• THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM includes the organs of the body that secrete hormones directly into body fluids such as blood.– Regulates chemical reaction in cells and therefore

control functions of the organs, tissues, and other cells

• ENDOCRINE GLANDS – Ductless– Release hormones

• Directly into target tissues• Into bloodstream to be carried to target tissues

• Hormones – chemicals secreted by a cell that affect the functions of other cells

Glands

Consists of:

glands secrete

hormones

intobloodstream

to

target tissues

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Functions of the Endocrine System

• Maintains homeostasis

• Secretes substances that aid the nervous system and other systems of the body

• Controls the processes involved in movement and physiological equilibrium

• Important regulator of growth and development

5

Homeostasis exists when there is a balance of substances. Endocrine conditions are due to either hypo (too little) or hyper (too much)

secretions of substances (hormones).

hyper

hypo

The major glands of the endocrine system

1.  Hypothalamus

2. Pituitary

3. Thyroid

4. Thymus

5. Adrenals

6. Pineal body

7. Reproductive Organs or Gonads

8. Pancreas

HYPOTHALAMUS

Hypothalamus

•located in the lower central part of the brain

•a tiny cluster of brain cells, just above the pituitary gland, which transmits messages from the body to the brain. It effectively uses the pituitary gland to link the nervous system to the endocrine system.

The hypothalamus also secretes a hormone called somatostatin, which causes the pituitary gland to stop

the release of growth hormone.

Functions of the Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system.

The hypothalamus contains the thirst center, the hunger center and the body's thermostat.

The hypothalamus controls the hypophysis (pituitary gland).

The hypothalamus is the site of emotions and the effect emotions can have on the body.

Pituitary Gland

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

• is a small pea-sized lump of tissue located at the base of the brain beneath the hypothalamus.

- also called “The Master Gland”, because it produces hormones that control many functions of other endocrine glands.

• The pituitary gland is actually made of 2 completely separate structures: the posterior

and anterior pituitary glands.

PosteriorPituitarySecretes:

Vasopressin

Oxytoxin

Control the amount of water and salt

concentration in the body and regulate blood

pressure.

Females: causes contraction of the

uterus and ejection of breast milk

Males: stimulates contraction of the prostate and vas deferens during sexual arousal

Anterior PituitarySecretes

Somatotropin Prolactin

Hormone that stimulates milk production in

females.

Stimulates increase in size of muscles

and bones.Also called Growth

hormone.

PINEAL GLAND

Pineal Body

• The pineal body, or pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain.• In some of the lower vertebrates this gland grows into an eyelike structure; in others, although it isn't a fully developed eye, it is still able to act as a light receptor. Because of this, the pineal gland is also known as the 'third eye'.

It secretes a hormone called melatonin, which may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle of the body or the circadian rhythm.

Pineal Body

The pineal gland is involved in several functions of the body including:• Secretion of the Hormone Melatonin• Regulation of Endocrine Functions• Conversion of Nervous System Signals to

Endocrine Signals• Causes Feeling of Sleepiness• Influences Sexual Development

THYROID

Thyroid

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck behind the Adam’s apple and wrapped around the lateral sides of the trachea. The gland is divided into 2 lobes (right and left) and is connected in the middle by a thin bridge of thyroid tissue, known as the isthmus.

FUNCTION OF THE THYROID GLAND

It produces thyroid hormones that regulate the body's metabolism. It also plays a role in bone growth and development of the brain and nervous system in children. Thyroid hormones also help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, muscle tone, and reproductive functions

It specifically secretes thyroxin a hormone that metabolizes fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.

PARATHYROID

PARATHYROID

The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid

gland, one pair on each side.

Produces parathormone- regulates the balance of minerals in blood stream, especially calcium.

THYMUS GLAND

THYMUS GLAND– A two lobed structure that is positioned in the

upper chest cavity. The thymus is situated above the pericardium of the heart, in front of the aorta, between the lungs, below the thyroid, and behind the breastbone.

– At puberty, the thymus reaches the height of its use, becoming its largest. After this age, the size of the thymus declines or gradually disappears in old age.

– It is called the gland of childhood because it inhibits sexual development during childhood.

FUNCTIONS

• The thymus gland acts to regulate the immune system through the development of immune cells called T-cells, responsible for cell mediated immunity.

• In addition to immune function, the thymus also produces hormones that promote growth and maturation.

ADRENAL GLANDS

ADRENAL GLANDS

- It is also called the suprarenal gland.

-triangular-shaped glands located on top of each kidney.; therefore each person has two suprarenal glands or adrenal glands.

- Despite their small size, the adrenal glands play an important role in the body, producing numerous hormones that impact our development and growth, affect our ability to deal with stress, and help to regulate kidney function.

- it is divided into two parts: ADRENAL CORTEX and MEDULLA

ADRENAL GLANDS

I. ADRENAL CORTEX• the outer portion of the adrenal glands, produces several

hormones that affect blood pressure and blood sugar levels, growth, as well as some sexual characteristics.

• Death would result if the adrenal cortex were to stop functioning as it controls metabolic processes that are essential to life.

Main hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex:• Aldosterone

– Stimulates body to retain sodium and water– Important in maintaining Blood Pressure

• Cortisone– Released when stressed– Decreases protein synthesis, resulting in slowed tissue

repair– Decreases inflammation

• II. MEDULLA

– inner part of the adrenal glands, produces hormones which regulate the "fight or flight" response in the body, the body's reaction to stressful events.

– hormones produced by the medulla:• EPINEPHRINE – raises blood sugar level, causes nervousness

and perspiration during acute emergencies.– It also increases muscular power and resistance to fatigue.

• NOREPINEPHRINE - prepares an individual in dealing with stress and emergencies

– it is also referred to as a stress hormone

• There are no significant effects if this portion of the suprarenal gland is not working properly.

PANCREATIC GLAND

PANCREAS• The pancreas is a 6- to

10-inch (18 to 25 cm) long organ located behind the stomach at the level of the umbilicus (navel).

• It is spongy and shaped somewhat like a fish that is extended horizontally across the abdomen.

PANCREAS

• The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland as it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue.

• The endocrine cells of the pancreas make up just about 1% of the total mass of the pancreas and are found in small groups throughout the pancreas called Islets of Langerhans.

Within these Islets of Langerhans types of cells which are the following:

1. THE ALPHA CELLS

- produce the hormone glucagon, which is responsible for raising blood glucose levels.

Glucagon - triggers muscle and liver cells to break down the polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the bloodstream.

2. THE BETA CELLS

- produce the hormone insulin, which is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after a meal.

Insulin - triggers the absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen molecules for storage.

3. DELTA CELLS

- produce somatostatin, which inhibits both glucagon and insulin

4. GAMMA / F CELLS

- which secrete pancreatic polypeptide.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREAS:

• Digestive Function: – The enzymes secreted by the exocrine gland in the

pancreas help break down carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and acids in the duodenum or the first portion of the small intestine.

– The exocrine tissue also secretes a bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the duodenum.

• Endocrine/Hormonal Function:– Two of the main pancreatic hormones that are

created and released directly into the bloodstream are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon, which acts to raise blood sugar.

– Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and kidneys.

PancreasInsulin is released by the beta cells which stimulate the glucose to be sent to the body’s cells and convert unused glucose to glycogen

Low

Blood sugar

Glucagon is released by the alpha cells which stimulate stored glycogen to be transformed into glucose again.Blood sugar

Elevated

Pancreas

Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration and increases protein synthesis.

Glucagon does just the opposite. It increases blood glucose and decreases protein synthesis.

Blood glucose concentrations

Protein synthesis

Blood glucose concentrations

Protein synthesis

GONADS OR REPRODUCTIVE

GLANDS

GONADS OR REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS

• The primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they

also secrete hormones and are considered to be endocrine glands.

TESTES• Male sex hormones, as a group, are called

androgens. The principal androgen is testosterone, which is secreted by the testes. A small amount is also produced by the adrenal cortex.

• Production of testosterone begins during fetal development, continues for a short time after birth, nearly ceases during childhood, and then resumes at puberty.

TESTES

• This steroid hormone is responsible for:– The growth and development of the male reproductive

structures– Increased skeletal and muscular growth– Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes– Growth and distribution of body hair– Increased male sexual drive

• Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that involves releasing hormones from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary.

OVARIES• Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in the ovaries, the estrogens and

progesterone. These steroid hormones contribute to the development and function of

the female reproductive organs and sex characteristics

OVARIES

• At the onset of puberty, estrogens promotes:– The development of the breasts– Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast– Maturation of reproductive organs, such as the uterus and

vagina– Increases pubic hair and regulates menstrual cycle and

lactation.

• Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. Together, progesterone and estrogens are responsible for the changes that occur in the uterus during the female menstrual cycle.

DISEASES AND DISORDERS ASSOCIATED TO THE

ENDOCRINE SYSYTEM

AcromegalyAcromegaly is a hormonal

disorder that develops when your pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone during adulthood. When this happens, your bones increase in size, including those of your hands, feet and face. Acromegaly usually affects middle-aged adults.

AcromegalyAcromegaly may produce the following signs and symptoms,

which can vary from one person to another:• Enlarged hands and feet• Coarsened, enlarged facial features• Coarse, oily, thickened skin• Excessive sweating and body odor• Small outgrowths of skin tissue (skin tags)• Fatigue and muscle weakness• A deepened, husky voice due to enlarged vocal cords and

sinuses• Severe snoring due to obstruction of the upper airway

CONT…• Impaired vision• Headaches• Enlarged tongue• Pain and limited joint mobility• Menstrual cycle irregularities in women• Erectile dysfunction in men• Enlarged liver, heart, kidneys, spleen and other

organs• Increased chest size (barrel chest)

Acromegaly

TREATMENT• Treatment for acromegaly: Specific treatment for

acromegaly will be determined by your physician based on:

• your age, overall health, and medical history• extent of the disease• your tolerance for specific medications,

procedures, or therapies• expectations for the course of the disease• your opinion or preference

Treatment of acromegaly depends on the cause of the disease. More than 95 percent of acromegaly cases are caused by benign tumors on the pituitary gland. Because the tumor is compressing the pituitary gland, the hormone production can be altered. Some other acromegaly cases are caused by tumors of the pancreas, lungs, or adrenal glands.

Treatment may include removal of the tumor, radiation therapy, and injection of growth hormone blocking drugs.

Gigantism

Gigantism is a rare condition that causes abnormal growth in children. It occurs when a child’s body produces too much growth hormone. Early diagnosis is important. Prompt treatment can stop or slow the changes that may cause a child to grow larger than normal. However, the condition can be hard for parents to detect, since symptoms of gigantism might first be seen as normal childhood growth spurts.

GigantismRecognizing the Signs of Gigantism

Common symptoms include very large hands and feet, a thickening of toes and fingers, a prominent jaw and forehead, and coarse facial features. Children with gigantism may also have flat noses and large heads, lips, or tongues. The symptoms your child experiences may depend on the size of the pituitary gland tumor. As the tumor grows, it may press on nerves in the brain. Many people experience headaches, vision problems, or nausea from tumors. Other symptoms of gigantism may include:– excessive sweating– weakness– delayed puberty in both boys and girls– irregular menstrual periods in girls– deafness

CAUSES OF GIGANTISM

A pituitary gland tumor is almost always the cause of gigantism. The pea-sized pituitary gland—located at the base of your brain—makes hormones that control many functions in your body. Some tasks managed by the gland include temperature control, sexual development, growth metabolism, and urine production. When a tumor grows on the pituitary gland, the gland makes more growth hormone than the body needs. Other less common causes of gigantism may include:

• McCune-Albright syndrome: a disease that causes abnormal growth in bone tissue, patches of light-brown skin, and gland abnormalities

• Carney complex: an inherited condition that causes non-cancerous tumors on the connective tissue, cancerous or non-cancerous endocrine tumors, and spots of darker skin

• multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1: an inherited disorder that causes tumors in the pituitary gland, pancreas, or parathyroid glands

• neurofibromatosis: an inherited disorder that causes tumors in the nervous system

TREATMENTIn pituitary tumors with well-defined borders, surgery is the treatment of choice and can cure many cases.

For situations in which surgery cannot completely remove the tumor, medication is the treatment of choice. The most effective medications are somatostatin analogs (such as octreotide or long-acting lanreotide), which reduce growth hormone release.

Dopamine agonists have also been used to reduce growth hormone release, but these are generally less effective. Pegvisomant, a medication that blocks the effect of growth hormone, may be used.

Radiation therapy has also been used to bring growth hormone levels to normal. However, it can take 5 - 10 years for the full effects to be seen and this almost always leads to low levels of other pituitary hormones.

Dwarfism

Is a short stature that results from a genetic or medical condition. Dwarfism is generally defined as an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches or less (147 centimeters). The average adult height among people with dwarfism is 4 feet (122 cm). It occur when the Pituitary gland produces less growth hormones.

Symptoms

More than 200 different medical conditions cause dwarfism. Therefore, dwarfism symptoms — other than short stature — vary considerably across the spectrum of disorders. In general, the disorders are divided into two broad categories:

Disproportionate dwarfism. If body size is disproportionate, some parts of the body are small, and others are of average size or above-average size. Disorders causing disproportionate dwarfism inhibit the development of bones.

Proportionate dwarfism. A body is proportionately small if all parts of the body are small to the same degree and appear to be proportioned like a body of average stature.

Causes

Most dwarfism-related conditions are genetic disorders, but the causes of some disorders are unknown. Most occurrences of dwarfism result from a random genetic mutation in either the father's sperm or the mother's egg rather than being in either parent's complete genetic makeup.

Dwarfism Treatments Insertion of a shunt to drain excess fluid and relieve pressure on the brain.A tracheotomy to improve breathing through small airways.Corrective surgeries for deformities such as cleft palate, club foot, or bowed legs.Surgery to remove tonsils or adenoids to improve breathing problems related to large tonsils, small facial structures, and/or a small chest.Surgery to widen the spinal canal (the opening through which the spinal cord passes) to relieve spinal cord compression.

GOITER

• Goiter– Enlargement or hyperplasia

of thyroid gland

• Simple goiter– Goiter not caused by

infection, tumor, other hypo- or hyperthyroid condition

– More common in females– Sporadic and endemic types

Symptoms

The main symptom is a swollen thyroid gland. The size may range from a single small nodule to a large neck lump.

Some people with a simple goiter may have symptoms of an underactive thyroid gland.

Rarely, the swollen thyroid can put pressure on the windpipe and food pipe (esophagus), which can lead to:

Breathing difficulties (may rarely occur with very large goiters)• Cough• Hoarseness• Swallowing difficulties

Causes

• A simple goiter can occur for no known reason, or when the thyroid gland is not able to produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body's needs. The thyroid gland makes up for this by becoming larger.

• Toxic nodular goiter involves an enlarged thyroid gland that contains a small, rounded growth or growths called nodules. These nodules produce too much thyroid hormone.

• Iodine is needed to produce thyroid hormone.• Simple goiters may occur in people who live in areas with

iodine-poor soil. People in these areas might not get enough iodine in their diet.

Treatment

A goiter only needs to be treated if it is causing symptoms.

• Treatments for an enlarged thyroid include:• Thyroid hormone replacement pills, if the goiter is due to an

underactive thyroid• Small doses of Lugol's iodine or potassium iodine solution if the

goiter is due to a lack of iodine• Radioactive iodine to shrink the gland, especially if the thyroid is

producing too much thyroid hormone• Surgery (thyroidectomy) to remove all or part of the gland

 

Addison's disease

is an endocrine or hormonal disorder that occurs in all age groups and afflicts men and women equally. The disease is characterized by weight loss, muscle weakness, fatigue, low blood pressure, and sometimes darkening of the skin in both exposed and nonexposed parts of the body.

What causes Addison's disease?

Failure to produce adequate levels of cortisol can occur for different reasons. The problem may be due to a disorder of the adrenal glands themselves (primary adrenal insufficiency) or to inadequate secretion of ACTH by the pituitary gland (secondary adrenal insufficiency).

ADRENAL GLANDS DISORDERS

• 1. ADRENAL CANCER– is very rare, affecting only about

one out of one million people.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS:

* Fever, abdominal pain, a mass that you can feel, and weight loss.

* Increased hormone levels can cause an increased heart rate, high blood pressure and blood sugar, bruising, increased thirst and need to urinate.

MAINTAINING ADRENAL GLAND HEALTH

• You can help to ease the burden on your adrenal glands by learning how to better deal with stress. Take a yoga class or learn some meditation techniques to help calm your mind and take you out of the "fight or flight" response. Practice slow, deep breathing techniques to slow your heart rate and ease any tension or anxiety in your body.

PANCREATITISPancreatitis is a disease characterized by acute or chronic inflammation of the pancreas. Inflammation can occur if the main duct from the pancreas is blocked by a gallstone or tumor. This blockage results in pancreatic juices accumulating in the organ, which may damage the pancreas or lead to the pancreas actually digesting itself. Pancreatitis is also known to be a complication associated with mumps, alcohol use, steroids, trauma, and drugs. 

• Symptoms: – Intense stomach pain, abdominal tenderness and swelling,

nausea and vomiting, fever, and muscle aches.

• TREATMENT:– Pancreatitis is usually first treated with painkillers. Patients

will stop ingesting solid food, instead obtaining fluid and nourishment by intravenous means. Sometime - especially when pancreatitis causes secondary infections - surgery is required. 

PANCREATITIS

PANCREATIC CANCEROften, it is difficult for physicians to

spot the exact cause of pancreatic cancer, but it is often linked to smoking

or heavy drinking. Other risk factors include diabetes, chronic pancreatitis,

liver problems, and stomach infections. Pancreatic cancer is also more common

in men than women. 

Symptoms of pancreatic cancer may not appear until the cancer is in advanced stages - often too late for successful

treatment.

The condition often presents:• Pain in the upper abdomen from the tumor pushing against nerves• Jaundice - a painless yellowing of the skin and eyes and darkening of the

urine, created when the cancer interferes with the bile duct and the liver.• Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting• Significant weight loss and weakness• Alcoholic stool (pale or grey stool) and steatorrhea (excess fat in stool)

• TREATMENT:

Treating pancreatic cancer is difficult, and the prognosis tends to be poor. Patients usually receive surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, or a combination of treatments. Often, the treatment is palliative, focusing on reducing pain.

PANCREATIC CANCER

Common Diseases and Disorders

Disease/Disorder Description

ACROMEGALY Too much growth hormone produced in adults; enlargement of bones and thickened skin

ADDISON’S DISEASE

Adrenal gland fails to produce enough corticosteroids

CRETINISM Extreme form of hypothyroidism present prior to or soon after birth

CUSHING’S DISEASE

Hypercortisolism; over-production of cortisol

DIABETES INSIPIDUS

Kidneys fail to reabsorb water, resulting in excessive urination; hyposecretion of ADH

Disease/Disorder Description

Diabetes mellitus

Type I

Type II

Gestational

Chronic disease characterized by elevated blood glucose levelsInsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; usually develops in childhoodNoninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; primarily in adults but increased incidence in teens Occurs during pregnancy; usually temporary

Dwarfism Too little growth hormone (somatotropin) produced during childhood

Disease/Disorder Description

Gigantism Too much growth hormone produced during childhood

Goiter Enlargement of thyroid gland, causing swelling in neck; deficiency of iodine in diet

Grave’s disease Hyperthyroidism; antibodies attach to thyroid gland, causing it to produce too much thyroid hormone

Myxedema Thyroid gland produces inadequate amounts of thyroid hormone; common in females over 50

PRESENTATION CONCLUDED!

PREPARED BY:REYNANTE APATAN DAP-OGRAYMART JOE QUILLA CALUBIA