energy and phases. all matter can undergo changes in its state. these changes have to do with the...
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Energy and phases
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All matter can undergo changes in its state.
These changes have to do with the amount of energy in the particles of matter.
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Kinetic theory of matter-
1.All matter is made of particles
2.These particles are in constant motion.
More energy causes the particles to move faster.
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At 100°C, water becomes water vapor, a gas. Molecules can move randomly over large distances.
Below 0°C, water solidifies to become ice. In the solid state, water molecules are held together in a rigid structure.
Between 0°C and 100 °C, water is a liquid. In the liquid state, water molecules are close together, but can move about freely.
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Matter has five states or phases
Solid : A definite shape and volume
Lower energy
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Liquid: A definite volume but it takes the shape of its container
Higher energy Gas : No definite
shape or volume Yet even higher
energy
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Plasma : No definite shape or volume and whose particles have broken apart
Bose-Einstein Condensate: Gases near absolute zero forming a super fluid
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Plasma is by far the most common form of matter. Plasma in the stars and in the tenuous space between them makes up over 99% of the visible universe and perhaps most of that which is not visible.
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Liquids: Are not very compressible
Useful in hydraulics
Viscosity: Liquids resistance to flow
Surface tension: holds the liquid together
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Gases: Fill their container and can change pressure
http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/transport/project.swf
Diffusion: Spreading of particles through an area until they are uniformly distributed
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Changes of state: When matter changes form, it is a physical change and has to do with the energy of the material
Ex. Boiling, melting, freezing, condensing –all require an energy change
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Heat of fusion: Energy required to go from solid state to liquid state (For water 334kJ/kg)
Melting point – different for substances
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helium−269 hydrogen−253 Iron-2887 Graphite (carbon)3900 Diamond
(carbon)4827 Tungsten-5660 Gold-3080
Heat of Vaporization: Energy required to go from liquid to gas. (For water 2260kJ/kg)
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Condensation: A gas changes to a liquid when cooled to or below its boiling point
Vaporization is at boiling point or below
Evaporation: A liquid changes to a gas without reaching its boiling point
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Sublimation: Changing from a solid to a gas without existing as a liquid
Deposition : changing from a gas to a solid without being a liquid
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Latent heat: heat absorbed without a change in temperature (stored until a phase change)
Is water a solid or liquid at 0C? Why?
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Honor only
Intermolecular Forces
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A phase is a homogeneous part of the system in contact with other parts of the system but separated from them by a well-defined boundary. 2 Phases
Solid phase - ice
Liquid phase - water
11.1
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11.2
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule.
Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)
Generally, intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.
“Measure” of intermolecular force
boiling point
melting point
Hvap
Hfus
Hsub
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Intermolecular forces are feeble; but without them, life as we know it would be impossible. Water would not condense from vapor into solid or liquid forms if its molecules didn't attract each other. Intermolecular forces are responsible for many properties of molecular compounds, including crystal structures (e. g. the shapes of snowflakes), melting points, boiling points, heats of fusion and vaporization, surface tension, and densities. Intermolecular forces pin gigantic molecules like enzymes, proteins, and DNA into the shapes required for biological activity.
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Image:Myoglobin.png
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Intermolecular Forces
1. London Forces (Dispersion Forces)
2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
3. Ion-Dipole Interactions (Salt dissolving in solution)
4. Hydrogen Bonding
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Dispersion ForcesOccur between every compound and arise from the net attractive forcesamount molecules which is produced from induced charge imbalances
The magnitude of the Dispersion Forces is dependent upon how easily itis to distort the electron cloud. The larger the molecule the greater it’s Dispersion Forces are.
Figure 10-8 Olmsted Williams
Figure 10-9 Olmsted Williams
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Olmsted Williams Fig 10-10 Pg 437
The boiling point of alkanes increase with the length of the carbon chain. Long-chain alkanes have larger dispersion forces because of the increased polarizability of their larger electron cloud.
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How molecular shape affects the strength of the dispersion forces
The shapes of the molecules also matter. Long thin molecules can develop bigger temporary dipoles due to electron movement than short fat ones containing the same numbers of electrons.Long thin molecules can also lie closer together - these attractions are at their most effective if the molecules are really close.For example, the hydrocarbon molecules butane and 2-methylpropane both have a molecular formula C4H10, but the atoms are arranged differently. In
butane the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain, but 2-methylpropane is a shorter chain with a branch.
Butane has a higher boiling point because the dispersion forces are greater. The molecules are longer (and so set up bigger temporary dipoles) and can lie closer together than the shorter, fatter 2-methylpropane molecules.
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/vdw.html
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Polarizability
11.2
the ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or molecule can be distorted.
Polarizability increases with:
• greater number of electrons
• more diffuse electron cloud
Dispersion forces usually increase with molar mass.
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Is the Molecule Polar?
We have already talked about diatomic molecules. The moreElectronegative atom will pull the electron density of the bond Closer to itself giving it a partial negative charge leaving the otherAtom with a partially positive charge. Thus giving the molecule A dipole moment.
But what about molecules made up of more than two molecules?
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Dipole-Dipole Forces
Attractive forces between polar molecules
Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid
11.2
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Figure 10-11
Dipole Forces occur between molecules containing a dipole moment. The positive end of the dipole moment on one mole is attracted to theNegative end of the dipole moment on a nearby molecule.
Consider 2-methyl propane(left) and acetone (right) Both compounds are aboutEqual in size and shape therbyHaving similar dispersion forces,But Acetone contains anOxygen (red) and causes theMolecule to have a dipole Moment allowing it to haveDipole forces and thus a Higher boiling point
Olmsted Williams
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Ion-Dipole Forces
Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule
11.2
Ion-Dipole Interaction
The larger the charge the stronger the force
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Fig 10-34
A molecular picture showing the ion-dipole Interaction that helps a solid ionic crystal dissolve in water. The arrows indicate ion-dipole interactions.
Olmsted Williams
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SO
O
What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between each of the following molecules?
HBrHBr is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are also dispersion forces between HBr molecules.
CH4
CH4 is nonpolar: dispersion forces.
SO2
SO2 is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are also dispersion forces between SO2 molecules.
11.2
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Hydrogen Bond
11.2
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between they hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond and an electronegative O, N, or F atom.
A H…B A H…Aor
A & B are N, O, or F
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Intermolecular Forces
1. London Forces (Dispersion Forces)
2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
3. Ion-Dipole Interactions (Salt dissolving in solution)
4. Hydrogen Bonding
These forces affect how molecules will interact with each other andAs a general rule as the strength of the force increases the boiling Point of the compound increases
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Surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.
Strong intermolecul
ar forces
High surface tension
11.3
Liquids and Surface Tension
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Properties of Liquids
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules
11.3
Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules
Adhesion
Cohesion
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Evapora
tion
GreatestOrder
LeastOrder
11.8C
on
den
sati
on
T2 > T1
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The equilibrium vapor pressure is the vapor pressure measured when a dynamic equilibrium exists between condensation and evaporation
H2O (l) H2O (g)
Rate ofcondensation
Rate ofevaporation=
Dynamic Equilibrium
11.8
A substance with a high Vapor pressure is consideredTo be volitile therefore, the lowerThe boiling point the higher the Vapor pressure and the weakerThe intermolecular forces
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The boiling point is the temperature at which the (equilibrium) vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boils when the external pressure is 1 atm.
11.8
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Melt
ing
11.8Fr
eezi
ng
H2O (s) H2O (l)
The melting point of a solid or the freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium
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11.8
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Sub
limati
on
11.8
Deposi
tion
H2O (s) H2O (g)
Molar heat of sublimation (Hsub) is the energy required to sublime 1 mole of a solid.
Hsub = Hfus + Hvap
( Hess’s Law)
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A phase diagram summarizes the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.
Phase Diagram of Water
11.9
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11.9