english grammar - a modern course in english syntax

8/13/2019 English Grammar - A Modern Course in English Syntax

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A MODERN COURSE

IN ENGLISH SYNTAX

HERMAN WEKKER ANDLILIANEHAEGEMAN


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First published in 1985 by Croons Hel !td

Reprinted in1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 199" by Routled#e$ $% Ne& Fetter !'ne( !ondon EC)* )EE +9 West ,5th -treet( N e& .or/( N. 10001

Rout/edge is on I nternational Thom son Publishing compa ny

. !1955 Her 'n We//er 'nd !ili'ne H'e#e 'n

*rinted 'nd bound in Gre't rit'in by Diddles !td( Guild2ord 'nd Kin#3s !ynn

All ri#hts reser4ed% No p'rt o" this boo/ 'y be reprinted or reprodu ed or utili6ed in 'ny 2oror by 'ny ele troni ( e h'ni 'l or other e'ns( no& /no&n or here'2ter in4ented( in ludin# photo opyin# 'nd r e ordin#( or in 'ny in2or 'tion stor'#e or retrie4'l syste ( &ithout per issionin &ritin# 2ro the publishers%

ritish !ibr'ry C't'lo#uin# in *ubli 'tion D't'We//er% Her 'n

A odern ourse in En#lish synt'7% 1% En#lishl'n #u'#e -ynt'7$% itle i1% H'e#e 'n( !ili'ne

)+5 *E1,"1

!ibr'ry o2 Con#ress C't'lo#uin# in *ubli 'tion D't' We//er( Her 'n%A ode ourse in En#lish synt'7%

1% En#lish l'n#u'#e -ynt'7% 1% H'e#e 'n% !ili'ne M% : $2% itle

P#13$1.%3& 198' )+8%+ 85 1,99) I()* 0 115 0,"8) )

CONTENTS

*re2' e 1

I: Aims and +%)%+ Ele ents '2ter the He'd+%)%+ -u in u the N*

1%+%+ !'belled 8 he First Au7ili'r in1%+%, ree Di'#r' s die :*

15 *re osition'l *hr'ses

% % % 1, 1 :'ri'tions on E7er ise*'tterns 1" Ad e ti4e *hr'ses


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i% , + Cle2tin# ,.3.4 *'ssi4is'tion $8

2 o2 Words+? Constituents

Ad4erbs >+ +%5%E7er ises "+%5%

+%+ -enten es +5+%+%1 -i ple +5+ +%+ Co pound 3: Functions

,%+%1 E7er ises "

,%,%+ *redi 'te >

,%,%, -enten e Ad un ts > 3 5?No,%) Gr ' 't i 'l )%+%) Wh o4e ent o2 1 and( 3

,%)%+ Dire t @b e t > )%+%5 $ndire t .es No 5 +,%)%+%1 E7er ise > )%+%5 $ndire t Wh 1

,%)%,%1 E7er ises > 5

&ith $ntr'nsiti4e > )%+%" he Me'nin o2

,%)%5 Ad4erbi'l )%+%" ,%)%5%1 E7er ise > )%+%" 5%,,%)%" *redi 'ti4e )%+%" Ad4erbi'l Rel'ti4e

Ad4erbi'l Rel'ti4e Cl'uses 5%,+

Fun tions? ' 8 )%+%> A ositi4e 5,%)%8 Ad un ts 'nd 8 )%+%8 5,%)%8%1 E7er ise 8 )%+%8 E7er ises 1

:* Ad un ts 8 5

,%)%10 *redi 'ti4e 8 )%,%1


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,%)%11%1Finite Cl'uses 9 )%) 6: Re,%)%11%+ Non 2inite )%)%1 $t e7tr' osition 1 Bra

Cl'uses 9 -enten es 1 "%+

,%5 Gr ' ' ti 'l )%)%1 $t e7tr' osition,%5%1 E7er ises 9 )%)%1 E7er ise 1

Cl'uses 1)? rocesses Cl'uses 1

)%+ !e2t&'rd )%)%5 He'4 @b e t shi2t 1

r'ns2or 'tions 1 )%5 Cle2tin 'nd


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202 Index

underlyin# stru ture + )( 101(10+( 10)( 1,+

un#r' 'ti 'l +,( ,+un 'r/ed +,

4erb ,( 9( )+( ))(5!" "5( ""4erb o ple ent ), "( 5,( 19+

4erb #'ppin# 155( 1804erb phr'se :*< "(!" 15( ++( )+51( >1( 80( 98( 188( 19)

4erb type )5

4erbless l'use3#" 95 8( 1)0( 1)1

&it 2rontin# ,


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' ounts 'nd the urrent tr'ns2or 'tion'l 'n'lyses% $t o22ers so e ne&


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2 Pre"ace Pre"ace 3

ide's 'nd insi#hts( espe i'lly 2ro the E7tended -t'nd'rd heoryE-


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underlyin# stru ture o2 the senten e% he !e7i on ont'ins the store o2le7i 'l ite s o2 the l'n#u'#e( e' h &ith ' spe i2i 'tion o2 its synt' ti

'te #ory 'nd 'n insertion 2r' e% :erbs( 2or e7' ple( 're spe i2ied 2orthe type o2 o ple ent'tion they re uire% $nsertin# le7i 'l 'teri'linto the stru tures deri4ed by the *- rules is restri ted by ' 't hin#

ondition? nouns 'n only be inserted into slots 'r/ed N 4erbs 'nonly be inserted into : slots( et % he 't hin# ondition h's re ently been repl' ed in E- by e h'nis s su h 's C'se 'ssi#n ent 'nd the

het' riterion( but these notions 're not in orpor'ted into this boo/%he onstituent stru ture #ener'ted by the *- rules 'nd 2illed in by

le7i 'l ite s #i4es us the D stru ture%he underlyin# stru tures 'y be '22e ted by oper'tions su h 's

p'ssi4is'tion3( e7tr'position3( et % Follo&in# re ent de4elop ents inthe tr'ns 2or 'tion'l 2r' e&or/( this boo/ distin#uishes bet&eenele ent'ry oper'tions on synt' ti p'tterns 'nd the 2un tion'l e22e t th'tis ' hie4ed by the oper'tions% he pro ess o2 &h uestion 2or 'tion( 2ore7' ple( is not seen 's ' sin#le tr'ns2or 'tion but r'ther 's the

o poundin# o2

'< -ub;e t Au7ili'ry $n4ersion( 'ndh< Wh 2rontin#Hen e( the tr'nsition 2ro ohn sa0 0ho to %ho did ohn see is not 'sin#le tr'ns2or 'tion( but ' pro ess in4ol4in# t&o tr'ns2or 'tions%-ub;e t Au7ili'ry $n4ersion 'nd &h 2rontin# 'y both oper'teindependently in other en4iron ents( produ in# other 2un tion'le22e ts% For e7' ple?

Not one o entdid he re#ret his de ision%he #irl0hom he h'd in4ited did noto e%

We h'4e 'lso 2ollo&ed the re ent trend in E- to&'rds redu in# thetypes o2 tr'ns2or 'tions to the sin#le oper'tion o2 3 o4e ent3?

o4e ent 'y be either to the le2t 2or e7' ple( &h o4e ent(o4e ent o2 the @b;e t o2 p'ssi4es( 'nd r'isin#< or to the ri#ht 's in

e7tr'position


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1

A$M- AND ME H@D-

i . 7 W H A T I S S Y N T A X ?$ynta%" or synt' ti analysis" 'y be de2ined 's?

deter inin# the rele4'nt o ponent p'rts o2 ' senten edes ribin# these p'rts #r' 'ti 'lly%

he o ponent p'rts o2 ' senten e 're 'lledconstituents& $n other&ords( synt'7 in4ol4es the t&o losely rel'ted t's/s o2?

'< bre'/in# do&n the senten e into itsconstituents b< 'ssi#nin# so e #r' 'ti 'l l'bel to e' h onstituent( st'tin#

&h't type o2 onstituent orgrammatical category' it is( 'nd&h't grammatical function it h's%

his de2inition o2 synt'7 i plies th't &e st'rt 2ro &h't is re#'rded's the l'r#est unit o2 synt' ti des ription the senten e 'nd pro eed until &e 'rri4e 't the s ' llest e'nin#2ul unit% his is 'lled' top to botto 3 'n'lysis% he units s 'ller th'n the senten e &ill bere2erred to 'sclauses" ()rases" *ords 'nd mor()emes respe ti4ely%Ho&e4er( inste'd o2 s'yin# th't ' senten e 'n be bro/en do&n intos 'ller 'nd s 'ller onstituents( &e i#ht 'lso loo/ 't the senten ethe other 0ay round th't is( 2ro botto to top3 'nd s'y th't

onstituents 't di22erent le4els 'n o bine to 2or in re'sin#lyl'r#er units? &e pro eed then 2ro the orphe e to the senten e 's '&hole% Constituents 're li/e buildin# blo /s &hi h p'ttern in ert'in&'ys to 2or l'r#er 'nd l'r#er units( the l'r#est unit bein# thesenten e% E' h onstituent e7 ept the s 'llest< 'n be bro/en do&ninto its o ponent p'rts% he purpose o2 doin# synt'7 is to dis o4erthe &' s in &hi h onstituents o bine to 2or thestructure o2senten es%

$n this boo/ &e 'dopt the tr'dition'l< hier'r hy o2 senten eonstituents( 's sho&n in the 2ollo&in# di'#r' ?

-EN ENCE C!A -E *HRA-E W@RD M@R*HEME

his di'#r' represents the hier'r hi 'l s 'le o2 onstituents% he2our double pointed 'rro&s in the di'#r' indi 'te th't it 'y be

re'd 2ro le2t to ri#ht3( or 2ro ri#ht to le2t%3he 'rro&s pointin# to the ri#ht indi 'te th't ' senten e 'yonsist o2


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Her husb'nd is 'n 'risto r't%$ +ims and ethods

one or ore th'n one l'use( th't ' l'use 'y onsist o2 one or oreth'n one phr'se( th't ' phr'se 'y onsist o2 one or ore th'n one&ord( 'nd th't ' &ord 'y onsist o2 one or ore th'n one orphe e%Morphe es 're the ini 'l( indi4isible units in synt'7%

Con4ersely( 's indi 'ted by the 'rro&s pointin# to the le2t( &e i#ht'lso s'y th't one or ore th'n one orphe e 'y onstitute ' &ord(

one or ore th'n one &ord 'y 2or ' phr'se( one or ore th'n one phr'se 'y 2or ' l'use( 'nd one or ore th'n one l'use 'y 2or' senten e%

$n &h't 2ollo&s &e sh'll 'lso see th't ' l'use 'y ont'in one orore onstituent l'uses( 'nd th't ' phr'se 'y ont'in one or oreonstituent phr'ses or l'uses%

o illustr'te the hier'r hi 'l stru ture o2 senten es( let us onsidersenten e 1


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+ims and ethods &

by s u're br' /ets? L% o si pli2y 'tters( &e sh'll i#nore the or phe e bound'ries here% his on4ention o2,racketing yields the2ollo&in# 'n'lysis( &hi h loo/s r'ther d'untin# 't 2irst si#ht?2' heL sn'/eL L /illedL theL r'tL L L L

'ndL s&'llo&edL itL L L L L

An'lysis +< is the result o2 2irst br' /etin# the senten e( then the t&ol'uses( then the phr'ses( 'nd 2in'lly the &ords( 's 2ollo&s?

.(entence

,'< he sn'/e /illed the r't 'nd s&'llo&ed itL

-lauses6 ,h< he sn'/e /illed the r'tL

'nds&'llo&ed itL L

Phrases

, < he sn'/eL /illed the r'tL L L'nd s&'llo&ed itL L L L

%ords

,d< heL sn'/eL L /illedL theL r'tL L L L'ndL s&'llo&edL litLLLLL

An'lysis ,d< is o2 ourse identi 'l &ith +< 'bo4e%he br' /etin# h's here been done on ' purely intuiti4e b'sis% $n the

2ollo&in# h'pters &e sh'll de'l &ith the 2or 'l 'r#u ents &hi h ;usti2y those hoi es% Che / throu#h the 'bo4e 'n'lysis 're2ully '#'in('nd try to br' /et the 2ollo&in# senten es 2ro senten e le4el to &ordle4el in the s' e &'y?

)< he terrorists 'ss'ssin'ted the ' b'ss'dor33 5 < 1>dd< 's 2ollo&s?

1>d< N * S e t N - < *'ul &ill #o to the ine ' toni#ht( or he &ill st'y 't ho e to

re'd ' boo/%$n e7' ples 1)< 1>< si ple senten es h'4e been oordin'ted to2or o pound senten es%

A third 'te#ory is th't o2com(le% senten es% o de2ine these( letus onsider the senten es?

18< $ /no& th't the sn'/e /illed the r't%19< he sn'/e &hi h /illed the r't belon#s to our nei#hbours%

$n lb< the strin#that the sn'/e 4illed the rat is ' l'use( but it is noto ordin'ted &ith 'nother l'use% R'ther( it 2or s p'rt o2 'notherl'use it is e bedded in 'nother l'use% he other l'use themainl'use< is?1 4no0 th't the sna4e 4illed the rat. he e bedded l'use

is ' onstituent o2 the :* o2 the 'in l'use see +%)%,


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+5'< he sn'/e /illed ther't( be2ore it s&'llo&ed it%

+5b< e2ore it s&'llo&edit( the sn'/e /illed the r't%

he subordin'tor 'nd thel'use 2or one onstituent

the oordin'tor 'nd these ond on;oin 're t&osep'r'te onstituents( &hi h

'nnot be o4ed to#ether%his di22eren e bet&eenoordin'tion 'nd

subordin'tion o2 l'uses 'y be represented 's 2ollo&s?

oordin'tion? s( -+ L oord-, L L

subordin'tion? -t -+ subord I i

Coordin'tion &ithand, but'nd or 'llo&s deletion o2 thesub;e t o2 the se ond

on;oin( i2 it is o re2erenti'lto the sub;e t o2 the 2irst

2.

2.

3

E

X

E

RCI

S

E

-ndi*ate whether thesenten*es !elow aresim3le, *om3ound,*om3le), or *om3ound#*om3le), and e)3lain

wh "+hile I atta*h a 1er high1alue to the 3orentalemotion, I do not draw theinferen*e, whi*h is too*ommonl drawn, thatmothers should do osmu*h as 3ossi!lethemsel1es 2ortheir*hildren.There is a *on1ention onthis su!Be*t whi*h wos all1er well in the da swhen nothing was 2nowna!out the *are of *hildrene)*e3t the uns*ientifi*odds and ends that oldwomen handed on to

ounger ones.i(F A mother is not

e)3e*ted to tea*h

her son *rithmeti*,

howe1er mu*hshe ma lo1e himso for as thea* uisition of!oo2#learning is*on*erned, it isre*ognised that*hildren *ana* uire it !etterfrom those whoha1e it than from amother who doesnot ha1e it.5ndou!tedl*ertain things are!etter done !the mother, !utas the *hild getsolder, there will

!e an in*reasingnum!er of things!etter done !someone else.

A woman who h*sa* uired *n 2indof 3rofessionals2ill ought, !othfor her own sa2eand for that of the*ommunit , to !efree to *ontinue toe)er*ise this s2illin s3ite o2motherhood.

! A *hild o1er ninemonths old oughtnot to form aninsu3era!le !arrierto its mother-s3rofessionala*ti1ities.

=B The mother is, in agreat man *ases,e)*e3tionall selfishtowards her*hildren, for,im3ortant as3arenthood is os onelement in life, it isnot satisf ing if it istreated as thewhole of life, andthe unsatisfied3*rent is li2el to !e*n emotionallgras3ing 3arent.

+%, C!A -E-

We use the ter l'use3 tore2er to senten es &hi h 'reonstituents o2 othersenten es or o2 phr'ses% A

onstituent senten e orl'use< 'y be oordin'ted

&ith one or ore otheronstituent senten es to 2or

' o pound senten e( or it'y be e bedded in 'nother

senten e or in ' phr'se to2or ' o ple7 senten e seete7t +%+%+%


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br' /et e' h o2 the on;oins'nd l'bel the by e'ns o2

- 2or senten eJ l'use< in thele2t h'nd orner( 's 2ollo&s?


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,0 -onstituents-onstituents ,1

l'< pro

s@ne e4enin# he 's/ed &hether he i#ht #o ho e &ith her butlb< shis 'unt 2e'red th't he i#ht 't h so ethin#L

'nd

l < shis un le s'id th't e4il o uni 'tions orrupted #ood'nners%L

!et us st'rt by loo/in# 't the stru ture o2 lb< 's ' sep'r'te(independent senten e% $2 &e p'ssi4ise this senten e( &e #et?

+< h't he i#ht 't h so ethin# &'s 2e'red by his 'unt%*'ssi4is'tion is ' pro ess &hi h oper'tes on senten es? it re'rr'n#es

the senten e onstituents% -in e( in our e7' ple( p'ssi4is'tion'22e ts the strin#that he might catch something, &e on ludeth't this strin# is ' senten e onstituent% @ur on lusion is

on2ir ed by pseudo le2tin# 'nd by no in'lis'tion use o2it,that, 0hat, et %


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+"< Wh't the ne& l'& re uires is 2or se't belts to be &orn by


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32 -onstituents-onstituents 33

&8< 'bo4e the 'd;e ti4e phr'se Ad;*< 'y berepl' ed by 'n N* or ' ** 's in?The story 0as a great su ess 'ndTheroom 0as in a mess . -i il'rly( the : in the p'ttern underlyin# )8

",< He un2olded his '#'6ine%")< He un2olded his '#'6ine6"or the girl 6Huite une pectedly ...

Wh't is the :* in the 'bo4e senten es= $n ")< &e 2ind 'ddition'lele ents it'li ised 'nd bet&een br' /ets< &hi h 're option'l% We sh'lls'y th't these ele ents belon# to the :*( but th't they 're notCo ple ents they 're not needed to o plete the :* they erely 'dd2urther in2or 'tion? they re'lise the #r' 'ti 'l 2un tion o2Ad unct

see ,%)%8


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$2 &e &ere to re&rite the te7t so 's to h'n#e its ti e re2eren e to%the 2uture( &e &ould #et senten es li/e the 2ollo&in#?

"8< he tr' p 0ill re'd the di'ry% He0ill turn the p'#e %%%

Ap'rt 2ro 0ill, one i#ht 'lso use may, must, could, et % in the s' e position% $n 'll these 'ses &h't &e do is 'dd ' &ord in 2ront o2 the :%

hese pre 4erb'l ele ents 're the so 'lled od'l 'u7ili'ries( orod'ls e%#% shall, 0ill, may, can, should, 0ould, might, could, must .

hey ust he 'dded in 2ront o2 the :( '2ter the tense ele ent 2% ">1< He 0as un2oldin# his '#'6ine%

2 Iere the 4erbun"old is pre eded by &'s the p'st tense o2 the'u7ili'ry be 'nd the present p'rti iple su22i7 in# is 'dded to it% )e

in# e7presses pro#ressi4e 'spe t% A#'in you see th't the p'st tense is'tt' hed to the 'u7ili'ry% C'n you 2ind 'ny other e7' ples o2 pro#ressi4e :*s in te7t +%)%1=

he third pre 4erb'l ele ent is th't o2 the(assi+e 4oi e% *'ssi4e ise7pressed by the 'u7ili'rybe 'nd the p'st p'rti iple su22i7!ed, &hi his 'tt' hed to :% For e7' ple?

>+< he tr' p 0as 'rrested by the poli e%

he e7' ples 'bo4e sho& th't 2inite :*s ont'in 'n obli#'toryele ent( tense% he re 'inin# ele ents &hi h &e h'4e entioned

od'l( per2e t( pro#ressi4e 'nd p'ssi4e< 're 'll option'l? they 'y(

but need not o ur in the :*% ense( the od'l 'u7ili'ries 'nd the

'u7ili'ries ha e 'nd be 2un tion 's $(ecifiers o2 the :*% Foron4enien e( the ter 'u7ili'ry ele ent3 &ill o 'sion'lly be used

&ith re2eren e to both tense 'nd 'u7ili'ries%


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81< W's the youn# #irl o22erin# ho ol'te 2or the se ond ti e= Here &e 'l&'ys #et the 'ddition'l ele ent does or did in thedi # ti % F 7' l ?


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8+< H'd she #i4en hi ho ol'te= As the e7' ples sho&(Ces!*ouestions 're 2or ed by re4ersin# the

orrespondin# uestions% For e7' ple?

Wh't is the di22eren e bet&een e7' ples >>< >9< 'nd e7' ples 8)


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10< The magaAine 0as bein# un2olded by the tr' p 2or the se ondti e%

An N* Co ple ent o2 : &hi h be o es the -ub;e t o2 ' p'ssi4esenten e / s'id to h'4e the 2un tion o2 @b;e t% More spe i2i 'lly(themagaAine is the Dire t @b;e t @d< o2un"old :erbs su h 's un"old&hi h sub 'te#orise 2or ' onstituent 2un tionin# 's @d 're s'id to be

onotr'nsiti4e%3.!.2.1 E)(*+,s(

ra*2et N >Su and $ in the following e)am3les. Are there an0om3lements inside $ Are Rhere an 6!ie*t N sHe s3o2e a few words to theGerman girl. He loo2ed o dull gu .She had forgotten his name.He destro ed all the maga?ines.

3.!.3 INDIRECT OB ECT

Consider the 2ollo&in# e7' ple?111< -he h'd #i4en the tr' p no ho ol'te%

$ he :* ont'ins t&o N*s?

1+< s-he (%*h'd #i4en ((the tr' pL ((no ho ol'teL

Roth N*s 're Co ple ents to the le7i 'l 4erb gi e, &hi h isditr'nsiti4e% oth N*s 're( in 2' t( @b;e ts sin e both 'n be o e the-ub;e t o2 ' p'ssi4e senten e?

1,< *o chocolate h'd been #i4en to the tr' p%

1)< The tramp h'd been #i4en no ho ol'te%

ut the t&o N*s it'li ised< do not beh'4e in uite identi 'l &'ys% $n1,< &e h'4e to 'dd the *torn the N* the tramp, but in 1)< &e 'nnot

insert to be2oreno chocolate. his is rel'ted to the 2' t th't there is 'n'ltern'ti4e 4ersion o2 11


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ti e remain sub 'te#orises 2or ' **% he sub 'te#orised ** spe i2iesthe pl' e &here the ne&sp'per re 'ined% Constituents &hi h #i4e us

'n A re'lised by either ' ** or 'n N*%$denti2y the A in e' h o2 the 2ollo&in# senten es 'nd l'bel the


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the pl e &here the ne&sp per re ined% Constituents &hi h #i4e usore in2or 'tion on ernin# the pl' e( 'nner( ti e( dur'tion( et % o2

'n ' ti4ity 're s'id to h'4e 'n ad+er,ial 2un tion( 'nd i2 su h 'nele ent li/e the ** 0ith Mr #llis is obli#'tory( &e 'll it 'nAd4erbi'l Co ple ent A < he sun re 'ined behind the louds 'll d'y%+8< he p'per re 'ined on the shel2%+9< he boo/s re 'ined in the libr'ry%

Altern'ti4ely( the Ad4erbi'l Co ple ent o2remain 'y be re'lised by'n Ad4*?

,0< He re 'ined there.,1< he &o en re 'ined upstairs.

he Ad4* '#'in is ' Co ple ent? it is non o issible% Further ore( it3oe i2ies the lo 'tion o2 the ' ti4ity? it h's 'n 'd4erbi'l 2un tion%

he 2ollo&in# e7' ples illustr'te other uses o2 4erbs &hi h t'/e 'nA the A is it'li ised


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11 1 3

-"1 -/ -7,9< Iohn belon#s to se4er'l so i'l lubs%)0< -he spe i'lises in bio he istry%

)+< .our ne& 'r dri4es 4ery s oothly%

)+< he 2ire l'sted three d'ys%),< Iohn li4es in *'ris%))< -he st'yed 't the Hilton%)5< Iohn ondes ended to help us%

)"< $ lis 2'ther li4ed to be9G.$t is not 'l&'ys e'sy to de ide &ith ert'inty &hether ' onstituent2ollo&in# the le7i 'l 4erb is obli#'tory or option'l% here 're 'ny

'ses &hi h 're less le'r ut th'n those 'bo4e? the riterion 2orde idin# on the nono issihility o2 ' onstituent in the :* is &hetherthe re 'inin# p'rt o2 the senten e is still #r' 'ti 'l or &hether the

e'nin# o2 the le7i 'l 4erb h'n#es dr'sti 'lly 's ' result o2 o ittin#th't p'rti ul'r onstituent% !et us see &h't h'ppens to the senten es'bo4e i2 &e le'4e out the **s( Ad4*s( or -s th't 2ollo& the le7i 'l 4erb

the U indi 'tes un#r' 'ti 'lity 'nd the ' dr'sti h'n#e ine'nin#


85/212

sin e ,9< nnot be p ssi4ised in the s e & y( se eral soc ial clubsin 639 is not to be re#'rded 's 'n @d?to se eral. social clubs is ' **2un tionin# 'sA %

3.!.!.1 E)(*+,s(

+hi*h of the following senten*es *ontain Ad1er!ial0om3lements Cra*2et the A*s and indi*ate how the arerealised.He has gone off the rails.He li1es in o *oun*il house in Dagenham.The La2e Distri*t is u3 in the to3 left#hand *ornerof England. This new en* *lo3edia *osts =3ounds.Slo3 in the middle of England stands the 0itof 6)ford. The *hild was in tears.He darted towards the door.

3.! ." AD#ERBIAL COMPLEMENTS WITH TRANSITI#E #ERBS$n se tion ,%)%) &e h'4e seen th't 4erbs li/eremain, belong, last re uire'n A to o plete the :*% he 4erbs &ere 'lso seen to be intr'nsiti4e?they h'4e no @d% $n this se tion( &e sh'll see th't tr'nsiti4e 4erbs 'y'lso sele t 'n A % Consider( 2or e7' ple?

5>< Iohn put the oney in ' bo7%58< He &orded the letter 4ery 're2ully%59< he hildren 'l&'ys re ind e o2 their #r'nd2'ther%

he 4erbs put , 0ord 'nd remind 're tr'nsiti4e? they t'/e 'n N*J@d(&hi h 'n re#ul'rly be o e the -ub;e t o2 ' p'ssi4e?

"0< he oney &'s put in ' bo7%"1< he letter &'s &orded 4ery 're2ully%"+< $ ' 'l&'ys re inded o2 their #r'nd2'ther% he :* o2

senten e 5>


86/212

the prisoners 2ree%

"8< he :i 'r 2lun# thedoor open%

r' /et the ';oronstituents% Note th't the :*sont'in 'n obli#'tory

Co ple ent in 'ddition to the@d% For e7' ple?

"9< he #o4ern ent psetN%the prisonersL A59P2reeL

I

Wh't is the 2un tion o2 theAd;* "ree -in e it isobli#'tory( it is ' Co ple ent

&ithin the :*% $t n'rro&sdo&n the e'nin# o2 set 'ndis thus 'd4erbi'l+,< Her b'by &'s 'lledGeor#e%

>)< UGeor#e &'s 'lledher b'by%

he 2un tion'l p'ttern o2 the:* in >1< is li/e th't #i4enin >0< 'bo4e% $n this 'se(ho&e4er( the predi 'ti4e2un tion o2 the N*6@eorge

Ad4erbi l 2un tion% till(there is ' le'r rel'tion bet&een the N*@eorge 'nd both the 4erbcall 'nd the N*her baby. A#'in the GF o2@eorge is th't o2 * A ( 'ndcall is here ' o ple7

tr'nsiti4e 4erb%Co ple7 tr'nsiti4e 4erbssu h 's call, set 'nd "lingre uire t&o Co ple ents(one o2 &hi h is the Dire t@b;e t( &hile the other h's 'n'd4erbi'l 'nd( perh'ps orei port'ntly( ' predi 'ti4e2un tion rel'tin# it to theDire t @b;e t%

80 Dunctions Dunctions 81&// P'/ P(/ {41 P9/

b

used i2 there is ' orrespondin# e7pli it Co ple ent e%#% N*J@d


87/212

&a% b5< he do tor put the #irl on ' diet

&hi h ont'ins the tr'nsiti4e 4erb put 'nd its t&o Co ple ents @d

'nd A


90/212

>"< !'st ye'r the do tor relu t'ntly put the #irl on ' diet be 'useshe &'s o4er&ei#ht%

Oast year is 'n Ad;un t o2 ti e< re'lised by 'n N*(reluctantly is 'nAd;un t o2 'nner< re'lised by 'n Ad4*( 'ndbecause she 0aso er0eight is 'n Ad;un t o2 re'son< re'lised by 'n -% $2 these ele ents're o itted( the senten e does not be o e un#r' 'ti 'l% Nor doesthe le7i 'l 4erb put h'n#e its e'nin#%

,%)%8%1 E7er iseThe following e)am3les *ontain 1arious 2inds of o3tional

AdBun*ts. Identif these omissi!le elements ! underliningthem, and state how the are realised. 7or ea*h senten*edetermine what senten*e t 3e it is &*f. (.8.=%.&/% He must ho1e left here on 7rida morning.I'% His room loo2ed uite tid esterda .

,< The alwa s dis*uss their finan*es !efore lea1ing.)< He ma soon regret his de*ision.5< The a33ointed him $i*e 0han*ellor last wee2.

&


91/212

Te t 3. .9Willi' &'l/ed slo&ly do&n the ro'd% He 2elt th't he should disli/ethe little #irl intensely% He de ided th't he should ne4er eet her'#'in% -he &'s ert'inly ' 4ery unre'son'ble person% .et he ouldn3tdisli/e her% He hoped th't he should see her '#'in% He belie4edsin erely th't ' 2riendship &ith her &ould be e7 itin#% Any&'y(Willi' h'd 'l&'ys pre2erred people &ho u'rrelled &ith hi % He

&'s bored &ith people &ho '#reed &ith hi % He onsidered the little#irl uite 'ttr' ti4e%Ad'pted 2ro Ri h 'l Cro pton(%illiam The

Betecti e.

-ertainly is 'lso 'n option'l Ad;un t A


92/212

Ad4erbi l Ad;un ts reModi2iers o2 the ' ti4itye7pressed by the 4erb%

-enten e >8< 'bo4eont'ins ' opul' 6be &ith '

*redi 'ti4e Co ple ent * < Alwa skeep this

one thing in mind.18< D lan Thomas died

in New Yor2 at the end of/ 9(.

19< 0ornflowers ma2e

1 5nfortunatel , thee)3eriment was no su**ess.

++< ;ar !ought herselfa new English di*tionar .

+,< She wears her hairlong these da s.

+)< ;rs :o!inson iswonderful.&'9/ 0homs2 sees histheor os su3erior to that ofDe Saussure.

3. ! .10

PREDICATI#EAD UNCTS$nte7t ,%)%9*eh'4e seen thee7' ple?

9>< Willi' &'l/ed slo&lydo&n the ro'd%

(lo0ly is ' :* Ad;un t ito urs inside :*% $ts 2un tion isth't o2 e7pressin# the 'nner o2&'l/in#% We sh'll no& loo/ 'tso e 'ses in &hi h ' :*Ad;un t 'lso h's ' non'd4erbi'l 2un tion%

r' /et onstituents in the2ollo&in# senten es% ry todeter ine &hi h :*

onstituents 're Co ple ents'nd &hi h 're option'l

-10! s (( heyL (((h'4e p'inted (((the houseL V%t redL L L

Ad1er!ial

redi*ati1


94/212

redL L LWh't is the GF o2 the N*thehouse Wh't is the 2un tion o2red @b4iously%red s'ysso ethin# 'bout the ' ti4ity o23p'intin#3( but in 'ddition it

predi 'tes so ethin#

o2 the N*J@d? the house is red 's 'result o2 the p'intin#3? thusredis used both 'd4erbi'lly 'nd predi 'ti4ely% - he 'ti 'lly(&e 'y represent the intern'lrel'tions inside the :* o2 98+'< He s'id s uQ*th'tL s%%% L

>+b9< M'ry &ondered 5 oupL sIohn 4%*&'s doin# NF&h'tL L $L

&here the N*0hat is the Dire t @b;e t 'nd 2ollo&s the 4erbdo. Asyou see( the C@M* slot is le2t un2illed here% he &h phr'se &hi h &e2ind inside the subordin'te l'use in >9< is o4ed out o2 - intoC@M*?

nli/e that, the o ple entisers0hether 'nd i" indi 'te th't the sub80

$ndire t uestions i%e% subordin'te l'uses introdu ed b0hetherorrespond to dire t uestions o2 theCes!*o type% Co p're? l:h

>,'< He 's/ed her? _ M'y $#o ho e &ith you=3

>,b< He 's/ed her

2h et he rl he i#ht #o ho e

&ith her%

$n )%+%+ &e h'4e seen th'tdire tCes!*o `estionsunder#o -A$% $ndire tCes!*o

uestions( on the other h'nd('re not sub;e t to -A$%Consider?

>)< %%% o(((*&hether sheL ((((( i#htL

#o ho e &ith herL L

he nor 'l -u Au7 &ordorder is preser4ed here( 'ndthe presen e o2 the

o ple entiser 60hether ori" si#n'ls th't the subordin'te

l'use is ' uestion%8.'.9.' Indire*t +h#

uestionse7t )%+%,%1( 's &e h'4e seen(ont'ins the 2ollo&in#o ple7 senten e?>5< Do you /no&

0hat happens 0hen one o"

your tail l ights "ailshe it'li ised strin# is 'n

indire t &h uestion(orrespondin# to the dire tuestion?>"< Wh't h'ppens

&hen one o2 your t'il li#hts2'ils=

Ho& do &e 2or stru tures&ith indire t &h uestions=!et us 'ssu e th't &e st'rt2ro the b'si senten e p'tterns 's des ribed in ,%)%>%

C@M*% With dire t uestions('s &e h'4e seen( &h

o4e ent is 2ollo&ed by-A$% here is no -A$ ine bedded &h uestions

doing.

E7 l' 'tions?%hat" l h

8.'.9.( Long +h#mo1ement

!et us loo/ 't the senten e? (81< Who do they thin/ is


121/212

p , )Assu e th't &e h'4e 'senten e su h 's?

>>< M'ry&ondered? Wh't is Iohn

doin#=3

he strin# &ith uot'tion'r/s is 'n e7' ple o2 dire t

spee h or thou#ht? &e reportM'ry3s thou#hts or &ordsdire tly% Ho&e4er( &e 'y'lso de ide to report theindire tly by e'ns o2 'ne bedded senten e?

re e ber th't there &'s no-A$ in e bedded Ces!*o

uestions either%E7pl'in &h't &e e'n by

s'yin# th't in e7' ples li/e>5< 0h o4e ent 'pplies4' uously3 2% )%+%)55< 'nd >8


122/212

he l'use6that 0ho is spying on them all the time is subordin'te itis 'n @b;e t l'use o2thin4. Wh o4e ent '#'in t'/es out &ho 'nd

o4es it 2irst to the C@M* o2 the e bedded l'use -< belo& 're 2urther inst'n es o2 lon# &ho4e ent? the d'shes lo 'te the 4' 'ted position the #'p bound by the

&h phr'se


123/212

118 Processes Processes 119Ho& should &h o4e ent be 'rried out here= *ied pipin# is obli#'toryPost odi24in# rel'ti4e< l'uses 'y help to identi2y the re2erent o2 the

-uper2i i'lly( the p'ttern o2 the post odi2yin# is si il'r( but notite identi 'l( to th't o2 indire t &h estions see )%+%5%+


124/212

uite identi 'l( to th't o2 indire t &h uestions see )%+%5%+


125/212

1+0 Processes Processes 1+1

1+,< he 'n

118< he 2il &hi h &e s'& 't the A C l'st &ee/ h's been b'nned 2ro 'll o22i i'l pro#r' es%

119< he 'n &ho you see o4er there is the o&ner o2 theo p'ny%


126/212

&ho 0

th't1+8< the 'n &ho < &e li/ed so u h

0

He'd noun? they 'y n'rro& do&n the re2eren e o2 the He'd% Fore7' ple( in? the man 0ho li es ne t door, the rel'ti4e l'use O holi es ne t door indi 'tes &ho e7' tly the spe'/er is t'l/in# 'bout%

hle l'use pro 4ides in2or 'tion th't is essenti'l 2or theidenti2i 'tion o2; the re2erent% Rel'ti4e l'uses o2 this /indarene ess'ry i2 it is not le'r 2rot n the onte7t &ho the spe'/er isre2errin# to% hey 're s'id to berestricti+e& Here 're so e 'ddition'le7' ples o2 restri ti4e rel'ti4e l'uses it'li ised


127/212

o e% Co p re?

&e &ere 'll &'itin# 2or did not o e%

i2 the preposition is str'nded( the o4ed &h &ord on its o&n 'n be deleted% Noti e the use o2 the 6ero rel'ti4e pronoun in -ub;e t position in

stru tures o2 the type?There is a gentleman at the door G 0ishes to see you 2% )%)%,< 'nd o2 the(type? It is ane G ga e the boo4 to )ill 6c".

.'.1 .

8.'.


128/212

1,0< '< WH 6h that

C@M* is thus reser4ed 2or &h ele ents '< 'nd 2or o ple entisersb


129/212

1 2 4 Processes

Pr o c e s s e s 1+5I& C6;s,5(* &'( 86996:,; ()


130/212

: 6@

&'


131/212

6@ :'6

1" T'( @


132/212

odi2 ier

( 6 !t hat

-< -oon'2ter bre'/2'stM'ry Ann brou#htin he i es%(oon a"ter

brea4"ast h's been2ronted? it is '

**JA%

1"8< M'ry Ann

(((brou#ht in he i es3

soon '2ter bre'/2'stLL

Co p're 'lso?

1"9'< $ h'4e ne4er be2oreet ' 'n li/e Iohn%1"9b< Ne4er be2ore h'4e $et ' 'n li/e Iohn%

Frontin# o2ne er be"ore inthis 'se tri##ers -A$%

*'rti les o2 phr's'l 4erbs1>0< 'nd **s 1>1< 'y 'lso

1

>1

"< @ne 'ssu es th't nothin# but %%% &ill pre4ent the 2ro #oin#to steep%

he hoi e o2 the ite se eryone 'nd one 's underlyin# -ub;e t N*s in5< 'nd "< is 2'irly 'rbitr'ry( o2 ourse? so e other #ener'l N* &ould

'lso h'4e been possible here% $n 'ny 'se( the ub;e t N*s o2 5< 'nd "< the -ub;e t o2 the 4erbless l'use is ' 2inite th't l'use in +8< 'nd +8< sound 4ery '&/&'rd they 'n


150/212

no non#e)tra3osed 1ersion, i.e. where it#e)tra3osition iso!ligator . 7or e)am3le"

3That it would !e !etter if she went onher own was thought. This must !e*ome"It was thought that it would !e !etter if she went on her own.

!.!.1." I& ()&*


151/212

%-%? N* 4*: 5 5L


152/212

,>< We 'lled it 4ery re#rett'ble th't she 'rri4ed so l'teL6 8

It is the pl' e holder 2or the e7tr'posed @b;e t l'use? it is the#r' 'ti 'l or 'nti ip'tory @b;e t o2called, 'nd the th't l'use is thenotion'l @b;e t% he #r' 'ti 'l @b;e t is l'belledod" to distin#uish it2ro nor 'l3 @b;e ts @d< 2% 'lso the distin tion 'bo4e bet&een su'nd -u )%)%1%1


153/212

&ould then h 4e the 2ollo&in# n lysis?)+< We 4 p 'lled "("oditL s o ( < ( d i p$C4ery re#rett'bleL L

s(odth't she 'rri4ed so l'teL L

!.!.2 SUB ECT #ERB IN#ERSION!et us onsider the 2ollo&in# te7t%

Te t . .2l' /st'ble &'s ' 2ishin# 4ill'#e% $t onsisted o2 ' hi#h street in

&hi h &ere the shops( the b'n/( the do tor3s house( 'nd the houseso2 t&o or three o'lship o&ners% Round the little h'rbour &eresh'bby streets in &hi h li4ed 2isher en 'nd poor people%Ad'pted 2ro W% -o erset M'u#h' (;"


154/212

his o4e ent is obli#'tory%b< -ub;e t :erb $n4ersion produ es?

si p 50< sh'bby streets in &hi hS COM P

! :H

on2ir ed by -ub;e t Au7 $n4ersion?5+< Were there three h'pels in the 4ill'#e=

b< the N*three chapels. -upport 2or this 'n be 2ound in the 2' t th'tthis N* 'nd the 4erb h'4e '#ree ent% Co p're?

!


155/212

he in4ersion is not obli#'tory%here is 'nother e7' ple o2 &h o4e ent 'nd -:$ in te7t )%)%+

'bo4e% C'n you 2ind it=

-:$ o2ten #re'tly i pro4es the style o2 ' senten e by re'tin# ' better b'l'n e bet&een the be#innin# 'nd the end o2 the senten e% heresult is '#'in th't ' pro inent -ub;e t is o4ed into the 2o us position 't the end o2 the senten e% $t is o2ten 'lled ' stylistiin4ersion3%

!i/e it e7tr'position( -:$ shi2ts ' onstituent to&'rds the end o2 thesenten e%

here is 'n interestin# di22eren e bet&een -ub;e t :erb $n4ersion'nd -ub;e t Au7 $n4ersion% -:$ h'n#es the order o2 -u 'nd : by

o4in# -u ri#ht&'rds( pl' in# it '2ter : in the :*( &here's -A$reorders -u 'nd 'u7 by o4in# 'u7 tense< le2t&'rds out o2 the :*(

pl' in# it in 2ront o2 -u% Co p're?

-:$? s N* J-u V%*% % % : %%%L L V s V(*% % % : %%%

N*J-uL L AI: s N* J -u (%*Au7 ns < : %%%LL isAu7

ns< N*J-u

[ y PV ...] ]

4.4. THE:E#INSE:TI6NConsider e7' ple 51


156/212

his is 'n -u : A L senten e% r' /et the onstituents 'nd l'bel the %51< 'nd 5)< 'n be rel'ted by ' o4e ent oper'tion( &hi h shi2ts the

-ub;e t N* in 5)< ri#ht&'rds -:$< to the position '2terbe

55< &ere three h'pels in the 4ill'#e%$nto the 4' 'ted slot &e then insert ' du y ele ent?there. There!insertion in 55< #i4es us 51< 'bo4e% !i/eit, there ser4es to 'nnoun eth't the notion'l -ub;e t is to 2ollo&% here senten es( 'lso 'llede7istenti'l senten es( 're o2ten used to introdu e ne& ele ents into thedis ourse( 's the 2ollo&in# te7t illustr'tes?

Te t . .3here &'s ' uni4ersity in Ne& En#l'nd &here the students oper'ted

' b'n/ o2 ter p'pers 'nd other ho e&or/ 'ssi#n ents% here &ere p'pers 2or e4ery need? there &ere p'pers 2or 'n A #r'de( p'pers 2or ' 'nd p'pers 2or ' C%$n this uni4ersity there &'s 'lso ' student &ho h'd spent the

&ee/end on pursuits other th'n ho e&or/ he &ent to the h'n/% Hedre& out ' p'per 2or C( retyped it( 'nd h'nded his &or/ in% $n due

ourse he re ei4ed it b' / &ith o ents in red in/ 'nd they &ere's 2ollo&s? 3$ &rote this p'per ysel2 t&enty ye'rs '#o% $ 'l&'ysthou#ht it &orth 'n A( 'nd no& $ ' #l'd to #i4e it one%

Ad'pted 2ro Christi'n r'nn( *'ss the Port.

here insertion is usu'lly only possible &ith inde2inite -ub;e ts 'nd the4erb used is nor 'lly be either the le7i 'l 4erbhe, or one o2 the'u7ili'ry uses o2 be


157/212

here insertion is 'lso possible &ith ' s 'll nu ber o2 other 4erbs(&hi h usu'lly rel'te to the ide' o2 3bein#3( 3 o in# into bein#3( e7istin#3(

et % Consider ho& there insertion h's oper'ted in the 2ollo&in#?",< here &ill 'rise ' lot o2 on2usion '2ter the de'th o2 the*resident%

")< here ' e ' brie2 spell o2 be'uti2ul &e'ther%"5< here 'ppe'red 'nother pi ture on the l'r#e s reen%""< here e7ist t&o opies o2 this edie4'l 'nus ript%">< here o urred 'nother ' ident the ne7t d'y%

"8< A2ter independen e there 2ollo&ed ' period o2 #re't politi 'l unrest%

!.!.! EXTRAPOSITION FROM NP

A 2urther ethod o2 b'l'n in# the senten e is by e7tr'position 2ro 'n N*% $n the se tions 'bo4e &e h'4e seen th't he'4y -ub;e ts 'y be

o4ed to&'rds senten e 2in'l position% For e7' ple?"9< $t is ' s 'nd'l th't they h'4e 'llo&ed this pr' ti e 2or so

lon#%

>0< $n this 're' li4e 2isher en( p'inters( iron on#ers(o'l iners( 'nd uns/illed &or/ers%

he tenden y to o4e he'4y onstituents to the ri#ht is 4ery #ener'l inEn#lish% We sh'll #i4e ' 2e& ore e7' ples belo&% Consider( 2ore7' ple(

>1< 'nd >+


158/212

oper'tion in the b< senten es( &e see th't it splits up the N* into t&o p'rts?

>,< ((((th't 'n %%% pr (&ith those 2unny lothesL

he ** 0ith those "unny clothes is not 'n independent onstituent? it'n not be the 2o us ele ent in ' le2t senten e( 2or e7' ple% We 'n

thus s'y th't N*s 'y be discontinuous: their o ponents 'y besep'r'ted by inter4enin# 'teri'l%

$denti2y dis ontinuous N*s in the senten es belo&% Restore e' h senten e to its ori#in'l order &ith the *ost odi2ier i edi'tely 2ollo&in#the He'd o2 the N*% !'bel the inter4enin# onstituents%

>)< $ re ei4ed 'n 'nony ous letter l'st &ee/ &hi h r'ther sho /ede%

>5< here li4es ' 'n round the orner &ho &'s born in -outhA2ri '%

>"< Did you he'r the ne&s the other d'y th't une ploy ent bene2its 're #oin# to be ut by 10 per ent=

>>< A 'n ' e into our shop l'st &ee/ &ho told us he &'s N'poleon3s #re't #r'ndson%

o deter ine GFs in senten es su h 's >)< >>)9'< h's the2ollo&in# p'ttern? N*J-u : N*J@i N*J@d N*JAL% >9b< is4ery si il'r( but the Dire t@b;e t N* h's no& been

Write t&o ore e7' ples 2ore' h o2 the 2i4e types o2

o4e ent ;ust entioned%Re onstru t the underlyin# b'si p'ttern 2or e' h e7' ple'bo4e 'nd 2or the e7' ples&hi h you h'4e de4ised


159/212

y$n the 2ollo&in# e7' ples( too( the @d h's been shi2ted ri#ht&'rds%

r' /et the Dire t @b;e t N*% Note th't i2 you repl' e the he'4y N* by' short one e%#% ' pronoun9b


160/212

y

Te t . .$

l' /st'ble &'s ' 2ishin# 4ill'#e% $t onsisted o2 ' hi#h street in&hi h &ere the shops(% the b'n/( the do tor3s house( 'nd the houseso2 t&o or three o'lship o&ners? round the little h'rbour &eresh'bby streets in &hi h li4ed 2isher en 'nd poor people but sin ethey &ent to h'pel they &ere o2 no ' ount% When Mrs% C'rey p'ssed the dissentin# inisters in the street she stepped o4er to theother side to '4oid eetin# the ( but i2 there &'s not ti e 2or this2i7ed her eyes on the p'4e ent% $t &'s ' s 'nd'l to &hi h the :i 'rh'd ne4er resi#ned hi sel2 th't there &ere three h'pels in the Hi#h-treet? he ould not help 2eelin# th't the l'& should h'4e stepped into pre4ent their ere tion%

W%-o erset M'u#h' (;"


161/212

di22eren e is th t in the o on type o2 rel ti4e l uses theth'tJ&hoJ&hi h ele ent 'nnot be le2t out i2 it is the -ub;e t o2 the

l'use( but in le2t senten esthat, 0ho, or 0hich 'n be o itted inollo ui'l style i2 it is the -ub;e t o2 the l'use% Co p're?8'< he #irl &ho #'4e the boo/ to ill is y sister%>b< U he #irl #'4e the boo/ to ill is y sister%

9'< $t is I'ne &ho #'4e the boo/ to ill%9b< $t is I'ne 0 #'4e the boo/ to ill%

-ee 'lso )%+%"%,%he te7t belo& illustr'tes the use o2 le2t senten es% identi2y the

le2t senten es in the te7t% ry to re&rite the te7t &ithout the le2tsenten es%

Te t .'.1.et no one 'n l'i th't sin e then !'bour3s di22i ulties h'4edi inished in 2' t they h'4e in re'sed 'nd ultiplied% $t &'s Mr%Foot &ho presided o4er( 'nd in 2' t p'rtly pre ipit'ted( the de2e tiono2 ,0 !'bour M*s to the -D* the bi##est split in !'bour3s historysin e 19,1 it &'s Mr% Foot &ho tried 'nd 2'iled to in lude Mr% ennin ' unity en ' p ent o2 the p'rty ' 2'ilure o2 su h di ensionsth't ;ust o4er 1+ onths '#o he es 'ped by the erest h'ir3s bre'dth2ro h'4in# hi 2oisted on hi 's his o&n deputy it is Mr% Foot

&ho( h'4in# st'ted l'st 'utu n th't there &ould be so ethin#3in onsistent3 'bout ' ti4e Milit'nt end'n y supporters st'ndin# 's!'bour 'ndid'tes( no& #i4es e4ery indi 'tion o2 ' uies in# inei#ht or nine o2 the doin# e7' tly th't%

;bser er, 2& Febru'ry 198,%

i l l ! 8.9.' SE5D6#0LE7TING 5 $

Cle2tin# is ' use2ul &'y o2 '/in# le'r &h't you 're 2o usin# on( but

15+ Processes Processes 15,"< M'ry 'y buy her

&eddin# dress in!ondon 'nd

10< Wh't I'ne did &'s #i4e the boo/ to ill on -'turd'y%11< Wh't the &'iter did &'s open the beer tins 2irst%

-he 'nd it 're person'l pronouns 2% +%)%+%+


162/212

We 2o us on the :* #i4ethe hoo4 to )ill on (aturday, or open thebeer!tins "irst by puttin# it senten e 2in'lly 'nd pl' in# the strin#?0hat

*P/(u did &'s %%% be2ore it% his pro ess is 'lled(seudo-clefting&-o e ore e7' ples?

1+< Wh't ill &ill do isha e a H uic 4 sho0er be"ore he lea es.1,< Wh't Anne did &'s ope n the bo and ta4e out the gun.1)< Wh't $ ' doin# is trying to clear up this mess.

*seudo le2tin# is not only used 2or 2o usin# on the :* 's ' &hole%@ther onstituents 'n 'lso be 2o used on by pseudo le2tin#% Fore7' ple?

15'< $ need ' i#'rette 'nd ' drin/ ost 't this ti e o2 the d'y%

15b< Wh't I need most at this time o" the day is a cigarette and adrin4.

%hat ... day in 15b< is ' 2ree rel'ti4e l'use )%+%"%5< 2un tionin# 's-ub;e t% $t 'y 'lso be ' Co ple ent *


163/212

Te t .$ 3.ou p'&ned your 'unt3s broo h=33.es%3And th't ende'red you to her=33$ &ill e7pl'in 'll th't l'ter% Me'n&hile( let e be#in 't the

be#innin#% H'4e you e4er run ' ross ' 'n n' ed Ioe the !'&yer=3No%3

-tout 2ello& &ith ' 2' e li/e ' h'##is%33$34e ne4er et hi %3Ende'4our not to do so( Cor/y% $ h'te to spe'/ ill o2 y 2ello&

'n( but Ioe the !'&yer is not honest%33Wh't does he do= *'&n people3s broo hes=3

/rid#e 'd;usted the #in#er beer &ire th't held his pin e ne6 to his2l'ppin# e'rs 'nd loo/ed &ounded%

his is s 'r ely the tone $ li/e to he'r in 'n old 2riend( Cor/y%When $ re' h th't point in y story( you &ill see th't y p'&nin# o2Aunt Iuli'3s broo h &'s ' per2e tly nor 'l( str'i#ht2or&'rd 'tter o2 business% Ho& else ould $ h'4e bou#ht h'l2 the do#=3

H'l2 &h't do#=33Didn3t $ tell you 'bout the do#=3 No%3$ ust h'4e done% $t3s the nub o2 the &hole '22'ir%3

Well( you didn3t%3*%G% Wodehouse( Oord #rns0orth and ;thers.

Another i port'nt repl' i4e de4i e &hi h 'y be used to '4oidrepetition is the strin#do so, 's in?

5< M'ry bou#ht her &eddin# dress in !ondon 'nd so did I'ne%

he strin# do so substitutes 2or the :*bought her 0edding dress in Oondon. $2 the :* ont'ins 'u7ili'ries( these 'y 'lso be used 's

substitutes 2or the entire :*?'ne may too so may I'ne

#

15) Processes Processes 1''

,< )< 5< -us'n 'y 'lre'dy h'4e le2t 'nd Annemay ha etoo so may Anne

Find repl' i4e uses o2do or o2 other 'u7ili'ries in te7t )%"%$t is( o2 ourse( possible to re&rite the te7t 'bo4e( supplyin# 2or e' h

-us'n &ill sin# ' son# or she < &ill pl'y the pi'no%

ill 'rri4ed 't ei#ht but he< h'd to le'4e i edi'tely%


164/212

$t is( o2 ourse( possible to re&rite the te7t bo4e( supplyin# 2or e h pro 2or the ele ents it repl' es% Ho&e4er( this &ould '/e the te7trepetitious 'nd o4er e7pli it? there &ould be ' #re't de'l o2 redund'ntin2or 'tion% $t is ' 'tter o2 e ono y to use substitute 2or s 2orele ents or in2or 'tion 'lre'dy /no&n to the re'der or he'rer%

!.7 ELLIPSIS

$t is not ;ust pro 2or s th't 're used to e ono ise in l'n#u'#e% Fore7' ple( spe'/ers o2ten redu e redund'n y bylea ing out super2luousin2or 'tion( i%e% in2or 'tion &hi h 'n e'sily be re o4ered 2ro thesitu'tion or the onte7t% his pheno enon is 'lled ellipsis% Ellipti 'lsenten es depend 2or their interpret'tion on &h't pre edes the in

dis ourse% hus( in?1< A? When did -us'n le'4e= ? +t t0o o cloc4.

We 'y 'ssu e th't in the response senten e3 it'li ised< the strin#-us'n le"t h's been o itted% $n the se tions belo& &e sh'll loo/ 'tso e e7' ples o2 ellipsis in En#lish%

8.=./ S5C@E0TDELETI6NConsider the 2ollo&in# senten e?

+< /rid#e 'd;usted the #in#er beer &ire th't held his pin e ne6

to his 2l'ppin# e'rs 'nd loo/ed &ounded%he senten e is o pound o ple7? it ont'ins t&o oordin'tedl'uses( the se ond o2 &hi h isloo4ed 0ounded, but this is in o plete

's it st'nds? loo4ed 0ounded is ' :* &ithout N*J-u% C'n you supplythe issin# -ub;e t= $ntuiti4ely( &e /no& th't the -ub;e t o2loo4ed0ounded ust ,e L4ridge, or he ... and he loo4ed 0ounded.

$t is h'r' teristi o2 l'uses oordin'ted byand or 'nd but th't the-ub;e t o2 the se ond l'use 'y be deleted i2 it is o re2erenti'l tothe -ub;e t o2 the 2irst l'use 2% +%+%+


165/212

p g p ( y

>< Iohn &'s e'tin# orn2l'/es 'nd M'ry porrid#e%

his /ind o2 deletion is 'lled 4erb #'ppin#% Note th't you 'n only#'p o4er 'd;' ent l'uses?8< Iohn 0as 0riting 'n ess'y( ill 0as reading a no4el 'nd Anne

' short story%$n 8< the #'pped : in the third l'use ust be0as reading5 it 'nnot be 0as 0riting.

!et us loo/ 't 'nother e7' ple &ith su h p'r'llelis s?9< Iohn li/ed the 2il 'bout G'ndhi 'nd M'ry disli/ed the 2il

'bout G'ndhi%Here the : di22ers( but the N*J@d is identi 'l?the "ilm about @handi.We 'n repl' e 9< by 10


166/212

his is 'n N* 2% te7t )%" 'bo4e< U here is stout 2ello& &ith ' be'rd in the other roo %he deter iner h's been ellipted in 1)


167/212

The hoo2 leprosy urse re'lly e7isted% ut people do not belie4e these thin#s to

be re'l% hey 're thou#ht to be ' ts o2 i '#in'tion%$ used e ory 'nd sho&ed th't e ory &or/s% ut $ #ot one thin#&ron# in the boo/ 'nd $ &ish $ h'd not #ot it &ron#? th't &'s the Dyerin ident( $ &rote th't Dyer o 'nded only &hite troops% $n 2' t( there&ere $ndi'n troops too% Gener'l Dyer told his troops to 2ire on 'nun'r ed ro&d in the streets%

$ did not intend the boo/ to be t'/en 's 'n or' le boo/ either% $n 2' t( people 2eel li/e th't 'bout the boo/( ho&e4er% he politi 'l p'rts o2 theboo/ &ere intended to re4e'l 'ny thin#s &hi h h'd been 2'lsi2ied%


168/212

&( %

*hildren !elie1e

C O N 1 P Si

h oN P

that$

158 *on!"inite -lauses

senten es &ith "in ite @b;e t l'uses( 'nd one o2 senten es &ithnon! "init e @b;e t l'uses%

Te t '.2.1$t be ' e le'r to e th't $ &'nted to &rite 'hoo4 b'sed on y

hild hood in o b'y% $2 you &'nt to &rite boo/s 'bout yourhildhood( you ust de4elop so e sort o2 str't'#e % $ de ided tot'/e ' hild3s 4ie& o2 the &orld%

he boo/ sho&s ho& hildren belie4e they 're responsible 2ore4ery thin# in their li4es% $ &'nted to re ount y hildhood in th't&'y% ut $ did not &ish the boo/ to be o e ' 2' ily s'#'% @2

ourse( there is 'l&'ys the proble o2 4erisi ilitude? e4eryonethin/s th't you 're &ritin# str'i#ht 2ro li2e% hey 'll belie4e your p'rents &ere re'lly li/e th't% $n 2' t( the house $ li4ed in &'s li/e thehouse in the boo/% he lo / to&er is still there the ser4'nt &ith the

boo/ &ere intended to re4e l ny thin#s &hi h h d been 2 lsi2ied%here see ed to e7ist ' onspir' y in the ountry% *eople pre2erred

4ery u h 2or these thin#s to be 2or#otten%

he pro ess o2 &ritin# &'s 4ery onsu in#% -o eti es $ thou#htth't $ &'s 'd% $t &'s su h 'n irr'tion'l ' t 2or e to be &ritin# ' hoo/on this sub;e t% Most o2 the ti e $ thou#ht it &ould not be published%

Ad'pted 2ro :ogue, De e ber 198+%

9.' .' 7INITE S5C6:DINATE 0LA5SESe7t 5%+%1 'bo4e ont'ins the 2ollo&in# senten e?

1< he boo/ sho&s ho& hildren belie4e they 're responsible 2ore4erythin# in their li4es%

r' /et the 'in onstituents in 1


169/212

N &-P T ; s # s

' 6 s1T ; s s , / ~v

06;

O I N

theTnst$

A 5 Pare AZN

/Nres3onsi!le ror

e1er thingin their li1es

sl13he boo/ (psho&s ho& ((( hildren 4 pbelie4e 3 th't'


186/212

1>8 Reana lysi s Reana lys is 1>9'2ter bre'/2'st%

$:< i n 7 The Times 'nnot be uestioned by ' &h &ord?

FC:hen S U%here Nor do &e #et?

ill< he ** 'y be repl' ed by 'n 'ppropri'te Ad;un t( here 'ti e Ad;un t6then

b h h

bre'/2'st%

$$$< in7 The Times 'nnot be repl' ed bythen or there

UM'ry Ann brou#htthen here1

did M'ry Ann brin# '2ter bre'/2'st%


187/212

M'ry Ann brou#ht in he i esthen.

$:< he ** 'y be uestioned by ' &h ite li/e0hen, 0here or't 0hat time%hen did M'ry Ann brin# in he i es=

+t 0hat time did M'ry Ann brin# in he i es=

:< he ** 'y be sep'r'ted 2ro the rest o2 the senten e by 'nAd;un t Ad;un ts 'n only be inserted bet&een ';or onstituents they thus 'r/ onstituent bound'ries


188/212

ele ents or to h'n#e the &ord order% his is indeed on2ir ed bythe 2ollo&in# senten es( 'll o2 &hi h 're #r' 'ti 'l tests :$%+%) @NE W@RD *HRA-E-@2 ourse( not 'll N*s h'4e *re odi2iers or *ost odi2iers( or NCo ple ents% Ho&e4er( &e h'4e sho&n +%)%+%,< th't sin#le &ord phr'ses 6chocolate, mil4, et %< 're 'lso to be tre'ted 's N*s% heseone &ord phr'ses 'n thus 'lso he #i4en ' l'yered stru ture?

1)< N

Det

N

o ho ol'te

19) Oe els o" (tructure Oe els o" (tructure 195

C. VE?B P ?A E

7.3.1 LAYERING IN #PShe su##estion put 2or&'rd 2or l'yerin# N*s 'n be e7tended to :*s%

Here '#'in &e distin#uish bet&een the le4el o prisin# the He'd 'nd

C.4 P?EPO I IONAL P ?A E

y 'n'lo#y( the distin tion bet&een le4els o2 pro;e tion in N* 'nd :*'n 'lso be e7tended to **s% A#'in &e i#ht distin#uish the le4el o2 * Co ple ent i%e% *< 2ro ' hi#her le4el o2 pro;e tion in &hi h

2urther Ad;un ts or Modi2iers 're in luded *


204/212

its Co ple ents :< 'nd hi#her pro;e tions o prisin# : 'nd 'ny

option'l Ad;un t phr'ses :


205/212

8$*&'(* ,;&6

he tree di'#r' is e'nt to su##est th't "urther 'nd than )ill 2or 'dis ontinuous unit( 'nd 're to be interpreted to#ether%

C.H A@DE! IVE P ?A E

7.".1 COMPLEMENTS OF ADISWe h'4e seen th't Ad;s( li/e :s( t'/e Co ple ents% nli/e :Co ple ents( Ad; Co ple ents in En#lish 'nnot be N*s( but ust be re'lised by **s or -s% For e7' ple?

l'< U'&'re the d'n#er lb< '&'re o2 the d'n#er

l < '&'re th't she &'s in d'n#er 19" Oe els o" (tructure

+'< U'2r'id nu le'r &'r

+b '2r 'id o2 nu le'r &'r + < '2r'id th't they i#ht st'rt ' nu le'r &'r

1+< UHe is 'too nice to do such a thing 'n%1,< U.ou &ill not 2inda more ambitious

than (usan #irl% Ho&e4er( it is possible to 2ind the2ull Ad;* 's ' *ost odi2ier?

he Ad;s 'bo4e 'n be s'id to sub 'te#orise 2or ' ** introdu ed by

8< 9< Ad;*s 10 in 4erbless

l'uses 1)0( 1)1 &ith non2i i l' 1 8( 1 9

non ter in'l node 11nor insertion )9notion'l ob;e t @d< 1)+notion'l sub;e t -u< 1,>%1,5( 1)" noun N< ,( 9(,"% 58noun phr'se N*< "% 9% 15( ,58( )1% )+% 98( 11>% 1+5( 1+>(15"( 188% 189 9, nu ber3 "58( "9nu er'l ,>

p'ssi4is'tion ,( 1"( 18( ,0( >,(10+( 1,$ )% 1",( 1")

p'st tense 9( )" p'tient 18( "" per2e t 'spe t )> phoneti 2or +( , phr's' l 'te#ory 188% 19> phr's' l 4erb "5( 1,0% 180(181( 18) " phr's'l

l b (


211/212

2inite ,,( )2inite l'use "9( 1+>(158 "0 2inite 4erbphr'se< )( ,,( )> 2irst'u7ili'ry )8( )92l't stru ture 189 912o us 1,>2o usin# 85( 9,2o us position 1,>( 1,8( 1),

"or 's o ple entiser< 1"0(1"+( 1",( 1"9( 19"

"o r... to 2ilter 1+9( 1"+(11,,( 1"" 2or 1"2ree rel'ti4e l'use 1+,2rontin# 1"( 19( 10+( 1,0

2un tion see #r' 'ti ' l2un tion

#'ppin# 155( 180#ender ,8

#eniti4e 9( ,>#erund ,)

#r' 'r 15#r' 'ti 'l 'te#ory 5#r' 'ti 'l 2un tion )(

5% "" 100 #r' 'ti 'lsub;e t su< 1,>% 1,8he'd H< ,"( ,>( )1% )+% )8%

51( 5,( 55( "0( "1( 99( 19>he'4y ob;e t shi2t 1)8( 1)9

i edi'te onstituent 10%15 i edi'te do in'n e .."1,( ">( "8 inde2inite ontrol1>+indire t ob;e t 01< "8( >,(>) indire t uestion 10,(

) ( )2inite l'uses 1,8( 1,9&ith ob;e t l'uses 1)1 ,

/ernel o2 the N* )+

l'belled br' /etin# 1l'yerin# 19+( 19,

le4els o2 stru ture + )(. " 188 le7i 'l

'te#ory 188( 191le7i 'l ite ,( 11le7i 'l 4erb 50( 59( "5("9( 1>5 le7i on + )lin#uisti

o peten e 5"lo#i 'l 2or + )lon# &h o4e ent 115( 11"

'in 4erb 59'r/ed +,'t hin# ondition ,'7i 'l pro;e tion 19,e'nin# 1"( "5e'nin# o2 rel'ti4e l'uses

119( 1+0 od'l 'u7ili'ry( 50( 99( 10)

odi2ier Mod

onotr'nsiti4e 4erb )5(>,( 80( 8+ orphe e 5 8o4e ent ,

ne#'tion )9( 50noe $$( 159non 2inite l'use ,,( ,)( 9"(

1+>( 1"0 +( 1>0( 1>1non le7i 'l sub;e t 1"8( 1"9non o4ert ele ent 1+8non restri ti4e rel'ti4e l'use

1+0( 1+,( 1+>

,

ob;e t )( ,9( >,( 1,+ob;e t ontrol 1>1o issibility 81one substitution.!." 19+ one &ord phr'se )0( 19,open l'ss ele ent,>( )0 o4ertele ent 1+8

p'r'#r'ph +1 p'rsin# 1 p'rti ip'nt "" p'rti le 1,0( 180(185 p'ssi4esenten e 18( 1,1 ) p'ssi4e 4oi e )>( )8

preposition'l 4erb 18"( 18> phr'se 5 8( ,5 phr'se stru ture rule *- rule< +(

,( 10 1,( 101( 198 pied pipin# 111% 11-% 119 plur'l 9% ,8% 58( "9 possessi4e pronoun ,>( )0 postdeter iner *ostdet< ,> post odi2ier *osh nod< )1(11>( 19+( 19> postposition 5+("1 pr'# ' ti s ) predeter iner *redet< ,> predi 'te *red< ")( >0 predi 'ti4e 'd;un t * i A"% 18" prepositionstr'ndin# 111( 11+% 118( 1+1 preposition'l o ple ent

*rep < 51% 1>" preposition'lidio 18" preposition'l phr'se **< )1%

51% 5+( "1( 85( 99% 111% 11+(1>"( 1>>( 188% 195 preposition'l 4erb 18+ >

present tense )"( )8 pri e 19+ pro ess 1"% 1>% 10+ pro2orrn ,8% ),( $0+( 15+ pro#ressi4e 'spe t )>( )8 pro;e tion 188% 19+( 19> pro;e tion prin iple ) prono in'lis 'tion 1"% 18%19% ,0% 10, pronoun 18% ,>%,8

proper noun 58 pseudo le2tin# 1" 18( ,0%

10+( 151% 15+

uestion "9% 10+( 10,(11) uestion 2or 'tion50( 10+( 115

r'isin# ,( 1", 8&ith intr'nsiti4e 4erbs

'nd &ith 'd;e ti4es

restri ti4e rel'ti4e l'use 1+0(1+1( 1+)(

1+>restru turin#1>5ret'ined l'use 1")( 1""role 18

- stru ture + )

t'# 2or 'tion 50t'# uestion 50tense 'r/in# #6" 10"ter in'l node 1 1te7t .#" 15% +1te7t #r' 'r 1)that

's o ple entiser ,0( ,1("1% 11)( 1+1( 1+,

in 'ppositi4e l'uses1+5( 1+" in rel'ti4e

l'uses 1++% 1+ there


212/212

nd &ith d;e ti4es1"5 >

&ith p'ssi4e 4erbs 1", 5re'n'lysis 1>5redu ed rel'ti4e l'use 1+" 9re2erent ,"( 1+0( 1+,re2le7i4e pronoun )(3!" 1"9re2le7i4is'tion 1"9rel'ti4e l'use )1% 1$" +5( 1+>(185 rel'ti4e pronoun )( )1(..!" 1+0% 1+5( 185

se 'nti s )senten e -< 5 9( 11( 1, 15( +1(+) 9( >0( 1+1( 1,>senten e 'd;un t -'< >0( 85( 9,senten e #r' 'r 1)senten e stru ture 5% "( 9( 10% +1si plesenten e +9sin#ul'r ,8(58( "9s 'll l'use see 4erbless l'usespe i2ier -pe < ,"% ,>( )>( )8(5+( 99( 19> str'nded tense

'r/er 10" sub 't #oris'tion2r' e )( )5( "5( ""( >)(

>8( 108sub;e t -u< )% ,9( ")( "8( >1%9"% 10)(

1,,( 1,"( 1,>sub;e t 'u7 in4ersion -A1< ,("9% 10, 5(

115( 118% 1)5sub;e t ontrol 1"+% 1>1( 1>+sub;e t deletion $5)sub;e t 4erb in4ersion -:$

thet' riterion ,to in2initi4e ,,( 15>tr' e theory ,tr'ns2or 'tion ,( 10)tr'nsiti4e 4erb )5( >>( 8+% 1,+tree di'#r' 10 1,( +5( ")( 159(1>>( 18) tri'n#le ,

tri##ered pro esses. 6" $$$( $$-% 1,0( 1),( 1")( 1">

english grammar - a modern course in english syntax

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