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Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS
Volume EditorHarsh K. Gupta currently holds the prestigious Panikkar Professorship at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Council of Scientific& Industrial Research (CSIR), Hyderabad, India. Pursuing a luminous career in a variety of aspects of the Earth Sciences for over four decades, he isglobally known for providing the first geophysical evidence of an enormously thick crust below the Himalaya and Tibet Plateau region, identifyingthe common characteristics of artificial water reservoir triggered earthquakes and discriminating them from normal earthquakes, setting up India’sfirst permanent station at Antarctica in a record time, and in the recent years, spearheading the designing and commissioning of the TsunamiWarningSystem for India, after the disastrous tsunami caused by the 26th December 2004 Sumatra earthquake. He has published over 200 papers and written4 pioneering books, published by Elsevier.
Editorial BoardKusumita AroraNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Anny CazenaveLaboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique etOcéanographie Spatiales (LEGOS)Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales18 Avenue Edouard Belin31401 Toulouse Cedex 4France
Eric Robert EngdahlCenter for Imaging the Earth’s InteriorDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderCampus Box 390 UCBBoulder, CO 80309-0390USA
Rainer KindHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesSection 2.4, SeismologyTelegrafenberg A314473 PotsdamGermany
Ajay ManglikNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Sukanta RoyNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Kalachand SainNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Seiya UyedaJapan Academy7-32, Ueno ParkTaito-ku, Tokyo 110-0007Japan
Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Eachvolume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations andreference lists.
These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and newworks published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo-gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.
About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education &Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of CoastalResearch. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company ofCanada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa;Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.
Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked asa petroleum geologist in theMiddle East, been aWW II intelligence officer in the SWPacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, ArcticScandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institutefor Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTHGEOPHYSICS
edited by
HARSH K. GUPTANational Geophysical Research Institute
Council of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad
India
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924208
ISBN: 978-90-481-8701-0This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-8702-7 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-8732-4
Published by SpringerP.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands
The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in theEncyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989.
Printed on acid-free paper
Cover figure credit: Mineral Physics Institute at Stony Brook University, illustration by Keelin Murphy
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.
All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation,Electrical Resistivity; Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields© Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from thePublisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed ona computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Contents
Contributors xiii
Preface xxxv
Acknowledgments xxxvii
Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1Richard W. Carlson
Archaeomagnetism 8Donald H. Tarling
Archaeoseismology 11Klaus-Günter Hinzen
Artificial Water Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes 15Harsh K. Gupta
Biogeophysics 25Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana
Body Waves 29Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh
Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 37David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan
Continental Drift 40Alan G. Smith
Continental Rifts 41A. M. Celâl Şengör
Core Dynamo 55Ulrich R. Christensen
Core-Mantle Coupling 64Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou
Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber 78Satish C. Singh
Curie Temperature 89Vincenzo Pasquale
Deep Scientific Drilling 91Ulrich Harms and Harold J. Tobin
Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling 103Kabir Roy Chowdhury
Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner Core 118Xiaodong Song
Earth Rotation 123Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm
Earth Tides 129John M. Wahr
Earth, Density Distribution 133Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis
Earth’s Structure, Core 137Lianxing Wen
Earth’s Structure, Continental Crust 138Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern
Earth’s Structure, Global 144Jean-Paul Montagner
Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 154Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara andJames A. Tyburczy
Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 159Guust Nolet
Earthquake Lights 165John S. Derr, France St-Laurent,Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 168Seiya Uyeda, Toshiyasu Nagao andMasashi Kamogawa
Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm 178Alik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov
Earthquake Rupture: Inverse Problem 182Shamita Das
Earthquake Sounds 188Andrew J. Michael
Earthquake, Aftershocks 192Mian Liu and Seth Stein
Earthquake, Focal Mechanism 194Emile A. Okal
Earthquake, Foreshocks 199Mian Liu
Earthquake, Location Techniques 201Clifford H. Thurber
Earthquake, Magnitude 207Peter Bormann
Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation 218Robert McCaffrey
Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning 226Richard M. Allen
Earthquakes, Energy 233Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Bormann
Earthquakes, Intensity 237Gottfried Grünthal
Earthquakes, PAGER 243David J. Wald
Earthquakes, Shake Map 245David J. Wald
Earthquakes, Source Theory 248Raul Madariaga
Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion 252Giuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura,Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari
Earthquakes, Volcanogenic 261J. W. Neuberg
Electrical Properties of Rocks 270Takashi Yoshino
Electrical Resistivity Surveys and DataInterpretation 276
Meng Heng Loke
Electronic Geophysical Year 283William K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker,C. E. Barton, Peter Fox, M. A. Parsons andEmily A. CoBabe-Ammann
Energy Budget of the Earth 285Jean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart
Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves 291Kalachand Sain
Equatorial Electrojet 294Archana Bhattacharyya
Fractals and Chaos 297Vijay P. Dimri, Ravi P. Srivastava andNimisha Vedanti
Free Oscillations of the Earth 302Sarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani
Geodesy, Figure of the Earth 313Kusumita Arora
Geodesy, Ground Positioning and Leveling 316Stelios P. Mertikas
Geodesy, Networks and Reference Systems 323Hayo Hase
Geodesy, Physical 331V. Chakravarthi
Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal UltraBroad Band 336
Carla Braitenberg
Geodynamics 340Alessandro M. Forte
Geoelectromagnetism 341Antal Ádám and László Szarka
Geoid 353Paramesh Banerjee
Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles 356Michael G. Sideris
vi CONTENTS
Geoid Undulation, Interpretation 362Petr Vaníček
Geoid, Computational Method 366Michael G. Sideris
Geomagnetic Excursions 371Martha Schwartz
Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern 373Susan Macmillan
Geomagnetic Field, IGRF 379Aude Chambodut
Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques 381Mioara Mandea and Anca Isac
Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals 386Carlo Laj
Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation 394Monika Korte
Geomagnetic Field, Theory 394Friedrich H. Busse
Geophysical Well Logging 401Miroslav Kobr
Geothermal Heat Pumps 411Ladislaus Rybach
Geothermal Record of Climate Change 415Michael G. Davis, David S. Chapman andRobert N. Harris
GPS, Data Acquisition and Analysis 420Carine Bruyninx, Wim Aerts and Juliette Legrand
GPS, Tectonic Geodesy 431Jeffrey T. Freymueller
Gravimeters 449Andrew Hugill
Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation 456Mikhail K. Kaban
Gravity Data, Advanced Processing 461Christopher J. Swain and Jonathan F. Kirby
Gravity Data, Regional – Residual Separation 466Kumarendra Mallick, Anthwar Vasanthi andKrishna Kant Sharma
Gravity Field of the Earth 471Christopher Jekeli
Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from SpaceTechniques 484
Anny Cazenave, G. Ramillien andRichard Biancale
Gravity Field, Time Variations from SurfaceMeasurements 489
Virendra M. Tiwari and Jacques Hinderer
Gravity Measurements, Absolute 494Mark A. Zumberge
Gravity Method, Airborne 497Uwe Meyer
Gravity Method, Principles 500Hans-Jürgen Götze
Gravity Method, Satellite 504Georges Balmino
Gravity Method, Surface 513Dinesh Chandra Mishra and Virendra M. Tiwari
Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation 518Jean-Pierre Barriot and Lydie Sichoix
Gravity, Data to Anomalies 524Ron Hackney
Gravity, Global Models 533Nikolaos K. Pavlis
Gravity, Gradiometry 547Christopher Jekeli
Great Earthquakes 561Roger M. W. Musson
Heat Flow Measurements, Continental 569John H. Sass and Graeme Beardsmore
Heat Flow, Continental 573Paul Morgan
Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations 582Earl E. Davis and Andrew T. Fisher
Impact Craters on Earth 593Richard A. F. Grieve and Gordon R. Osinski
Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity 599Meng H. Loke, Jonathan E. Chambers andOliver Kuras
Instrumentation, EM 604Steven Constable
CONTENTS vii
International Geophysical Year 608Ralph W. Baird
International Gravity Formula 611Hans-Jürgen Götze
International Polar Year 2007–2008 612David J. Carlson
International Year of Planet Earth 614Eduardo F. J. de Mulder and Wolfgang Eder
Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks 618William A. Sandham and David J. Hamilton
Inverse Theory, Global Optimization 625Mrinal K. Sen and Paul L. Stoffa
Inverse Theory, Linear 632Pravin K. Gupta
Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method 639Malcolm Sambridge and Kerry Gallagher
Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition 645Ajay Manglik
Isostasy 647Anthony B. Watts
Isostasy, Thermal 662David S. Chapman and Derrick Hasterok
Legal Continental Shelf 669Ray Wood, Stuart A. Henrys, Vaughan Stagpoole,Bryan Davy and Ian Wright
Lithosphere, Continental 675David E. James
Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure 681Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal
Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties 693Evgueni Burov
Lithosphere, Oceanic 701James McClain
Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure 709Earl E. Davis and David S. Chapman
Magnetic Anisotropy 717Leonardo Sagnotti
Magnetic Anomalies, Interpretation 729Erwan Thébault
Magnetic Data Enhancements and DepthEstimation 736
Clive Foss
Magnetic Domains 746Susan L. Halgedahl
Magnetic Gradiometry 758Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg
Magnetic Methods, Airborne 761Mike Dentith
Magnetic Methods, Principles 767Kusumita Arora
Magnetic Methods, Satellite 771Dhananjay Ravat
Magnetic Methods, Surface 774Nandini Nagarajan
Magnetic Modeling, Theory and Computation 781Mioara Mandea, Carmen Gaina and Vincent Lesur
Magnetic Storms and Electromagnetic Pulsations 792Gurbax S. Lakhina and Bruce T. Tsurutani
Magnetic, Global Anomaly Map 796Kumar Hemant Singh
Magnetometers 810Ivan Hrvoic
Magnetotelluric Data Processing 816Gary Egbert
Magnetotelluric Interpretation 822John F. Hermance
Magnetovariation Studies 830Nandini Nagarajan
Mantle Convection 832David Bercovici
Mantle D00 Layer 851Thorne Lay
Mantle Plumes 857Cinzia G. Farnetani and Albrecht W. Hofmann
Mantle Viscosity 869W. R. Peltier
Numerical Methods, Boundary Element 877Michele Cooke
viii CONTENTS
Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition 879Alfio Quarteroni and Luca Formaggia
Numerical Methods, Finite Difference 883Johan O. A. Robertsson and Joakim O. Blanch
Numerical Methods, Finite Element 892J. N. Reddy
Numerical Methods, Multigrid 895Wim A. Mulder
Ocean Bottom Seismics 901Ingo A. Pecher, Jörg Bialas and Ernst R. Flueh
Ocean, Spreading Centre 908K. S. Krishna
Oceanic Intraplate Deformation: The CentralIndian Ocean Basin 913
D. Gopala Rao and D. A. Bhaskara Rao
Paleomagnetic Field Intensity 919Andrew Biggin, Neil Suttie and John Shaw
Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy 925Donald R. Prothero
Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques andInstrumentation 933
Tallavajhala Radhakrishna and J. D. A. Piper
Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander 945Jean Besse, Vincent Courtillot and Marianne Greff
Paleomagnetism, Principles 955William Lowrie
Paleoseismology 964Shinji Toda
Plate Driving Forces 977Alessandro M. Forte
Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving andResisting Forces 983
Giampiero Iaffaldano and Hans-Peter Bunge
Plate Tectonics, Precambrian 991Y. J. Bhaskar Rao and E. V. S. S. K. Babu
Plates and Paleoreconstructions 998Alan G. Smith
Poroelasticity 1003Ran Bachrach
Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals 1006Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma and UrsulaIturrarán-Viveros
Radioactivity in Earth’s Core 1013V. Rama Murthy
Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks 1018Christoph Clauser
Remanent Magnetism 1024Laurie Brown and Suzanne McEnroe
Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for TectonicStudies 1030
Semere Solomon and Woldai Ghebreab
Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics 1035Hojjatollah Ranjbar
SAR Interferometry 1041Masato Furuya
Satellite Laser Ranging 1049David Coulot, Florent Deleflie,Pascal Bonnefond, Pierre Exertier, Olivier Laurainand Bertrand de Saint-Jean
Seafloor Spreading 1055Richard N. Hey
Sedimentary Basins 1059Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth
Seismic Anisotropy 1070Thorsten W. Becker
Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing 1081Kabir Roy Chowdhury
Seismic Diffraction 1097Enru Liu
Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone 1102Lev P. Vinnik
Seismic Hazard 1107Andrzej Kijko
Seismic Imaging, Overview 1121Gerard T. Schuster
Seismic Instrumentation 1134Duncan Carr Agnew
Seismic Microzonation 1140Fumio Yamazaki and Yoshihisa Maruyama
CONTENTS ix
Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions 1144Paul G. Richards and Wu Zhongliang
Seismic Noise 1157Dhananjay Kumar and Imtiaz Ahmed
Seismic Phase Names: IASPEI Standard 1162Dmitry A. Storchak, Johannes Schweitzer andPeter Bormann
Seismic Properties of Rocks 1173Nikolas I. Christensen
Seismic Quiescence and Activation 1178Gennady Sobolev
Seismic Seiches 1184Art McGarr
Seismic Signals in Well Observations:Pre, Co, Post 1185
R. K. Chadha
Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges 1190Donald W. Forsyth
Seismic Tomography 1195Guust Nolet
Seismic Velocity-Density Relationships 1198Kalachand Sain
Seismic Velocity-Temperature Relationships 1199Kalachand Sain
Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media:Numerical Modeling Approaches 1200
Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros andFrancisco J. Sánchez-Sesma
Seismic Waves, Scattering 1210Ludovic Margerin
Seismic Zonation 1224Yanxiang Yu, Mengtan Gao and Guangyin Xu
Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation 1230Michel Campillo, Philippe Roux andNikolai M. Shapiro
Seismic, Migration 1236Samuel H. Gray
Seismic, Ray Theory 1244Vlastislav Červený and Ivan Pšenčík
Seismic, Receiver Function Technique 1258Rainer Kind and Xiaohui Yuan
Seismic, Reflectivity Method 1269Mrinal K. Sen
Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation 1279Vernon F. Cormier
Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography 1290Yanghua Wang
Seismicity, Intraplate 1301Paul Bodin
Seismicity, Subduction Zone 1305Akira Hasegawa
Seismogram Interpretation 1315Ota Kulhanek and Leif Persson
Seismological Networks 1324Eric Robert Engdahl and István Bondár
Seismology, Global Earthquake Model 1334Peter Suhadolc
Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT 1340Wu Zhongliang and Paul G. Richards
Seismology, Rotational 1344William H. K. Lee
Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics andEarthquake Stress-Forecasting 1355
Stuart Crampin
Single and Multichannel Seismics 1366Tamás Tóth
Slow Earthquake 1374Teruyuki Kato
Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied toPotential Fields 1382
Nikolaos K. Pavlis
Statistical Seismology 1392David A. Rhoades
Subduction Zones 1395Geoffrey A. Abers
Surface Waves 1406Barbara Romanowicz
T Waves 1421Emile A. Okal
x CONTENTS
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat 1423
Christoph Clauser
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, II: Thermal Conductivityand Diffusivity 1431
Christoph Clauser
Time Reversal in Seismology 1449Carène Larmat and Clarence S. Clay
Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-SourceSeismic Data 1453
Colin A. Zelt
Tsunami 1473Steven N. Ward
Tsunami: Bay of Bengal 1493Vineet Gahalaut
Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers 1498Shailesh R. Nayak and Srinivasa Kumar Tummala
Vertical Seismic Profiling 1507James W. Rector, III and Maria-Daphne Mangriotis
Very Long Baseline Interferometry 1509Helmut Wiesemeyer and Axel Nothnagel
Wavelet Analysis 1517Mikhail Kulesh
Author Index 1525
Subject Index 1527
CONTENTS xi