Energy, Climate and the Environment Series

Series Editor: David Elliott, Emeritus Professor of Technology Policy,Open University, UK

Titles include:

Manuela Achilles and Dana Elzey (editors)ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN TRANSATLANTIC PERSPECTIVEA Multidisciplinary Approach

Luca Anceschi and Jonathan Symons (editors)ENERGY SECURITY IN THE ERA OF CLIMATE CHANGEThe Asia-Pacific Experience

Philip Andrews-SpeedTHE GOVERNANCE OF ENERGY IN CHINAImplications for Future Sustainability

Ian Bailey and Hugh Compston (editors)FEELING THE HEATThe Politics of Climate Policy in Rapidly Industrializing Countries

Gawdat BahgatALTERNATIVE ENERGY IN THE MIDDLE EAST

Mehmet Efe BiresseliogluEUROPEAN ENERGY SECURITYTurkey’s Future Role and Impact

Beth Edmondson and Stuart LevyCLIMATE CHANGE AND ORDERThe End of Prosperity and Democracy

David Elliott (editor)NUCLEAR OR NOT?Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Future?

David Elliott (editor)SUSTAINABLE ENERGYOpportunities and Limitations

Huong Ha and Tek Nath Dhakal (editors)GOVERNANCE APPROACHES TO MITIGATION OF AND ADAPTATION TOCLIMATE CHANGE IN ASIA

Horace Herring (editor)LIVING IN A LOW-CARBON SOCIETY IN 2050

Matti Kojo and Tapio Litmanen (editors)THE RENEWAL OF NUCLEAR POWER IN FINLAND

Antonio Marquina (editor)GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGEProspects and Policies in Asia and Europe

Catherine Mitchell, Jim Watson and Jessica Whiting (editors)NEW CHALLENGES IN ENERGY SECURITYThe UK in a Multipolar World

Catherine MitchellTHE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Espen Moe and Paul Midford (editors)THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENERGYSECURITYCommon Challenges and National Responses in Japan, China andNorthern Europe

Marlyne SahakianKEEPING COOL IN SOUTHEAST ASIAEnergy Consumption and Urban Air-Conditioning

Ivan Scrase and Gordon MacKerron (editors)ENERGY FOR THE FUTUREA New Agenda

Benjamin K. SovacoolENERGY & ETHICSJustice and the Global Energy Challenge

Joseph Szarka, Richard Cowell, Geraint Ellis, Peter A. Strachanand Charles Warren (editors)LEARNING FROM WIND POWERGovernance, Societal and Policy Perspectives on Sustainable Energy

David TokeECOLOGICAL MODERNISATION AND RENEWABLE ENERGY

Thijs Van de GraafTHE POLITICS AND INSTITUTIONS OF GLOBAL ENERGY GOVERNANCE

Xu Yi-chong (editor)NUCLEAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN ASIAProblems and Prospects

Xu Yi-chongTHE POLITICS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY IN CHINA

Energy, Climate and the EnvironmentSeries Standing Order ISBN 978–0–230–00800–7 (hb) 978–0–230–22150–5 (pb)(outside North America only)

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Keeping Cool inSoutheast AsiaEnergy Consumption and UrbanAir-Conditioning

Marlyne SahakianResearch Associate, University of Lausanne, Switzerland

© Marlyne Sahakian 2014Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of thispublication may be made without written permission.

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First published 2014 byPALGRAVE MACMILLAN

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978-1-137-30882-5

ISBN 978-1-349-45618-5 ISBN 978-1-137-30883-2 (eBook)DOI 10.1057/9781137308832

To Jean-Claude

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Contents

List of Illustrations x

Glossary of Tagalog xii

Series Editor’s Preface xiv

Acknowledgments xvi

Maps xviii

Prologue 1

1 Introduction 41.1 Consumption patterns, practices and policies 41.2 Research study and sites 91.3 Apprehending ‘consumption’ 151.4 ‘Sustainable consumption’ research and policy space 221.5 Organization of the book 24

2 Energy Consumption and Cooling in Southeast Asia 272.1 Energy consumption in Southeast Asia 272.2 Growth, energy and emissions in Southeast Asia: Four

case studies 312.3 Cooling the city: Cooling degree days and

air-conditioning 412.4 History and organization of the electricity sector:

Example of the Philippines 492.5 Renewable energy: Comparing the Philippines,

Indonesia and Thailand 512.6 Summary 59

3 Cooling Histories, Habits and Variations 613.1 The history of air-conditioning: Cooling from

west to east 613.2 Indoor air comfort: Bodily dispositions,

standards and norms 653.3 Air-conditioning artifacts and how they are used 68

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viii Contents

3.4 Air-conditioning usage by differentsocio-economic groups 73

3.5 The challenge of promoting more ‘efficient’ machines 773.6 Energy poverty and ‘locking-in’ the need for cooling 813.7 Summary 88

4 Cooling Our Colliding Practices 904.1 Air-conditioning for sleeping better at night 904.2 Air-conditioning for health and safety 944.3 Air-conditioning and preparing and caring for a child 974.4 Air-conditioning for personal cleanliness 1004.5 Air-conditioning as a status symbol 1034.6 Air-conditioning and fashion 1064.7 Air-conditioning and the world of work 1094.8 Air-conditioning from public to private spaces 1134.9 Summary 116

5 When ‘West Is Best’ for Housing 1195.1 A history of housing in Southeast Asia: Example of the

Philippines 1195.2 Current housing trends: When ‘West is best’

in Metro Manila 1255.3 Policies and practices towards building efficiency in

Southeast Asia 1355.4 Efforts towards ‘green’ buildings in the Philippines 1385.5 Beyond ‘green’: Towards ‘sustainable’ housing

in the Philippines 1465.6 Competing interests for building ‘sustainably’ in the

Philippines 1525.7 Summary 156

6 Opportunities for Change through Social Learning 1586.1 Being ‘framed’: The individual as responsible

for change 1586.2 The learning proposition: Environmentalism

in Metro Manila 1636.3 Perceptions of private sector involvement

in ‘green’ initiatives 1696.4 Trust relationships and Filipino elected officials 1766.5 Insights into social capital in Metro Manila 1796.6 Summary 187

Contents ix

7 Conclusion: ‘The Future Is Already Here’ 1897.1 The material dimension: Changing electricity

production and consumption 1897.2 Bringing norms and values out of the cold into heated

debates 1947.3 Activating ‘trusted’ people and contexts of action 200

Notes 206

Bibliography 218

Index 229

Illustrations

Figures

P.1 ‘101 Ways to a Greener Lifestyle’ 22.1 Primary energy mix in Southeast Asia, 2006 302.2 Population, GDP and CO2 emissions of Indonesia 322.3 Electricity production mix in Indonesia (GWh) 332.4 Population, GDP and CO2 emissions of the Philippines 332.5 Electricity production mix in the Philippines (GWh) 342.6 Electricity production mix in Singapore (GWh) 352.7 Population, GDP and CO2 emissions of Singapore 362.8 Population, GDP and CO2 emissions of Thailand 372.9 Indonesia: Energy use, CO2 emissions and GDP

per capita 382.10 The Philippines: Energy use, CO2 emissions and GDP

per capita 392.11 Thailand: Energy use, CO2 emissions and GDP per capita 402.12 Electricity production mix in Thailand (GWh) 412.13 Singapore: Energy use, CO2 emissions and GDP

per capita 422.14 Celsius-based cooling degree days (CDD): Four Southeast

Asian cities 432.15 Cooling degree days (CDD): Comparing cities around

the world 443.1 Man with air-conditioning unit in low-income housing,

Metro Manila 753.2 Current energy efficiency label for air-conditioning

units in the Philippines 824.1 Items on display in low-income housing, Metro Manila,

the Philippines 1044.2 Model house with air-conditioning prominently

displayed 1054.3 Couple wearing sweaters beside the fireplace, cover of a

magazine, December 2008 1084.4 A woman in her work uniform in a Makati office,

December 2008 111

x

List of Illustrations xi

5.1 Brise soleil on the Philam Life Building, Metro Manila 1235.2 Housing development advertisement to ‘live in

Switzerland’ in Tagaytay, the Philippines 1275.3 House plans with surface areas of less than 60 square

meters 1305.4 Locsin’s First National Bank reflected in the Zuellig

building, Makati, the Philippines 1476.1 Electricity lines in Tondo, Metro Manila, the Philippines 1737.1 Julia and her bicycle, in front of her street garden in

Malate, Metro Manila 204

Tables

2.1 Cooling degree days and residential air-conditioningsaturation 46

3.1 Electricity consumption as a percentage of income inselect households, 2008 85

Glossary of Tagalog

Aling A title of familiar respect used with the first nameof a woman

Bagong Lipunan ‘New Society Movement’; formed in 1978 ascoalition of political parties supporting formerpresident Ferdinand E. Marcos

Bahay kubo Traditional Filipino house made of nipa or palmand bamboo

Bahay na bato Traditional Filipino house made of stone andwood

Barangay Smallest administrative division of governmentin the Philippines

Barong Tagalog A Tagalog shirt (referring to the region);traditional men’s shirt

Bayanihan Community effort to achieve a common goalBimpo Small face towelCalesa Horse-drawn carriageCha-Cha Short for ‘charter change,’ or efforts to change

the current Constitution of the PhilippinesDi ba Short for hindi ba, roughly translates to ‘know

what I mean’ or ‘isn’t that right?’Estero Estuary or canalGawad Kalinga Giving care; also means the name of the Gawad

Kalinga Community Development FoundationJeepney Transformed jeep used for public transportationKami kami Translates to ‘us, us,’ meaning ‘us only’Kulambo Mosquito netKumpare A family friend, through god-parentingMaaliwalas Bright, well-ventilatedMalamig Cool and refreshingMay liwanag ang buhay Roughly translates to ‘life with light’; ‘there is

brightness in life’Nipa A type of palm tree; the nipa hut is a

palm-thatched bamboo house in the Philippines,also known as bahay kubo

Sala Living room, parlor, receiving room

xii

Glossary of Tagalog xiii

Sari sari Translates to ‘variety’; used to describe smallconvenience stores in the Philippines, or sari saristores

Solihiya Rattan work on chair seats or bed framesTahanang Filipino Filipino homeTelenovela Television show or mini seriesUtang na loob Roughly translates to ‘debt of gratitude’ or ‘debt

from the inside’Yaya Nanny

Series Editor’s Preface

Concerns about the potential environmental, social and economicimpacts of climate change have led to a major international debate overwhat could and should be done to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.There is still a scientific debate over the likely scale of climate change,and the complex interactions between human activities and climate sys-tems, but global average temperatures have risen and the cause is almostcertainly the observed build-up of atmospheric greenhouse gases.

Whatever we now do, there will have to be a lot of social and eco-nomic adaptation to climate change – preparing for increased floodingand other climate-related problems. However, the more fundamentalresponse is to try to reduce or avoid the human activities that are caus-ing climate change. That means, primarily, trying to reduce or eliminateemission of greenhouse gases from the combustion of fossil fuels. Giventhat around 80 percent of the energy used in the world at presentcomes from these sources, this will be a major technological, economicand political undertaking. It will involve reducing demand for energy(via lifestyle choice changes – and policies enabling such choices to bemade), producing and using whatever energy we still need more effi-ciently (getting more from less) and supplying the reduced amount ofenergy from non-fossil sources (basically switching over to renewablesand/or nuclear power).

Each of these options opens up a range of social, economic and envi-ronmental issues. Industrial society and modern consumer cultures havebeen based on the ever-expanding use of fossil fuels, so the changesrequired will inevitably be challenging. Perhaps equally inevitable aredisagreements and conflicts over the merits and demerits of the vari-ous options and in relation to strategies and policies for pursuing them.These conflicts and associated debates sometimes concern technicalissues, but there are usually also underlying political and ideologicalcommitments and agendas which shape, or at least color, the ostensi-bly technical debates. In particular, at times, technical assertions can beused to buttress specific policy frameworks in ways which subsequentlyprove to be flawed.

The aim of this series is to provide texts which lay out the techni-cal, environmental and political issues relating to the various proposed

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Series Editor’s Preface xv

policies for responding to climate change. The focus is not primar-ily on the science of climate change, or on the technological detail,although there will be accounts of the state of the art, to aid assess-ment of the viability of the various options. However, the main focusis the policy conflicts over which strategy to pursue. The series adoptsa critical approach and attempts to identify flaws in emerging poli-cies, propositions and assertions. In particular, it seeks to illuminatecounter-intuitive assessments, conclusions and new perspectives. Theaim is not simply to map the debates, but to explore their structure,their underlying assumptions and their limitations. Texts are incisiveand authoritative sources of critical analysis and commentary, indicat-ing clearly the divergent views that have emerged and also identifyingthe shortcomings of these views. However, the books do not simplyprovide an overview; they also offer policy prescriptions.

The current text certainly offers some fascinating insights into thepolicy implications of what is likely to become a key issue for the devel-oping world, and, indeed, elsewhere, as climate change impacts growand affluence spreads. Air-conditioning is already in widespread usethroughout Asia. If the current type of mains-powered technology isused, the expansion of air-conditioning will increase the use of fossilfuels, contributing further to the problem. Fortunately, most of Asia hasexcellent renewable energy resources, which could offer a solution. So,too, could better building design – including learning from the ‘passivecooling’ designs used in the past. Much of this traditional approach isbeing lost in the rush to adopt Western lifestyles. Apart from lookingat technological solutions, this book, therefore, also looks at the wider,more general issue of taming energy demand, linking into a broader dis-cussion of what is meant by affluence and what sorts of lifestyles andrelated social practices are sustainable.

Acknowledgments

This book began with my first trip to the Philippines in 2006. Thewelcome was such that I keep returning to this country, meeting manywonderful people along the way. I would like to thank all those whomade this first visit possible, starting with J. Hugh Faulkner for sug-gesting I visit his organization in Metro Manila. Through Hugh, I hadthe pleasure and good fortune of meeting Anita Celdran and her cousinCarlos Celdran, who not only continue to welcome me throughout theyears, but have made my family feel like part of their family. I would alsolike to thank Suren Erkman, who has encouraged my work all along andcontinues to inspire me. Suren also introduced me to another preciouscontact on my first visit to the Philippines, Anthony S.F. Chiu, who hasconsistently offered me his support.

I am grateful for the time and energy put in by all the people who havecontributed to this work, including Isabelle Schulte-Tenckhoff, whooriginally encouraged me to pursue research and guided me into theunknown terrain of anthropology. My thanks and admiration also goto Julia K. Steinberger, whose precious insights and enthusiasm helpedmove my research forward in the most interesting directions. I was alsolucky to gain comments and input on an earlier version of this bookfrom Maurie J. Cohen and Jean-Louis Arcand, for which I am mostgrateful. My thanks also go to Arturo Anderson Chinbuah for the chartspresented in the second chapter, which were originally conceived byJulia K. Steinberger for an article we co-authored.

I was able to write this book thanks to a grant from the Swiss NationalScience Foundation (SNSF, grant number PBGEP1_142389), which madeit possible for me to join Ateneo de Manila University as a VisitingResearch Associate of the Institute of Philippine Culture (IPC), Schoolof Social Sciences. I am most grateful to Czarina Saloma-Akpedonu forwelcoming me at the IPC, and for her encouragement.

My sincere thanks to David Elliott for shepherding this book intothe Energy, Climate and the Environment series, and to Christina M.Brian, Amanda McGrath and Rajeswari Balasubramanian at PalgraveMacmillan for their help and support.

Thank you to my husband, who closed his architecture practicein Geneva to come with me to the Philippines and took on the

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Acknowledgments xvii

responsibility of caring for our two small children, a decision which hasenriched our lives as a family. This book would not have been possiblewithout him, and is dedicated to him. My heartfelt thanks go out to allour friends in the Philippines who helped us raise our children whileI wrote this book. Thanks also to all our friends and family who, thoughfar away, consistently encouraged us in this adventure.

When I began my research on consumption in the home, I thoughtthat meeting people who would agree to be interviewed in a city of10 million would be a piece of cake. As I quickly learned, there is nothingmore personal than talking about how we go about our daily lives. I amgrateful to all those who opened their homes to me in the Philippines,to talk about not only keeping cool, but also their everyday lives, beliefs,uncertainties and aspirations.

Maps

CHINA

INDIA

BURMA

Rangoon

Bangkok

PhnomPenh

Kuala LumpurSingapore

Sumatra

Jakarta

Java Bali

AUSTRALIA

Borneo

Manila

MALAYSIAMALAYSIA

VIETNAM

PhilippineSea

SouthChinaSea

I N D O N E S I A

P H I L I P P I N E S

LAOS

Hanoi

THAILAND

Taiwan

JAPAN

CAMBODIA

SOUTHEAST ASIA

NorthPacificOcean

Indian Ocean

Source: Central Intelligence Agency Reference Map, Southeast Asia, 2009.

xviii

xix

PhilippineSea

SouthChinaSea

SuluSea

ManilaManilaManila

PHILIPPINES

MALAYSIA

Mindanao

Negros

Mindoro

ISLANDS

VISAYAN

Cebu

Samar

Quezon City

Manila

Tagaytay

Makati

Davao

Palawan

LuzonBaguio

Vigan Luzon

0 200100 300 400 KilometersI N D O N E S I A

Source: Central Intelligence Agency, the Philippines, 1990.