Employees Development

Employees MotivationSHP 1313 LECTURES at UTM Skudai.Prepared by Siti Rokiah Siwoksrsiwok@gmail.com

Motivationis the force that drives our actions2MotivationIO psychologists generally define work motivation as the internal force that drives a worker to action , as well as the external factors that encourage the actions (Locke & Latham, 2002 in Aamodt, 2007).

Motivation is a force that serves three functions, namely energizes, directs and sustains

Motivation and workAbility and skill determine the employee can do the job.Motivation determines whether the employee will do the job properly. Generally psychologist agree that increased employee motivation results in increased job performance. Motivation cannot be directly observed.There are many theories of work motivation.

Many motivation theoriesNeeds Theories of MotivationNeeds involve specific physiological or psychological deficiencies that the person /organism is driven to satisfy. Examples :Food to satisfy hunger (physiological )Love to satisfy the need to be loved and to love (psychological )

Needs theories of MotivationNeed theories are based on the idea that there are psychological needs, that lie behind human behaviour. When our needs are unmet we experience tension or disequilibrium which we try to put right; which means we behave in ways that satisfy our needs. Needs theories of motivation propose that motivation is the process of interaction among various needs and the drives to satisfy those needs.

Needs Theories of Motivaton:Basic Needs Theories Need hierarchy theory ( Maslow)ERG Theory ( Alderfer)

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsPhysiological needs are the ones required for survival. Security needs involve keeping oneself free from harm. Social needs are the desire for love, friendship, and companionship. Esteem needs are the need for self-esteem and the respect of others. Self-actualization needs describe the desire to live up to ones full potential. ****People may be seeking to meet more than one category of needs at a time.

Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsHierarchical , meaning that the lower-level needs have to be satisfied before one is concerned with the next level (like the staircase).Each level is taken a step at a time and thus the higher level need cannot be reached until the lower- level need is satisfiedThe first two bottom levels are called the deficiency needs while the top two are called the growth needs.What are the needs of these children?

What are the needs of the children?

What are the needs of these two people?

.and these?Evaluation of Maslows TheoryMaslow theory is popular and stood the test of time, but not very much supported by research. The biggest problem with regards to the levels. need there be five? Or two or three enough?What about people who skip levels?What about overlapping of levels?Five levels is not enough?More levels ERG TheoryTo address the limitation of Maslows Theory, , Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory, which like Maslow's theory, describes needs as a hierarchy. The ERG theory is based on the work of Maslow, so it has much in common with it but also differs in some important aspects.Overlapping of levels has been addressed by reducing the number of levels to three The letters ERG stand for three levels of needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.

ERG TheoryExistence = basic physiological and safety needsRelatedness = social needsGrowth = needs to develop ones potential ERG TheoryLike Maslows theory, ERG theory also postulates that the once the lower level of needs have been satisfied, the next higher level becomes a stronger motivator. In addition, with the presence of various factors at the work place, such as a companys policy, ERG theory also can explain why a higher-level need sometimes do not become more important once a lower-level need has been satisfied. Different from Maslows , with ERG theory, people can skip levels.

Basic Needs Theory: CriticismReceived a great deal of attention from people in various fields, especially psychology.Both theories did a good job of describing various types of needs, and, differentiating the lower-form and the higher-order needs, but neither has led to any useful application or strategy for improving work motivation.Not very useful for prediction ( Riggio, 2009)but Maslows theory is useful as guidelines ( Aamodt, 2010) . Example: If we provide recognition, enrichment and a safe working placeit does increase employee motivation Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation TheoryThis theory states that there are three needs central to work motivation: The needs for achievementThe needs for powerThe needs for affiliationNeeds for AchievementThe compelling drive to succeed and to get the job done.Love the challenge of work.Motivated by the desire to get ahead of the job, to solve problems and to be outstanding in their work performances.Associated with task-oriented, preferring situations with moderate levels of risk or difficulty, and also desiring feedback on goal attainment.

Needs for powerThe need to direct and control the activities of others and to be influential.Status orientedMore motivated to gain influence and prestige than to solve particular problems personally or reach performance goals. Two types of needs of power:Personal power used for personal ends.Institutional power used to achieve organizational objectives. Needs for affiliationThe desire to be likes and accepted by others. These individuals strive to foster relationships. Greatly concerned with interpersonal relationships on the job and prefers to work with others on a task. Motivated by cooperative rather than competitive work situations.Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation TheoryThis theory also highlights that each person has different basic needs.

Everybody has more or less of each, and each individual has a or a number of particular need/s which predominate/s

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation TheoryEmployees who have a strong need for achievement are motivated by jobs that are challenging , and over which they have some control.

Employees who have little achievement needs are more satisfied with jobs that involve minimal challenge; also have a high probability of success.Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation TheoryEmployees who have strong need for affiliation are motivated by jobs in which they can work with and help other people.

Employees who have strong need for power are motivated by jobs in which they can influence others. For this kind of employees, being successful is more meaningful when they can influence other people. Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation TheoryAn application of Mc Clellands theory is to match workers motivational profiles to the requirements of jobs. Another application is achievement training programme. This theory is also related to leadership; in which the leader must be aware and responsive to the different needs of the subordinates in order to motivate them.

Mc Clellands Achievement Motivation Theory : MeasurementMc Clellands Achievement Motivation TheoryMc Clelland used a variation of Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which respondents are asked to study each of a series of fairly ambiguous pictures for a few moments and then write the story it suggestsOne of the criticism towards Mc Clellands theory is the use of TAT, as the scoring can be unreliable. However, meta-analyses show that TAT is a reasonably good measurement tool ( Spangler, 1992 in Riggio 2009)

Behaviour-based Theories of MotivationBehaviour-based Theories of MotivationThese theories are categorized as behaviour-based because the theories focus on behavioural outcomes as crucial in work motivation. The two theories are reinforcement theory and goal-setting theoryReinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory is based on the principles of operant conditioning; that is, behaviour is motivated by its consequences. A consequence that follows a behaviour and serves to increase motivation to repeat the behaviour is called a reinforcer.Reinforces are of two( 2) types:Positive reinforcers (rewards)Negative reinforcersReinforcment Theory: Positive reinforcersPositive reinforcers are referred to as rewards. Desirable to the person.Examples of rewards are praise, money, appreciation etcNegative reinforcers are events that lead to the avoidance of the unwanted state or condition.Negative reinforcers increase the motivation to perform the desired behaviour again in as an effort to keep away the unwanted conditionBoth positive and negative reinforcers increase motivation to repeat a behaviour.Reinforcement theory: PunishmentBesides reinforcement, this theory uses punishment.

Punishment is the unpleasant consequence that directly follows the performance of a behaviour.

The role of the punishment is to weaken the tendency to perform a behaviour which is considered inappropriate.Reinforcement theory holds that reinforcement is better than punishment, because punishment only stops the unwanted behaviours whereas reinforcement strengthen and motivates the desired behaviour.Schedules of ReinforcementReinforcement in the work place takes place on a partial or occasional reinforcement schedule which can be either the interval or ratio type. For interval schedules are used, the reinforcement is based on passage of time.When ratio schedules are used, reinforcement comes after the performance of the desired behaviours. Interval scheduleFixed-interval scheduleReinforcement occurs after the passage of a specific amount of time, regardless of performance rate of the job-related behaviours.PredictableVariable-interval scheduleReinforcement occurs after the passage of a non- specific amount of time; depending on the circumstances.Ratio scheduleFixed-ratio scheduleReinforcement occurs after the employee performed a number of pre-determined number of specified behaviours. Example, an employee is paid according to the number of components assembled or reports written. This type of fixed-ratio payment is called piecework. The strength of this schedule is that reinforcement is dependent on the performance of the desired behaviours. A favored schedule compared to interval schedules. Ratio schedule2. Variable-ratio scheduleInvolves reinforcement that is dependent on the performance of behaviours, but the number of responses required for a particular reinforcement varies. Example is the salesman on comissionGenerates very high level of motivation because :the reinforcement is dependent on the performanceThe surprise element ( you never know when the reinforcement is coming). That is one reason why gambling is such an additive behaviour. Ratio schedule verses interval scheduleDifferent types of schedule lead to different patterns of responding and thus have important implications for the use of reinforcement in motivating employees.Generally, ratio schedules results in higher motivation levels than fixed intervals.

A point to ponder: majority of civil servants are paid on fixed-interval reinforcement schedules. Reinforcement: Organizational Behaviour Modification Reinforcement principles are used informally on a day-to-day basis to motivate workers through the compensation systems and other forms of rewards for work outcomes ( Riggio, 2009, page 191)

When reinforcement theory is applied formally as a program to increase employee motivation , it takes in the form of organizational behaviour modification (OBM) In OBM, target behaviours are specified, measured and rewarded.

Reinforcement: Organizational Behaviour Modification OBM have been used to motivate workers to be productive a bring about higher-quality work and to cut down absenteeism, tardiness ad work accidents.In a study by Markham, Scott and Mc Kee, 2002 in Riggio 2009), by simply recognising employees work attendance, absenteeism was reduced. In a study ( Austin, Kessler, Riccobona and Bailey, 1996 in Riggio 2009) of roofing crews, roofers were offered monetary incentives for reducing the hours to complete a roofing jobAlso the roofers could earn time off if they maintained high safety standards using a safety checklist. Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation

Which one is better to implement at the work place?

Why? Incentives at the Work place: ConsiderationsTiming of incentivesContingency of the consequencesType of incentives usedUse of individual-based versus group based incentivesUse of rewards versus punishmentFairness of the reward system.(Aamodt, 2010) Goal-setting theoryEmphasis on the role of specific, challenging performance goals.Employees commitment to the goals are key determinants to motivation.Goal setting theory have been used in settings outside work such as weight loss, study and exercise.Goals must clear, specific, attainable and if possible quantified.

Goal setting theoryIn goal setting programmes, large and challenging tasks are broken down into series of smaller more attainable goals.

Example?

Difficult or challenging goals may also produce greater levels of motivation, if the goals are accepted by the employees. (Example: if employees participate in goal setting, compared to goals set by supervisors.)

Goal setting theoryThe key element in goal setting theory is the commitment of the employee. Without the commitment, the goals will not be motivating.

Strategies to influence employees commitment: Extrinsic rewardsPeer pressure via individual or groupsIntrinsic motivation by the use of feedback Negative reinforcement may be used too. Goal setting theoryCreates a great deal of research. Possible reasons for the effectiveness of goal-setting as a motivational technique:The setting of specific challenging goals stimulate high quality planning from the employees. This quality planning contributes to better performance in achieving goals. The use of feedback enhance performance

Goal setting theorySpecificMeasureableAttainableRelevant Time boundSMART ( Rubin, 2002 in Aamodt 2010)? What are your definitions of SMART?Job design theories of motivation Job design theories stress the structure and design jobs as key factors in motivating employees The proponents of this theory believe that if job are well designed, having all the elements that satisfy employees need, then employees will be motivated.

What do you think? Job designed theories of motivationHerzberg two factor theory

Job Characteristics Model ( Hackman and Oldham, 1976) Herzberg Two factor theoryHerzberg argues that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are two separate and independent dimensions. His theory is based on his study on n white-collar professional workers, by asking them to describe what made them feel especially good or bad about their jobs.

His results are clustered into two categories.Two-factor theoryTwo-factor theory was proposed by Herzberg (1966), in which job related factors are divided into two categories: hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are those job-related elements that related from, but not involving the job itself. Examples :pay and benefits making friends (These are results of the work, but do not involve the work itself) Herzbergs Two Factor theoryMotivatorsFactors when present seem to cause job satisfactionHygienesFactors when absent tend to cause job dissatisfactionHerzbergs Two Factor TheoryMotivatorsHygienesResponsibilityAchievementRecognitionContent of workAdvancementGrowth on jobCompany policy and administrationSupervisionInterpersonal relationsWorking conditions (physical and social) SalaryHerzbergs theory: How to motivate employeesTo eliminate job dissatisfaction, basic hygiene factors must be provided. But, providing basic hygiene factors will only prevent employees dissatisfaction; it will not necessarily motivate them!Need the motivators.

Two-factor theory: CriticismThis theory make sense but has not receive research support. The theory is being criticized because of the methods to develop the two factorsComparison of Maslows, ERG and HerzbergMaslowERGHerzbergSelf -actualizationGrowth MotivatorsSelf-esteem

Belonging and love (social)RelatednessHygiene factorsSafetyExistencePhysiological needsJob Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Hackman and Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which states that five core job characteristics influence three critical psychological states that in turn lead to motivation.Skill variety, task identity, and task significance all affect workers experience of meaningfulness of their work.Autonomy influences workers experience of responsibility for work outcomes.Feedback provides workers with information about the results of their work activities.Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires the worker to use a variety of abilities and skills to perform work-related tasks. A job that demands a range of skills is likely to be perceived as challenging and meaningful. Task identity: The degree to which a job requires the completion of an entire job or function. The employee need to see the observable product of work efforts. Task significance: The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on other people with the organization such as coworkers or persons outside the organization such as the customers. Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Autonomy: the degree to which the jobs allow the employee freedom and independence to choose how to schedule and carry out the necessary tasks. Feedback: the degree to which the jobs allow the employee to receive direct and clear information about the effectiveness of performance. Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model The five core job characteristics are assessed and then combined to produce a single motivation potential score ( MPS) using the formula: MPS = (Skill variety+ Task Indentity+Task Significance) 3 X Autonomy X FeedbackJob Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Besides the five core job characteristics combined to give the MPS, certain moderators can affect the success of the model in predicting employee motivation.One such moderator is growth need strength, which is an individuals need and desire for personal growth and development on the job. Improving the dimensions of the five core job characteristics have motivating effects only on those employees who are high in growth need strength.

Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model The job characteristics model involves moderators, including growth need strengththe notion that certain workers feel a need to grow in their jobs. According to this theory, improving the dimensions of the five core job characteristics should motivate employees who are high in growth need strength. Employees who are low in growth need strength are not likely to be motivated by jobs that give enriched opportunities for responsibilities, autonomy and accountability.Job Design Theories : Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model Workers must be high in growth need strength if programs such as job enrichment are going to produce motivation. Job enrichment involves redesigning jobs to give workers greater responsibility in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work.

Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model : InstrumentHackman and Oldham developed a questionnaire to measure the five core characteristics, called the Job Diagnostic Survey ( JDS).The instrument creates a lot of interest and the results are favourable. Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model: ApplicationThis model has been found to predict motivation of employees to come to work ( Riggio, 2009).Employees who have enriched motivating jobs have better attendance records compared to employees whose have jobs which are lacking in critical job characteristics ( Rentsh & Steel, 1998 in Riggio 2009)It was also found that employees with enriched jobs have greater psychological well-being ( de Jong et al., 2001 in Riggion, 2009) Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristic Model: ApplicationThe two job design theories of motivation have lead to an intervention strategy called job enrichment, which involves redesigning jobs to give employees greater responsibility in the planning, execution and evaluation of their work

p/s Job enrichment is NOT the same as job enlargementCognitive Theories of MotivationCognitive Theories of MotivationCognitive theories of motivation emphasize the role that cognition plays in determining employee motivation.

These theories are also based on the assumptions that employees are rational beings who cognitively assess personal costs and benefits before taking actions; Equity theory VIE theoryCognitive Theories of Motivation :Equity TheoryEquity theory states that workers are motivated to keep their work inputs in proportion to their outcomes. According to equity theory, workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities. The perception of equity/inequity is determined by comparing the workers input-outcome ratio to a similar comparison of others.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation :Equity TheoryAccording to equity theory, lack of motivation is caused by two types of perceived inequity:Underpayment inequityOverpayment inequityUnderpayment inequityWill motivate these actions:Increasing outcomesDecreasing inputsChanging the comparison otherLeaving the situationOverpayment inequityActions that will be taken:Increasing inputsDecreasing outcomesChanging comparison othersDistorting the situation

Role of individual differencesResearch has examined the individual differences serve as moderators of equity. The construct equity sensitivity has been the focus. Individuals vary in their concerns over the equity of input-output ration

New Perspectives on Equity TheoryEquity Sensitive I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other7921New Perspectives on Equity TheoryBenevolentI am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other8022New Perspectives on Equity TheoryEntitledI am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other8123Equity Theory: Application and criticismA theory well researched but majority in laboratory settings.More support in the underpayment inequity condition.Since employees have different equity sensitivity, only certain individuals are motivated by equity.Thus the ability of this theory to predict motivation is limited. No particular applications have been developed directly from this theory. Cognitive Theories : VIEExpectancy theory (VIE theory) states that motivation is dependent on expectations concerning effortperformanceoutcome relationships.Most often associated with Vroom ( 1964); modified by Graen ( 1969) and Porter & Lawler (1968)

Expectancy Model of MotivationPerformanceRewardEffortEffortPerceived effortperformance probabilityPerceived value of rewardPerceived performance reward probabilityIf I work hard,will I get the jobdone?What rewardswill I get when the job is well done?What rewardsdo I value?8425VIEThree core components:Valence : positiveness or desirability or undesirability of an outcomeInstrumentality : beliefs in ones ability to perform the necessary behavior or the perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behaviour and the likelihood that a certain outcome will result. Expectancy : belief that the behavior will actually lead to the outcome.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key ConstructsValence - value or importance placed on a particular reward

Instrumentality - belief that performance is related to rewards

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance8624VIEInstrumentality and expectancy are probabilities expressed such as : If I spend X amount of effort, I will probably complete Y amount of work ( expectancy component) If I complete a Y amount of work, I will be likely be promoted ( instrumentality component) VIE : ReviewThis theory shows that motivation is a complex phenomenon, influenced by many variables. The most complicated models of motivation, but thorough.Generated huge amount of studies, both supporting and criticizing certain aspects of the theory.Researchers noted the difficulties in measuring VIE in several studies. A popular model for understanding work motivation. Although no single agreed-upon strategy for application, VIE leads to many practical suggestions for managers to motivate their employees.

The Relationship Between Motivation and PerformanceNumerous factors related to systems/technology variables, individual differences, group dynamics, and organizational factors may affect work performance directlyregardless of levels of worker motivation. Although motivation is important, it is only one determinant of work behavior.

And with the right motivation What cant we do?91References:Aamodt, M.G (2007). Industrial /organizational psychology. An applied approach. Belmont, CA: ThomsonAamodt, M.G (2010). Industrial /organizational psychology. An applied approach (6th ed) Belmont, CA: ThomsonRiggio, R. E. ( 2009). Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology (5th ed). New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.Arnold, J ( 2005). Work Psychology. Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace (4th ed). England : Pearson Education Ltd. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://www.wadsworth.com/cgi-wadsworth/course_products_wp.pl?fidhttp://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcgregor/Chapter 7 ( Motivation). Riggios Slides for Instructors.