!, for example, unequiv-ocally stated, “good writers concentrate on the overall meaning and organiza-

tion of a text, and engage in planning activities” ~p+ 305!+ This study, then,

begins to show that planning does impact significantly on the quantity and

quality of L2 writing+ Furthermore, it suggests that pretask and on-line plan-

ning have somewhat different effects+ This has important implications for both

writing pedagogy and testing+ That is, teachers may be able to manipulate the

aspects of writing ~fluency, complexity, and accuracy! that L2 writers attend

to by varying the task conditions to allow sometimes for pretask planning ,

sometimes for unpressured on-line planning and sometimes for both+ Finally,testers who wish to enable L2 writers to present their best products for assess-

ment may need to ensure that opportunities for both types of planning are

available to testees+

~ Received 15 June 2003 !

NOTES

1+ The stressful nature of speaking is well documented ~see, e+g+, Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986!+Writing can also be anxiety inducing ~see Cheng, Horwitz, & Schallert, 1999! but, we would maintain,

usually less so than speaking—a view supported by the comments made by the participants in theposttask interviews+

2+ The Higher Education Bureau Examination is a compulsory English examination for all stu-dents who wish to major in English at a Chinese university+ It consists of simple questions andanswers, a spoken discourse on an unseen topic, and a story retelling+ The participants in this studyall scored between a B and an A on this test, with most obtaining an A +

3+ One anonymous SSLA reviewer pointed out that the pretest material should ideally have con-sisted of a writing task similar to that used in the study and performed without time allowed foreither pretask and on-line planning+ We acknowledge that this would have provided a basis for dem-onstrating the groups’ equivalence in fluency, complexity, and accuracy+ However, we argue that,

because the groups were randomly constituted and because we took steps to ensure there were nosignificant group differences in either the total TOEFL or TOEFL listening scores, we have sufficientgrounds to claim that the groups were equivalent in general English proficiency and thus likely tobe also equivalent with regard to the fluency, complexity, and accuracy of their written production+

4+ A c-unit is defined as an utterance that consists of a single complete sentence , phrase, orword and that has a clear semantic and pragmatic meaning in the context in which it occurs + Ineffect, it is the same as a T-unit except that it includes elliptical utterances+


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5+ Malvern and Richards ~2002! pointed out that MSTTR “removes the problem of variation insample size and wastes less data than if all analyses were performed on a standard number of words”~p+ 88!+ However, they also acknowledged problems with it—for example, “very short segments ~eventhose of 100 tokens! are likely to distort results because they are not sensitive to repetition of words

beyond the boundary of their own segment” ~p+ 88!

+ In our study

, written texts were divided intosegments of 40 words+ Malvern and Richards proposed a new measure based on D-values+ However,

we lacked the software needed to compute this and following advice from Richards ~personal com-munication! relied on MSTTR+ We acknowledge the limitations of this measure but argue it is a morevalid measure than standard type-token ratio+

6+ One anonymous SSLA reviewer suggested that, given the range of dependent variables, aMANOVA should have been performed+ However, the effects of the treatments were examined onlyby three one-way ANOVAs, minimizing the risk of a Type 1 error+ Further, Keselman et al+ ~1998!argued that there is very limited empirical support for a MANOVA univariate data analysis strategy+

7+ It should be noted, however, that the PTP group in Yuan and Ellis’s ~2003! study performedmore fluently than either the NP or the OLP groups, and when compared with the OLP group , thedifference was statistically significant+ Thus, there is some evidence that pretask planning can result

in greater oral fluency+

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