environmental hazards for birds

Passenger PigeonPassenger PigeonEctopistes migratorius

Human Caused Environmental Impacts Human Caused Environmental Impacts Affecting Bird PopulationsAffecting Bird Populations

Carolina ParakeetCarolina ParakeetConuropsis carolinensis


Bald EagleBald EagleHaliaeetus leucocephalus


Peregrine FalconPeregrine FalconFalco peregrinus



Eskimo CurlewEskimo CurlewNumenius borealis


What is the Importance?

Photo by Steven Holt

Birds as an Indicator Organism

Measure of ecosystem health

Indicator of potential human impact

Bird watching as a hobby

Fastest growing hobby in U.S.

Ecotourism

Rapidly growing industry

Sensitivity to Environmental FactorsSensitivity to Environmental Factors

• Selective Habits– Food Source, Nest location

• Human Tolerance– encroaching development

• Territory– Larger = more factors

• Location in the Food Web– Higher up, more risks

• Migration Route– longer = more exposure

Ivory-billed Ivory-billed WoodpeckerWoodpecker

Campephilus principalis

Types of ImpactsTypes of Impacts

• Overharvesting

• Loss of Food Source

• Species Homogenization

• Introduced Competition

• Climate Change?

• Habitat Destruction

• Chemical Use

• Biotechnology?

Whooping CraneWhooping Crane

Grus americana

Over-harvesting and MismanagementOver-harvesting and Mismanagement

- Skins taken in Fur Trade• Feathers used for hats

• Skins used for powder puffs

• Thought to be extinct in 1900– 2 nests found in 1919

– 70 birds counted in 1935

– 640 birds by late 1950s

• 3 Populations Today– Pacific, Rockies, Restored

– est. 16,000 birds

• 1918 Migratory Bird Act– First step to protect migrating species

Tundra SwanTundra Swan

Cygnus columbianus

Trumpeter SwanTrumpeter Swan

Cygnus buccinator

Loss of Food SourceLoss of Food Source

• Red-headed Woodpecker forages among dead trees– “Cleaning-up” groves limits availability of

food

Red KnotRed KnotCaladris canutus

Red-headed WoodpeckerRed-headed WoodpeckerMelanerpes erythroceaphalus

• Rearing Young

• Migration– Red Knot migration coincides

with horseshoe crab egg laying• Drastic drop in crab population

• 80% Red Knot population depends on this food source

Species HomogenizationSpecies Homogenization

– Subspecies and forms• genetic diversity among species

– hybridization among subspecies increases immunity to disease

– Subspecies Extinction/Extirpation• Eliminates genetic diversity

• Impacts community viability– House Finch Example

» West Coast birds released 1940

» Rapid spread in Eastern US from few individuals

» Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis

House FinchHouse FinchCarpodacus mexicanus

Introduced CompetitionIntroduced Competition– Other Bird Species

• House Sparrow– Outcompetes cavity nesters

• European Starling– Cavity Nester– Nests up to 1 month earlier than Woodpeckers -

resident and migratory

– Mammals• Cats

– Estimated killing 1 billion songbirds

• Domestic animals on islands– Pigs and dogs in Hawaii– Endemic species most threatened

House SparrowHouse SparrowPasser domesticus

European StarlingEuropean StarlingSternus vulgaris

Is Climate Change Affecting Birds?Is Climate Change Affecting Birds?

– Sooty Shearwater• 1987 - 1994 non-breeding decline

– West Coast wintering declined 90%

– changes in ocean currents possibly caused by climate change

Sooty ShearwaterSooty ShearwaterPuffinus griseus

Adelie PenguinAdelie PenguinPygoscelis adeliae

– Adelie Penguin• Breeding numbers declining in last 40 years

– Reduction in consecutive heavy ice years

– Feeding sites fewer and farther between

Habitat DestructionHabitat Destruction

- Greatest Negative Impact on Populations• Nesting

– especially plains and forest

• Migration– removal of staging areas

» concentrated species means

greater potential for disease

» more limited food sources

• Wintering– safety from predators

– food sources

Northern Spotted Owl

Strix occidentals caurina

Habitat Destruction - Prairie EcosystemHabitat Destruction - Prairie Ecosystem

• Population decline in all prairie nesting species

• Salvaged Prairie areas too small to adequately support communities

• No species extinction yet.

Upland Sandpiper

Bartramia longicauda

Habitat Destruction - Wetland EcosystemHabitat Destruction - Wetland Ecosystem• Nesting

– biggest impact on waterfowl, wading birds

• Migration– Most significant impactMost significant impact on migrating species

• Fewer staging areas & are concentrated

White-faced IbisPlegadis chihi

Long-billed CurlewCatoptrophorus semipalmatus

Habitat Destruction - Forest EcosystemHabitat Destruction - Forest Ecosystem

• Fragmentation of Forest– Ex: Powerline, Roadway

– Creates Edges and Alleys for predators

» Cowbird Parasitism

» 20,000 acre forest to remove threat

Scarlet Tanager

Piranga olivacea

Wood Thrush

Hylocichla mustelina

• Clear-cutting – Obvious impacts on habitat

– replacement forest and understory may not be identical to the removed.

Brown-headed Cowbird

Molothrus ater

Habitat Destruction - Land DevelopmentHabitat Destruction - Land Development

– Riparian Development • Trees and Understory removed

– nest and foraging areas removed

• Louisiana Waterthrush– affected by cattle grazing in

streambanks

Louisiana Waterthrush

Seiurus motacilla

Piping Plover

Charadrius melodrus

– Beachfront Development• Crucial nesting for some species

– predator protection

• Piping Plover– human activity on beaches can damage

nests, and intimidate species

Chemical PesticidesChemical Pesticides

- Pesticide Use & Environmental Factors• Target Organism

– Food Source for something

• Environmental Persistence– Breakdown time (half-life)

• Biological Effects– Bioaccumulation (non-target)

» high accumulation can interfere with physiology

– Biomagnification (food chain)

– Bioactivation

» “pyrroles” such as chlorfenapyr

» metabolism activates effect

Laws Regulating Pesticide UseLaws Regulating Pesticide Use

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, Rodenticide Act– Federal Insecticide Act 1910

• aimed at protecting farmers from substandard or fraudulent products

– FIFRA passed in 1947 as consumer protection regulating pesticides

– Transferred from USDA to EPA in 1970– Endangered Species Act requires FIFRA to ensure

pesticide registration will not impact endangered species– Several Amendments in 70s and 80s to refine registration

process– FIFRA today

• Expedites “safer” chemicals to make available sooner

• Goal of 15 year registration renewal process to meet new standards

• Inspection of manufacturing facilities

• Does not pertain to exports

Laws Regulating Pesticide UseLaws Regulating Pesticide Use

Examples of Limitations of FIFRA

– FIFRA governs uses, not manufacturing

– Economic and Political Pressure• Azinphos-methyl (AZM) on market despite high risk

– USFWS indicates 118 endangered species jeopardized by AZM

• Diazanon linked to human cancer, 50 fatal bird poisonings– 1990 EPA cancelled use at golf courses, sod farms

– still permitted on lawns and agricultural crops

– available at local hardware store

– Permitting Process• Tedious process

• Pressure to quickly evaluate registration

• Several thousand chemical registrations per year

Chemical Pesticides - OrganochlorinesChemical Pesticides - Organochlorines

• Common Products– DDT

– Endrin

– Toxaphene

• High Solubility in Water– Easily entered aquatic food chains

• Highly soluble also in fat– not readily metabolized by organism

– not readily excreted by organism

– Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification common

• Chemical Stability and Persistence– Remained in soil, water for long periods

Species Impacts from OrganochloridesSpecies Impacts from Organochlorides


– DDT, DDE

OspreyOspreyPandion haliaetus

Peregrine FalconPeregrine FalconFalco Peregrinus

• Mosquito control

• Exposure Route– Eagle, Osprey - Fish

– Peregrine - Ducks, Waders

• Chemical Effect– Broke down enzyme

responsible for calcium hardening in eggshell



– Bald Eagle• Estimated N.Am. Population - 1700

– 1/4 to 1/2 million birds

• First Problem for species was Hunting– uneducated, paranoid, or fearful people

– 1880s extensive Eagle hunting.

• 1940 Eagle Protection Act

• 1950-1970 DDT Years– Also extensive winter habitat destruction

• 1963: Only 417 Nesting Pairs

• 1967: Predecessor to E.S.A.

• 1972: DDT Use Banned

• 1973: Endangered Species Act passed

• Today: 5,000+ Nesting Pairs


– Peregrine Falcon

Peregrine FalconPeregrine FalconFalco Peregrinus

• Also affected by DDT

• 1942: 275 eyries– Estimated 200 eyases produced

• 1964– Extensive survey found Zero eyases

– Scientists thought DDT was only a problem for fish eaters

– DDT into aquatic environments easily

» Nematodes took in DDT or DDE

» Aquatic plants also took in

» Shorebirds eat nematodes, Ducks eat aquatic plants

• Today: Peregrine removed from ESL– Estimated 485 pairs in U.S. and Canada

Future for Human Caused ImpactsFuture for Human Caused Impacts

– Humans and wildlife will always clash• Wildlife fill every niche

• Human development increases

– Knowing that clashes will occur…• What are tolerable losses?

• How can we minimize the impact?

• Can symbiosis occur between humans and wildlife?

– Science plays a crucial role in answering questions • Wealth of knowledge. Key is putting it together

Can we ever reallyreally know the impact of our actions on future generations?

Chemical Pesticides - OrganophosphatesChemical Pesticides - Organophosphates

• Derived from phosphoric Acid– Related to Nerve Gasses

– cholinesterase inhibitor

» accumulation of acetylcholine (Ach) leads to paralysis

• Usually More toxic than Organochlorines

• Typically unstable or nonpersistent

• 3 Main Organophosphate derivatives– Aliphatic - Carbon Chain (Malathion, Monocrotophos)

– Phenyl - Benzene Ring attached (Parathion)

– Heterocyclic - Different Ring Structures (Diazinon)

Species Impacts from OrganophosphatesSpecies Impacts from Organophosphates

Swainson’s HawkSwainson’s Hawk

Buteo swainsoni

- Monocrotophos

• Registration cancelled in U.S., Canada, and other countries

• Produced and marketed

• Swainson’s Hawk mortality– 1980s: Canada noticed fewer birds

– 1995: 5,000 found dead

– 1996: 20,000 killed

– 1997: 62,000 killed

• Ciba-Geigy: – 1/3 Argentine monocrotophos sales

– agreed to buy back remaining monocrotophos stock, and encourage other companies to follow suit.

Chemical Pesticides - CarbamatesChemical Pesticides - Carbamates

• Derived from carbamic acid

• Broad spectrum of use– Insecticide, nematicide use practical for variety of conditions &

methods of application

• Plant systemic insecticide– taken up in root system, but not metabolized by plant

» target organism eats plant, ingesting insecticide, dies

• Common Products– Aldicarb, (Temik)

– Carbofuran (Furadan)

– Carbaryl (Sevin)

» Most widely used Carbamate

Species Impacts from CarbamatesSpecies Impacts from CarbamatesDickcisselDickcissel

Spiza americana

- Carbofuran• 82 species killed by use

– Attributes to Dickcissel decline– 2000 songbirds killed in VA

» Investigation: “No evidence of misuse”

Brown PelicanBrown PelicanPelicanus occidentalis

• 1996 USFWS Statement“there are no known circumstances under which carbofuran can be used without killing birds”

• Documented in 17 kills in California in 1997

• Carbofuran is still manufactured and sold in the United States

Chemical Pesticides - PyrrolesChemical Pesticides - Pyrroles

• Bioactivation initiates effect• Chlorfenapyr awaiting registration

– First “pyrrole” to be submitted for registration

– beneficial use for cotton

– Persistent in soils

– significant reproduction effects in avian species

– Mallard testing

» 41% decrease in eggs laid

» 44% decrease in viable embryos

» 56% decrease in successful hatchings

» Decreased body weight in adults

Indirect Effects from Chemical PesticidesIndirect Effects from Chemical Pesticides– Alteration of Habitat

• Converting sagebrush to grazing land removes protection from predators

– Loss of Food Source• Especially important for migration

and nesting

• Nesting evolved to coincide with increased insect population

– Impaired Water Quality• Impacts base sources in food web

• Increases potential for disease

Brewer’s SparrowBrewer’s SparrowSpizella breweri

• Buy Organic Food

• Avoid Using Pesticides Around Home

• Keep Mosquitoes from Breeding in Your Yard

• Report a Poisoning Incident

What You Can DoWhat You Can Do

Bioengineered ProductsBioengineered Products• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

– Insert gene into organism to get a desired result

• Popular GOMs– bacillus theringus (bt) corn, roundup ready soybeans

• Benefits– Big savings for farmers

– Alternative to insecticide application

MonarchMonarchDannus plexippus

• BT-corn is causing quite a stir– Monarch butterfly population study

» 44% larvae loss from Bt corn pollen drift

» Survivors were 1/2 size of control group

• Study Considerations– Corn pollen drift about 30 feet maximum

– Not all Bt “events” tested. Only 2 of 5

• Other considerations– Effect on endangered Lepidoptera

Avian FluAvian Flu

• High Pathogenic H5N1– Domestic poultry is the main vector of the disease

– Highly transmissible between birds

– Fear of pandemic similar to Spanish flu 1918

– Not expected to diminish significantly in near term

– Person to person spread rare and unsustained

» Cases

• As of September 2006– 49 countries have confirmed

» 16% have found in both domestic and wild birds

– 246 Human infections (144 deaths)

– NONE believed to be from wild birds

Avian FluAvian Flu

environmental hazards for birds

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