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Environmental Impacts of Wind Parks, Demonstrated at the Wind Park Project in

Al Hijana, Syria

Master Thesis by

Dipl. Ing. Frank Philipp A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University and Kassel

University in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE

Under Supervision of: Prof. Dr. Adel Khalil Hassan Khalil Cairo University, Egypt Prof. Siegfried Heier Kassel University, Germany

Faculty of Engineering: Cairo University Giza, Egypt Kassel University, Germany

Closing date: 2011-02-28

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Abstract

The Syrian Arab Republic is planning to integrate wind power into their energy politics, and is currently tendering wind park projects on several sites. The goal is to increase the share of renewable energy in their energy portfolio to be more independent from fossil fuel energy. In the context of the master thesis of the study “Renewable Energy and Efficiency in Middle East North Africa” (REMENA year 2009) are the University of Cairo (Egypt) and the University Kassel (Germany). Students Aubai AL Khatib, Rifat Hasnou and the author of this thesis, Frank Philipp, are analysing the planned wind park, named Al Hijana, near Damascus. Rifat Hasnou is analysing the grid connection aspects, and is defining the optimal power input in his thesis “Grid integration of Al Haijana Wind Park”. Aubai AL Khatib researched the wind power predictions in the park configuration in the thesis titled “Developing a Wind Speed Prediction Tool Using Artificial Neural Networks and Designing Wind Park in Syria Using WASP Software”. This thesis, prepared by Frank Philipp, is researching the environmental aspects of this wind park planning. Wind turbine generators produce electrical energy by the natural and sustainable resource of wind without any emissions, but also have negative environmental impacts, which can be mitigated. The impact starts with the change of the use of ground for humans and nature due to the infrastructure, foundations and the turbines itself. Further, the turbines have noise emissions and shadow effects, which can harm or annoy people living close by. Additionally, the biosphere of flora and fauna, especially of birds and bats, can be disturbed or destroyed as wind turbines interact physically with the habitats. Lastly, social aspects of a wind park must be mentioned. There is a visual impact of the turbines, which changes the overall landscape appearance, and can have negative aspects of cultural and natural values. Therefore, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) for wind parks is important to protect nature and raise the acceptance in population. The thesis describes the environmental impacts and shows ways to mitigate these in general and especially for the Al Hijana wind park. The reasons for all impacts are analysed individually, mitigation and prediction methods are presented, and the legal aspects for Syria and Germany are also described. Currently, there is no wind park established in Syria. Also, guidelines, limits and laws for the EIA for wind turbines are not deeply elaborated in Syria. Therefore the author uses German regulations, which could be a recommendation for future Syrian rules. Due to more than 20,000 installed turbines and the huge population density, Germany has elaborated such regulations and is a good reference. For the prediction calculations, the widely spread software WindPRO2 is used. The wind park Al Hijana is placed about 4 km away from the next settlement, which is positioned in a triangle with the international airport of Damascus and the Tishreen power station in an industrial ambience. Due to the distance to the settlement, the desert and the industrial environment, the environmental impact is predicted as low. But some issues, like bird migration, could not be analysed within this thesis, but should be done for real project realisation.

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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deep gratitude to the initial organizers of the REMENA course of study - Prof. Adel Khalil, Dr. Sayed Kaseb and Prof. Jürgen Schmid and their teams. The study gave me the opportunity to change my career in the interesting field of renewable energy, enabled me to get insights into the fantastic Arab world. Further I want to thank my supervisor of University Kassel, Prof. Siegfried Heier, and his team, for supporting me in the development of this Master Thesis. Additionally I want to thank my thesis team consisting of Refat Hasoneh and Ubay Al Katib, who allowed me to join their thesis topic, the development of the wind park Al Hijana in Syria. Special thanks to Ubay Al Katib and Fadi Al Jwabra for supporting me in my Syrian fieldtrip, with information, contacts, sightseeing and accommodation. Finally, I am very grateful for the help and support of my family and friends, who encouraged me in the last two years of career and personal changes.

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Abstract I

Acknowledgement II

Table of Content III

List of Figures XII

List of Tables IX

List of Acronyms X

1   Introduction 1  2   Environmental Impact of Wind Turbine Generators 2  

2.1   Emission 2  2.2   Use of Ground 2  2.3   Effects on Nature 3  2.4   Impact on Landscape 4  

3   Status Wind Energy and EIA in Syria and Germany 6  3.1   Syria 6  

3.1.1   Renewables Energy in Syria 8  3.1.2   EIA for Wind Parks in Syria 9  

3.2   Wind Energy Situation in Germany 10  4   Legal Situation for Environmental Protection and EIA 12  

4.1   European Union (EU) Directives for Environment 12  4.1.1   Directive 97/11/EC Assessment of Public and Private Projects 12  4.1.2   Directive 2001/42/EC Assessment of Certain Plans and Programmes 13  4.1.3   Directive 2009/147/EC on the Conservation of Wild Birds 13  4.1.4   Directive 92/43/EEC Conservation of Natural Habitats 13  4.1.5   Directive 2001/77/EC Promote Renewable Energy 14  

4.2   German Environmental Protection Legislation 14  4.2.1   Feed in-Tariff-Law 15  4.2.2   Federal-Environment-Protection-Law 15  4.2.3   Construction-Law 16  4.2.4   Federal-Emission-Limitation-Law 16  4.2.5   Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law 17  

4.3   Approval Procedure for WTG’s in Germany 18  4.3.1   Designated Areas for Wind Parks 18  

4.3.1.1   Distances Between WTG’s and Population 18  4.3.1.2   Distance Regulations to Roads 18  4.3.1.3   Distance Regulations to Railways 19  4.3.1.4   Distance Regulations to High Tension Lines 19  4.3.1.5   Distance Regulations to Pipelines 19  4.3.1.6   Distances to Environmental Protection Areas 20  

4.3.2   Proceeding on the Granting of Permission 20  4.3.3   Approval Procedure Immission-Limitation-Law and Environmental-Impact-Law 20  

4.3.3.1   EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) UVP 22  4.3.3.2   Content of an EIA Study (UVP) 23  

4.3.4   FFH Flora and Fauna Habitat Environmental Impact Assessment 24  4.3.5   Landscape-Recovery-Plan 24  4.3.6   Content of Approval Documents for the Federal-Immission-Limitation-Law 25  

4.4   Syrian Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 28  4.5   Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure in Syria 28  

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4.5.1   Procedure of EIA 29  4.5.2   Content of the Screening Document 30  4.5.3   The Scoping Process 31  4.5.4   Public Consultation for the EIA 32  4.5.5   Preparation of the EIS (Environmental Impact Study) 32  4.5.6   Content of the EIS (Environmental Impact Study) 33  

4.6   Comparison Germany – Syria 36  5   Noise Impacts from Wind Parks 37  

5.1   What is Noise? 37  5.2   Effects of Noise on Health and Mood 40  5.3   Reasons for Noise Emission and Technical Reduction 42  

5.3.1   Mechanical Noise 43  5.3.2   Aerodynamic Noises 44  5.3.2.1   Audible Sound 44  5.3.2.2   Comparison of Stall and Pitch Regulated Wind Turbines 45  5.3.2.3   Infrasound and Low Frequency Sound (non-audible sound) 47  

5.3.3   Mapping of Noise of the Wind Turbines by Background Wind 48  5.3.4   Reduction of Aerodynamic Noise 48  

5.4   Norms, Laws, and Regulations for Noise Impact 50  5.4.1   Measuring Sound Emissions of Turbines with ISO 61400-11 50  5.4.2   Attenuation of Sound During Propagation Outdoors ISO 9613-2 52  

5.4.2.1   Calculation of the Attenuation 52  5.4.2.1.1   Calculation of the different damping factors 53  5.4.2.1.2   The Metrological Correction Factor Cmet 56  5.4.2.1.3   Noise Immission of Several Sources 56  

5.4.2.2   Accuracy and Evaluation of the Norm 56  5.4.3   Noise Immission Regulation (Acceptable Sound Pressure Levels) 57  

5.4.3.1   Noise Immission Regulation in Germany: TA Lärm 58  5.4.3.2   Regulations for Noise Emission Rating Levels in Germany 59  5.4.3.3   Additions for Tonality (KT) and Impulsivity (KI) 60  5.4.3.4   Prediction (Attenuation) of Sound Immission 60  5.4.3.5   Quality of Prediction 60  5.4.3.6   Handling the 90% Statistical Security in Brandenburg (Germany) 61  5.4.3.7   Calculation of Rating Noise Immission 63  

5.4.4   Noise Immission Laws and Regulations in Syria 65  6   Optical Impacts 66  

6.1   Flicker Effect (Shadow) 66  6.1.1   Health Effects of the Shadow Flickering 66  6.1.2   Positioning and Intensity of the Shadowing 67  6.1.3   Calculation of Shadowing and Limits in Germany 68  

6.1.3.1   Periodic Shadowing Limits 69  6.1.3.2   Prediction of Periodic Shadowing 69  

6.1.1   Situation in Syria 70  6.1.2   Mitigation Measures 70  

6.2   Flicker Effect (“Disco Effect”) 71  6.2.1   Situation in Germany 71  6.2.2   Situation in Syria 71  

6.3   Illumination by Flashing Warning Light 72  6.3.1   Legal Regulations in Germany 72  6.3.2   Impact of Flashing Warn Lights 72  6.3.3   Situation in Syria 73  6.3.4   Mitigation of the Impact 73  

6.4   Effects on Landscape 74  6.4.1   Photomontage to Predict Visual Impact 74  

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6.4.2   Zones of Visual Influence (ZVI) 77  6.4.3   Aesthetic of Wind Turbines 78  6.4.1   Legal Background for Aesthetic Aspects 79  

7   Impacts on Flora and Fauna 80  7.1   Impacts on Birds 80  

7.1.1   Dispatches by Collision 80  7.1.2   Shooing Effect 82  7.1.3   Barrier Effect for Bird Airways 82  7.1.4   Protection Measures 83  7.1.5   Legal Aspects in Germany 83  7.1.6   Legal Aspects in Syria 84  

7.2   Impacts on Bats 85  7.2.1   Dispatches by Collision 85  7.2.2   Barrier and Shooing Effect 86  7.2.3   Legal Aspects in Germany 86  7.2.4   Legal Aspects in Syria 87  

7.3   Impact on Soil 87  7.3.1   Wind Turbine Foundation 87  7.3.2   Cable Laying Plough 88  7.3.3   Road Making 88  7.3.4   Legal Aspects 88  8   Further Aspects: Radar, Garbage, Ice Throwing 89  

8.1   Radar 89  8.1.1   Reduction of Radar Disturbances 89  8.1.2   Legal Aspects 89  

8.2   Ice Throwing 90  8.2.1   Strategies Against Ice Throwing 90  8.2.2   Legal Aspects 91  

8.3   Garbage and Further Pollutants 91  9   EIA Aspects for Planned Wind Park in Al-Hijana 92  

9.1   Location of the Wind Park and Description of the Environment 92  9.1.1   Characteristics of the Land and Landscape 93  9.1.2   Existing Habitats of Flora and Fauna 93  9.1.3   Water 94  9.1.4   Information about Air Quality 94  9.1.5   Existing Noise Levels 94  9.1.6   Antiquities Sites of Historical and Cultural Importance 94  9.1.7   Social and Economic Context 94  9.1.8   Existing Transport Infrastructure and Traffic Flow 95  9.1.9   Existing Utilities Infrastructure 95  

9.2   Determination and Prediction of the Impacts of the Project 96  9.2.1   Description of the Wind Park 96  9.2.2   Noise Emission Predictions 97  

9.2.2.1   Noise Emission Points 97  9.2.2.2   Emission from the Turbine Vestas V-90 98  9.2.2.3   Propagation Prediction Method 98  9.2.2.4   Calculation Results and Evaluation 98  9.2.2.5   Evaluation of the Results 98  

9.2.3   Shadow Flickering Effects 100  9.2.3.1   Shadow Emission Points 100  9.2.3.2   Shadowing Prediction 100  9.2.3.3   Calculation Results and Evaluation 100  

9.2.4   Visual Impact and Visibility of the Park 101  9.2.4.1   Visual Impact Prediction 102  

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9.2.4.2   Personal Impression 103  9.2.5   Radar Visibility 104  9.2.6   Reflexion (Disco Effect) 104  9.2.7   Air Traffic Warning Lights 104  9.2.8   Impact on Flora and Fauna 105  9.2.9   Impact on Cultural Aspects, and Society 105  9.2.10   Impacts on Soil and Ground 106  

9.2.10.1  Ground Change and Sealing by Access Roads and Crane Stand Places 106  9.2.10.2  Ground Change by Foundation 107  9.2.10.3  Cabling 108  

9.2.11   Garbage from Construction and Maintenance 108  9.3   Conclusion and Evaluation of the Environmental Impact 108  

10   Outlook 109  11   Annex 110  

11.1   Map of the Area 1:150000 110  11.2   Noise Datasheet of Wind Turbine Vestas V-90 111  11.3   Crane Stand Place Map 112  11.4   WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Noise Prediction 113  11.5   WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Shadow Flickering Prediction 125  11.6   WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Zone of Visual Impact 135  11.7   WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Radar ZVI for WTGs 138  

List of Literature XI

List of Internet Sources XVII

Declaration for the Master Thesis XIX

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List of Figures Figure 1: Geographic map of Syria 6

Figure 2: Topographic map of Syria 6  

Figure 3: Energy development Syria till 2030 7  

Figure 4: Wind Atlas Syria; RISO Institute DK; 1999 8  

Figure 5: Wind Energy in Germany; Political Milestones 10  

Figure 6: Distribution of wind generator turbines in Germany 2007 11  

Figure 7: Environmental approval procedure Germany 22  

Figure 8: Landscape-Recovery-Plan as part of EIA 24  

Figure 9: Flow chart of EIA procedure in Syria 30  

Figure 10: Sinus curve of noise 37  

Figure 11: Audible frequencies depending on sound pressure level 38  

Figure 12: Examples of noises in decibel 40  

Figure 13: Sound power level over turbine diameter 42  

Figure 14: Mechanical noise over different frequencies   43  

Figure 15: Rubber mounted Gearbox 43  

.Figure 16: Aerodynamic noise generated at blades...   45  

Figure 17: Aerodynamic noise intensity 45  

Figure 18: Test set-up with G58 wind turbine and microphone array platform. 45  

Figure 19: Noise emission of a pitch-controlled turbine 46  

Figure 20: Noise emission of a stall-controlled turbine 46  

Figure 21: Infrasound of wind turbine measured 47  

Figure 22: Sound spectra of Vestas V-80 47  

Figure 23: Power curves at different sound levels for the Vestas V80-2.0 MW 49  

Figure 24: Attenuation of Sound Outdoors 50  

Figure 25: Positioning of microphones 51

Figure 26: Distance of microphones 51  

Figure 27: Ground damping areas based on ISO 9613-2 54  

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Figure 28: Formula to calculate groun damping 55  

Figure 29: Calculation of hm 55  

Figure 30: Parts of a shadow 67  

Figure 31: Shadowing area for example WTG 70  

Figure 32: Location: Picture of Immenhausen Germany, without turbines 75  

Figure 33: Location: Picture of Immenhausen Germany with wireframe turbines 76  

Figure 34: Location: Picture Immenhausen Germany, with rendered turbines 76  

Figure 35: Zones of visual influence; Demo map Immenhausen 77  

Figure 36: Picture of Enercon E-66 78

Figure 37: Picture of DEWIND D-8; Porsche designed 78  

Figure 38: Picture of Vestas V66 78

Figure 39: Picture of REpower 5M 78  

Figure 40: Picture of Truss Tower tower 79

Figure 41: Picture of Enercon turbine tower 79  

Figure 42: Amount of dead birds 81  

Figure 43: Evasion movement of migration birds from WTG's 82  

Figure 44: Dead bats found over the year (n=616) in North America 85  

Figure 45: Found dead bats in the timeframe 2000-2003 under WTG's 86  

Figure 46: Circle foundation 87  

Figure 47: Cable plough 88  

Figure 48: WECO „Ice-map“ of Europe 90  

Figure 49: Icing on blades removed by windforce 90  

Figure 50: Alhijana designated area for the wind park 92  

Figure 51: Photo of the location at East 36°37.6566' and North 33°17.6868' 93  

Figure 52: Map of protected Areas in Syria 94  

Figure 53: Satellite view of the wind park area 95  

Figure 54: Module overview of WindPro2 96  

Figure 55: Noise immission map of WindPro 2.7 99  

Figure 56: Shadowing flicker map of WindPro 2.7 100  

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Figure 57: Zone of visual impact 101  

Figure 58: Position of the visualization view points and wind park 102  

Figure 59: View on the wind park from Al Hijana 102  

Figure 60: View on the wind park from the chicken farm 103  

Figure 61: View on the wind park from small irrigation area 103  

Figure 62: Visibility of WTG'S by radar 104  

Figure 63: Map of the wind park region 105

Figure 64: Typical paved road profile 106  

Figure 65: Possible road to wind park 107  

Figure 66: Picture of a Vestas V-90 foundation 107  

Figure 67: Map of the wind park area 1:150000 110  

Figure 68: Crane Stand Place of Enercon E-82 112  

List of Tables Table 1: Frequency range and average values 39  

Table 2: Sound power level in different mode 49  

Table 3: Absorption co-efficient per frequency 54  

Table 5: Noise limits based on German regulation of TA Lärm 59  

Table 6: Table of noise immission limits in Syria 65  

Table 7: Amount of dead birds found, caused by turbines 81  

Table 8: Distances between birds and WTG's 84  

Table 9: Noise limits and noise impacts 99  

Table 10: Shadowing flicker prediction and limits 101  

 

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List of Acronyms BauGB Bau Gesetzbuch (German Construction Law) BImSchG Bundes Immissionsschutz Gesetz (Federal law for immission protection) BNatSCHG Bundes Naturschutz Gesetz (Federal law for environmental protection) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIA EP Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedure EIS Environmental Impact Study EU European Union GCEA General Commission of Environmental Affairs GPS Global Positioning System GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation KFW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (German Government Bank for

Development) LuftVG Luftverkehrsgesetz (Law for Air Traffic) NERC National Energy Research Centre (Syria) NNAtG Niedersächsisches Naturschutzgebiet Gesetz (Law of the Federal State of

Niedersachsen) RCREEE Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency RFI Request for Information ROW Right-of-Ways WTG Wind Turbine Generator ZVI Zone of Visual Impact

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1 Introduction While WTG’s are supporting climate protection by producing electrical energy without emitting CO2, they have an impact on the environment, and are causing polluting effects like noise emissions, annoying shadowing, harms for flora and fauna or negative visual influence on the landscape. These effects do not only influence the nature but also humans living close to the assets, causing a discussion about the acceptance of WTG’s. Syria Arabic Republic is about to integrate wind energy into their energy mix and is planning to construct new wind parks within the coming years. As currently no wind park has yet been built in Syria, only a few local laws, limits or regulations for the environmental impacts of wind parks have been developed. This is in contrast to Germany, where the amount of wind turbine generators (WTG’s) has increased to 21.000 in the last few years, in turn, becoming the country with the 3rd highest wind energy capacity, closely behind the U.S.A and China.1 As Germany is a relatively small country with a high population density, wind parks are built close to settlements and create conflicts with local inhabitants. Additionally, Germany has very strong environmental protection laws, based on the direction of German and EU politics. The environmental impact of wind turbine generators (WTG’s) to local nature and inhabitants, often turns to conflicts, which are solved by several elaborated laws and regulations. Within this master thesis, the German experience is used to analyse and mitigate the environmental impacts of a wind park, which has been tendered by the Syrian Electricity Government, for a location in Al Hijana, near Damascus in Syria. The goal of the thesis is to show the background of impacts, to explain mitigation measures, and to describe legal and normative aspects used in Germany and Syria. As it is planned to forward the thesis to the project owners of the National Energy Research Centre in Syria (NERC), the thesis should give the responsible an overview of how the environmental impact could be reduced, and which norms, law and limits are used internationally, and especially in Germany. It is imperative that for future wind park projects in Syria, clear regulations are necessary. Clear planning and legal conditions motivate international investors to fund projects. Further, an Environmental Impact Assessment, is a precondition for loans and grants of international credit institutions.2 Additionally, the acceptance of wind parks in the population must be respected, by reducing negative impact to avoid legal struggle, which can lead to a delay project realiation. Finally, wind parks should not harm fragile nature. The wind park analysed in this thesis is based on a configuration suggestion designed in the master thesis of the REMENA students; Ubay Al Khatib and Rifat Hasnou, of the University of Cairo and Kassel class graduating in 2011. Rifat Hasnou has analysed the grid connection aspects and is defining the optimal power input in the thesis “Grid Integration of Al Haijana Wind Park”. Based on his research, Ubay Al Khatib has completed the configuration and positioning of the wind park in his thesis called “Developing a Wind Speed Prediction Tool Using Artificial Neural Networks, and Designing Wind Park in Syria Using WASP Software”. All the theses are theoretical, and are not part of the real project realisation in Syria, but based on the information given by the NERC.

1 German Wind Energy Association, http://www.wind-energie.de/en/wind-energy-in-germany/, Retrieved 2010.02.15 2 Email Interview with Mr. Thomas Prien, project manager of KFW (Kreditanstallt für Wiederaufbau) at 2010.12.07: Any huge international project financed by the KFW needs an EIA. Herby they follow the regulations of Equator Principles a financial industry standard for managing social and environmental risk in project financing (http://www.equator-principles.com/)

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2 Environmental Impact of Wind Turbine Generators Single wind turbines and wind parks have environmental impacts. Firstly, there are the physical measurable emissions. The most annoying and significant is the noise emission, which can have negative health effects. Further, there are optical emissions, like a flickering shadow, caused by the rotating blades, or at night, the flight warning flashlights. Additionally, wind parks are changing the atmosphere and the characteristics of the landscape, due to their size and position and their use of land. This can raise conflicts with locals, as cultural, or economic interests, are influenced. Wind turbines also have a negative impact on nature. The biggest impact is on birds and bats, as turbines can instantly kill these animals, mostly via the rotating blades. Additionally, wind turbines are obstacles and can separate habitats and harm the biosphere. Finally, wind parks and their infrastructure are changing the use of ground, and in addition, change the current natural conditions and the characteristics of the soil.

2.1 Emission The most detrimental impacts of WTG’s are the emissions of sound, shadow, and light. Sound emissions are caused by mechanical reasons or aerodynamic turbulences, depending mostly on the rotating speed of the rotor. The sound can include, pulsating, howling or whooshing shares. The impact of sound immission at a critical area depends on the distance to the source, the wind direction, speed, and screening or absorbing effect of the landscape or obstacles. The biggest problem is that the noise is occurring continuously. This means, in comparison to industrial and traffic noise, it is audible in the same way at day as well as night time, including Sundays and feast days. Unfortunately for persons living in the affected area, this means little time for peace and quiet, and a break from the sound. These permanent impacts can be felt as both physically and/or psychologically annoying, which can lead to illnesses and reduced performance in working environments. Additionally to the audible sound, infrasound, which is nearly not audible, is also emitted by WTG’s. But the health effects of these have not yet been 100% proven.3 Another disadvantage is the pulsating shadow, or light reflection (“disco effect”), caused by the rotating blades. The amount of time obstacles or persons are penetrated by this depends on the amount of strong sunlight, the relative position to the turbine, and the rotating speed of the blades. Several turbines can overlap and cause a very non-rhythmical flickering effect. No direct negative health impacts of this have been proven, but it could reduce the usability of rooms and areas affected.

The rhythmical blinking of the flight warning lights, installed on the top of the turbine, can be very annoying especially at night-time, and can affect sleep and relaxation. Lastly, the physical impacts of WTG’s must be mentioned. These can include ice throw from the rotating blades, and breaking and/ or collapsing of the whole asset.

2.2 Use of Ground WTG’s utilise the ground. This can be divided into sealed areas and influenced areas.4 The sealed area is the area of the foundation, the crane parking area, access roads and

3 Further information given in chapter 5 4 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei der Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010, Page 79

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space for the transformer and cabling. The size depends on the turbine size and the park configuration and the existing infrastructure. The sealing has an effect on the existing soil structure and flora and fauna living on it. The influenced area is on one hand the area, which is covered by the rotating blades, the tipping height, and on the other hand the distance space between the turbines. These areas of course can still be used for agricultural use, but are useless for housing and public places. In the area of tipping height some special constructions, including highways, high voltage transmissions, and tracks, must not be constructed. The area between the turbines in a wind park is even larger. To reduce turbulences and regain wind energy to be yielded, turbines must keep a specific distance away from the other. An approximate distance is 5 times the diameter in main wind direction, and 3 times the diameter in secondary wind direction. The distance is important as the second turbine in a row receives a part of the wind, which has already passed another turbine. This wind consists of turbulences and a reduced wind speed. This leads to less energy yield and more mechanical loads to the turbines based on the turbulences. The distance reduces these effects.

Besides the occupation of space, WTG’s and wind parks are also affecting the soil. The main impacts are based on infrastructure, in some cases paved roads, the crane stand area, and the foundation of the turbines itself. All of these measures are changing the habitat in the subsoil, and are further changing the typical soil water storage and filter functions.5

2.3 Effects on Nature The largest impact of wind turbines on nature, affects birds and bats. Deer’s and other mammals are less pertained as they get use to the turbine and are not in danger to collide with the blades. Currently there are no real long-term evaluations of the harmful effects of wind turbines to birds in general. The studies are only short-term investigations and are focusing on special bird species. Most of the existing studies focused on relatively small turbines, which cannot be adapted to consider the new, up to 200 meter high turbines.6 But the existing studies demonstrated that the hazard depends on the location of the turbine and the species. Furthermore, the harm is not only the killing of the bird by collision, but also a banishment or a barrage effect.7 Statistics show that the killing’s per turbine is relatively low compared with the kill rate of high voltage transmission lines, glass facades or traffic. But for dwindling species, this number can be high and must be considered.8 The environmental department of the federal state of Brandenburg is recording the number of dead birds found and killed by the WTG’s. The highest numbers of birds killed are diurnal birds of prey. It is assumed that these birds fly long distances, especially in the time of breeding, and pass by the turbines several times. The animals either underestimate the rotating speed of the blades, or are driven by wind into the turbines as their pass-by distance is to close. In addition to diurnal birds of prey, migratory birds are also affected. The negative effect is not only a

5 Further information give in chapter 7.3 6 Breuer & Südbeck, Windenergie und Vögel – Ausmass und Bewältigung eines Konflikts, 2002 7 Kowallik Borbach-Jaene, Vogelkundliche Berichte Niedersachsen, Windräder als Vogelscheuchen? - Über den Einfluss der Windkraftnutzung in Gänserastgebieten an der nordwestdeutschen Küste, Booklet 2, 2001 8 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei der Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, Page 88

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reduction in the number of birds, but also a decline in the amount of bird reproduction.9 Wind parks also have a banishment or barrage effect on some species. Some birds avoid the WTG to up to 200 meters. This can destroy the biotope as the WTG’s are blocking the pathways between breeding, hunting and resting places.10 Migratory birds or temporarily breeding birds are reacting more sensibly. The reason might be the short stay in the area, which does not lead to habituation. Depending on the species, these birds are avoiding turbines to up to a distance of 800 meters away. This results also in a loss of habitat. For birds following a special airway on their migration, WTG’s can have a barrage effect. Several studies have shown that migrating birds are alternating their flight patterns. This can lead to loss of orientation, additional stress, and energy loss.11

Bats are strongly protected animals, as their numbers have consistently decreased over the last century. In fact, WTG’s are a higher danger to bats than to birds, as the numbers of deaths are higher.12 Like with birds, WTG’s also have banishment and barrage effect on bats. 90% of all bats die in the period of July to September when they are hunting in free airspace or are on migration in unknown terrain. Colliding with the blades kills the most amounts of bats. The bats do not seem to recognise the turning blades quickly enough - neither with their eyes nor via their supersonic organ. Besides colliding, bats are killed by imploding. The reason might be the huge pressure difference between the front and backside of the blades, causing the body to implode, when the animals pass the rotor area. Hereby WTG’s may have two different kinds of attractions for bats. Firstly, at nighttime the warning lamps might attract insects and in turn, hunting bats. Furthermore, the bats may try to occupy the nacelle as a resting or breeding location. Here the bats can be killed by any mechanical moving element in the turbine. Another negative aspect of wind parks is the barrage effect for bats flying and hunting in plain land, as the bats try to avoid these areas due to the high turbulences in the air. Depending on the density of turbines in the wind park, hunting areas can be lost.13

Further wind parks have a negative impact on the soil. The access roads, the foundation, crane stand places change the natural situation of the soil. This changes the natural water filter and storage effect of the ground and is changing the habitat.

2.4 Impact on Landscape Due to their size and rotating elements, WTG’s (especially in wind parks), do affect the landscape. Actual turbines have hub heights of up to 130 meters, and with rotor diameters over 120 meters, the total height can reach 200 meters. Thereby, the visibility is increased by the exposed position of the turbines. These could be open areas, top of the hill or mountain crest positions. Depending on the topography and the weather conditions, these buildings can be visual up to 30 km’s away.14 The visual impressions

9 Hötker H.& Thomsen K. & Köster H., Michael-Otto-Institut im NABU, Auswirkungen regenerativer Energiegewinnung auf die biologische Vielfalt am Beispiel der Vögel und der Fledermäuse – Fakten, Wissenslücken, Anforderungen an die Forschung, ornithologische Kriterien zum Ausbau von regenerativen Energiegewinnungsformen, 2004.12, Page 45 10 Reichenbach M., Technische Univeristät Berlin, PHD in the year 2003,Windenergie und Vögel – Ausmass und Bewältigung eines Konflikts, Page 135 11 Reichenbach M., Technische Univeristät Berlin, PHD in the year 2003,Windenergie und Vögel – Ausmass und Bewältigung eines Konflikts, Page 145 12 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei der Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, Page 101 13 Brinkmann R; Documetation of a presentation for the ministry of environment in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, Windkraftanlagen – eine Bedrohung für Vögel und Fledermäuse?, Presentation in 2004 14 Knies J. & Gräfe A., Visuelle Wirkungsanalyse von Windenergieanlagen im Repowering - Kontext Ein Werkzeug für die Regionalplanung, Page 3

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of wind turbines are technological and are reducing the impression of a natural landscape. The size can lead to a loss of dimension of all other natural elements. In addition, the rotating elements and the blinking flight warning lamps have an eye-catching effect, which is taking the focus off surrounding nature. Wind turbines have a massive visual impact and can take away from the natural serenity and peacefulness of nature, especially in cultural and/or tourist-rich areas. This can lead to negative economic aspects, including less attractive landscapes in tourist areas, and the decreasing of property values. Visual value and impact can hardly be analysed in a scientific objective, quantitative way, as the effect depends on the spectator. It is left to individual judgement as to whether or not WTG’s in nature is positive or negative.15

15 Further information given in chapter 6.4 „Effects on Landscape“

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3 Status Wind Energy and EIA in Syria and Germany This chapter gives an overview about the actual uses of wind energy and the related environmental impact assessments in Syria and in Germany. In order to understand the situation, background information is given for each country.

3.1 Syria Syria is positioned at the border of the three continents Africa, Europe and Asia. It borders in the north to Turkey, in the east to Iraq, in the south to Jordan, and in the west to Israel, Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea. With an area of 185.180 km2 Syria has about 20 million inhabitants, while 4 million are living in the wider area of the capital, Damascus. Behind the 20 km narrow coastline the Al-Alawiyeen Mountains can be found, with an average height of 1,200 meters. Figure 1: Geographic map of Syria16 Figure 2: Topographic map of Syria17

The mountains block the moisture-loaded wind of the Mediterranean Sea, so the coastal slopes are more fertile, and hence more populated (see Figure 1). In the east of the mountains the Euphrates River passes through dry fields. In the south the huge Syrian dessert is located, with dunes and low population density. Desert covers about 48% of the country.17 The climate in Syria is separated into the humid Mediterranean coast area and the arid, dry desert regions in the southeast. The humid area has a mean temperatures of 7.2° C in January up to 26.6° C in August with rainfall between 750 and 1000 mm per year. In contrast, the drier areas temperatures range from 4.4° C in January to 37.7° C in July and August, with only 200 mm rainfall.18 Nominally Syria is a democratic socialistic republic, with a president elected every 7 years. The current president, since the 17th of July 2000, is Mr. Bashar Al-Assad. The president nominates the cabinet, which is led by the minister president. Two-third of the deputies of the parliament belongs to the governing Baath-Party and other close parties, the rest of the parliament members are independent.19 16 Google.de, http://maps.google.de, Retrieved 2010.10.2 17 Easyvoyage.de, http://www.easyvoyage.de/syrien/berge-taeler-und-wuesten-3315, Retrieved 2011.02.01 18 Wikipedia,de, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria, Retrieved 2010.01.04 19 German ministry of foreign affairs, http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/de/Laenderinformationen/Syrien/Wirtschaft.html, Retrieved 2010.11.28

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The Syrian economy is currently changing from a public economy to a social market economy. Within these reformations over the last few years, Syria has established a convertible currency and a banking sector, to secure investments. Due to the low connection of the country to international markets, Syria was not harmed by the strong financial crisis in 2009. Vice president Dardari has announced that the investment plan for the next 5 years of the government will focus on transportation infrastructure and in energy, especially renewable energy, such as wind and solar. This is a consequence of the continuously decreasing oil resources of Syria. So the cost for energy is increasing, and Syria is searching for alternatives in renewable energies. Additionally Syria has decided to focus on energy production via natural gas, which is found below the Syrian Desert. About 12, 5 million cubic meters are actually exported daily.20 Currently, thermal power plants deliver about 90% of Syrian electrical energy. Most of the plants are oil fired, but in future the focus will move to gas. Hydropower and very small biomass plants deliver the rest of the energy. Syria has changed its energy consumption patterns from winter peak loads to summer, based on the increasing use of air conditioners. With the growing economy and prosperity, the country is expected to triple the energy consumption up until 2030, as seen in Figure 3. The government plans to close the gap with power generated by gas and renewable energy. Therefore Syria has joined IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency). To date, 148 states participate in this organisation, which was founded on the 26th of January 2009 in Bonn (Germany), and which will promote the widespread forms of sustainable energy.21 Hélène Pelosse, Interim Director General of IRENA, said: “The Syrian government intends to provide the policy and financing framework which is necessary in order to kick off renewable energy. It is a strong signal that we can’t rely on energy of the past to power our future.”.22

Figure 3: Energy development Syria till 2030; Source: Presentation of Eng. Abdul Halem Kassem. Deputy Minister; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe;

20 German ministry of foreign affairs, http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/de/Laenderinformationen/Syrien/Wirtschaft.html, Retrieved 2010.11.28 21 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), http://www.irena.org/, Retrieved 2010.11.28 22 Powergenworldwide.com, http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/0415166555/articles/middle-east-energy/Volume_7/Issue_2/features/Syrias_renewable_energy_potential.html, Retrieved 2010-11-28

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3.1.1 Renewables Energy in Syria Currently only hydropower delivers relevant renewable energy in Syria. At the River Euphrates, 3 power plants are generating 1.528 GW (status 2005), which should be increased by 0.88 GW until 2020.23 As Syria has good wind and solar resources, this potential should be explored in the near future. Based on a study of RCREEE in 2009 the economic potential for Syria is:24

• Solar (CSP and PV) 10.200 TWh/a • Wind 12 TWh/a • Hydro 4 TWh/a • Biomass 5 TWh/a

1999 the RISO Institute in cooperation with Syrian government has published a Wind Atlas, which shows the high potential of wind energy in Syria.

Figure 4: Wind Atlas Syria; RISO Institute DK; 199925

As mentioned in the government’s five-year plan, renewable energy should cover about 5% of the electricity production from 2025. The actual goal is to install more than four million solar water heater systems, to set up wind parks, with a capacity of 2,5 GW and solar power plants with 3 GW until 2030. Based on the RISO wind atlas, the National Energy Research Centre (NERC) has done further wind power measurements over the past few years. Based on these findings, NERC is offering a tender for two wind park projects in Al-Sukhna and Al-Hijana, each about 50-100 MW. The plant location for Al-Hijana is located east of Damascus in a semi-desert, flat region, in an unused area, and which is 2 km’s by 5 km’s. Al-Sukhna is

23 Syrian Arab Republic Ministry of Electricity supply side efficiency & Energy conservation & Planning project Identification of National Energy Policies and Energy Access in Syria, 2005.03.15, Page 6 24 Samir Hassan, RCREEE Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, The current initiatives in renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency across the Arab Region, Page 23 25 Khaled Homsi, Ministry of Electricity Syria; Presentation, Clarifications Meeting related to the RFQ for developers of the 50-100 MW Wind Park IPP Project, 2009.12.13, Page 15

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located about 8 km North West of the city, Al-Sukhna. The area is generally flat but has several mountains with a height of about 100-150 meters and a size of 2 km’s by 5 km’s. The project company, elected by the tender offer, should build, operate and maintain the wind parks, while Syrian electricity officials buy the generated energy.26 This master thesis will focus on the wind park project in Al Hijana.

3.1.2 EIA for Wind Parks in Syria In 1991, the Syrian Arabic Republic was the first Arab country that established a ministry for environment, in order to integrate environmental aspects in national development policies. In 1992, Syria accepted the agreement of biodiversity, climatic changes and desertification, decided in the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Syria also took part in the World Conference on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, which aimed to push sustainable development in to social, economic and environmental aspects. Based on the commitments made in the conference, Syria started to build up a national environmental action plan. Syria integrated in its ninth five-year plan the environmental topics of a sustainable use of resources and the plan to establish clean and renewable energy. Because of this, the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs has the responsibility of identifying current and future environmental issues. Further, the ministry should prepare political strategies and legal suggestions for any environmental aspects. These include the definitions of limits, standards and regulations, and the monitoring of private and governmental activities. Lastly, the ministry and its arms should raise public awareness for the need for a sustainable environmental policy.27 The legal framework for these strategies was set in July 2002 with the ratification of law number 50, which defines the competences and duties of the ministries and its departments. Currently, the institutional framework and institutions are established, but they still have a low capacity and manpower to function effectively.28 Based on this legal framework, the sub law “Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedures in the Syrian Arab Republic” (EIA EP), was established. The law defines the process and the stakeholders of any EIA process in the Syrian Arabic Republic. The procedure will be described in Chapter 4.5. As defined in Annex 1 of this sub law, an EIA is mandatory for wind parks of a special size. The EIA must provide for the actual situation in the designated area, a predictions and an evaluation of the significant impacts. In Annex 6, the law asks to use local (Syrian) standards wherever possible. If no local norms exist, international standards should be used.29 Based on a field research in Syria in September 2010, the author summed up local Syrian standards and limits for the typical environmental impacts of wind turbines - like sound, shadow, distances to housing etc. as they are available. Currently, there are only limits set for noise emission, but there are no standards or regulations defined for sound prediction, shadow flickering and any other impacts. Hence the author uses German regulations as it is allowed by law 50, if no Syrian regulations are available.

26 Ministry of Electricity Public Establishment of Electricity for Generation & Transmission (PEEGT), Request for Qualification (RFQ) For Developers/Sponsors Of a 50-100 MW Wind Park Independent Power Producer (IPP) Project through International Competitive Bidding (ICB), 2009.10, Page 26 27 Syrian Arabic Republic Law 50 approved by the People’s Assembly in its session held on 16/4/1423H; 2002.06, Article 4 28 Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs Syria and World Bank, Strategy & National Environmental Action Plan For The Syrian Arab Republic, The United Nation Development Program 2003, Page 54 ff 29 Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedures in the Syrian Arab Republic, based on law 50; Annex 6

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3.2 Wind Energy Situation in Germany The newer history of wind energy in Germany began in 1978 as the federal research ministry decided to finance the development of a large wind turbine research. In 1983, a huge wind turbine more than 100 meters diameters in length was constructed, the so-called Growian (Große Windkraft-Anlage). But the turbine only worked for 4 years as non-manageable material problems occurred. Nevertheless, a lot of technical experience had been gained. In 1988, the first commercial wind park with 30 small turbines was constructed. By this time, private wind energy had legal handicaps of missing regulations for the feed in tariff, and an unclear building permission situation, due to omitted laws. The regulation for the feed-in was cleared in 1991 with the adoption of the electrical feed-in act. This started the boom of wind energy in Germany, as the electricity utilities were committed to feed in the produced energy for a fixed price. As a result of further political decisions, the market expanded and by 2003 about two thirds of all European wind turbines were constructed in Germany. Based on this market, the German machine building industry gained enormous experience, which led to the world leading position in the construction of wind turbines.

Figure 5: Wind Energy in Germany; Political Milestones30

Today, Germany has installed 21.607 wind turbines with a total capacity of 27.214 MW (31.12.2010). These turbines produced about 37.0 TWh in the year 2010; this is about 7% of Germany’s net electricity consumption. Wind energy is currently the biggest contributor in the renewable energy mix. The German Wind Energy Association predicts that in 2020 the power provided will be doubled up to 55.000 MW and the energy delivered will 25% of the net electricity consumption.31 As most profitable areas for wind energy all over Germany are covered, this can only be reached by repowering old turbines on-shore, and a strong development of off-shore wind power.

30 German Wind Energy Association, Wind energy in Germany – an energy source with a fantastic future, 2010, Page 8 ff 31 German Wind Energy Association, http://www.wind-energie.de/de/statistiken/, Retrieved 2010.02.7

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EIA for Wind Parks in Germany

The areas in Germany with the highest wind energy potential are close to the coast and in the northern parts of the country. This is the reason for the clear north-south distribution of installed wind turbines, which can be seen on Figure 6. This also means that on 50% of the area, more than 95% (about 20.000 turbines) are distributed. As Germany has a very high population density and wind turbines have a very significant influence in landscape, further emissions including acoustical and optical, are causing rising conflicts between inhabitants, and wind park operators. Furthermore, Germany has a very strong environmental protection political alignment. Based on this, and European Union directives, many areas and animal species are placed under environmental protection.

Figure 6: Distribution of wind generator turbines in Germany 200731

WTG’s from a fixed height must submit an Environmental Impact procedure. This procedure will be described in chapter 4.2. The general guidelines of the EIA are defined for all federal states. But each region has their own slightly different interpretations about the details; like standards, how to calculate the distribution of sound, time of flickering shadow on housings, distance to birds nest, and other flora and fauna etc.. These details were defined by court or officials based on many conflicts occurred in the last 20 years of erection of wind turbines and are well elaborated.

Based on the fact that the guidelines are well-detailed and the fact that Germany has the highest density of WTG’s, in combination with a high population density and a lot of environmental laws and regulations, the standards and regulations for the EIA of Germany are taken into consideration as a reference for Syria in this master thesis.

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4 Legal Situation for Environmental Protection and EIA The legal situation concerning the EIA and environmental protection varies worldwide. Most countries have basic laws for environmental protection. The establishment and implementation is mostly affected by economical interest, cultural backgrounds and technical development. For example, Japan does not apply an international fishing quota for the harpooning of whales, as eating whale has long been traditional. Even the USA, as a developed, rich country, is not acting productively to establish climate goals for CO2 emissions, as short distance economic interests are higher than long distance climate goals. The differences in interest can clearly be seen on the last United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Copenhagen. Even as the effects of climate change can be seen, such as the melting of poles, and as different scientific studies enforce that these changes are man-made, the countries involved in the climate change convention could not come to any solutions for the reduction of polluting emissions.32 Under the lead of the United Nations, most global agreements for the environment are established. If countries accept the agreements, they should be legally binding, and national laws should be established. Currently the most elaborated environmental laws for developed countries are established in the European Union.33

4.1 European Union (EU) Directives for Environment The European Union has focused on the environment for more than 30 years, and environmental protection is one of the most important parts of the contracts between the European countries. The first common regulations were established in the 1970’s, when guidelines for labelling dangerous chemicals and air pollution were established. In the Single European Act (SEA) established in 1987, common environmental political goals for the EU were defined. These goals contained protection of human health and environment, and careful, sustainable use of any resources. The EU has established more than 200 directives and even more comments and guidelines to protect the environment and to implement sustainable procedures.34 The directives of the EU are not direct law, but are standards, which must be transferred to the national law of the European member state. In this chapter, some of the most important directives are described, which will also affect the EIA for wind farms.

4.1.1 Directive 97/11/EC Assessment of Public and Private Projects The goal of these guidelines, established in 1997, is to build up preventive environment protections by the assessment of public and private projects before their approval. The directive asks the country to commit to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for special projects, to control, describe and evaluate the effects of the project to humans, flora and fauna, to the elements, air, water, and ground, as well as landscape, material goods and cultural elements. All projects mentioned in annex I of this directive, based on Article 4,1, must commit to an EIA. In contradiction, projects to be found in Annex II related to Article 4,2, only have to establish an EIA if the individual case inspection criteria’s, or the general case

32 See results of climate conference of Copenhagen 2010. The U.S.A did not support the predicted climate goals. 33 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.01, Page 115 34 Bayrisches Staatsministerium für Umwelt und Gesundheit; http://www.stmug.bayern.de/eu/umweltschutz/index.htm, Retrieved 2010.11.26

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criteria’s, defined by each country, are fulfilled. The second regulation is responsible for Wind Parks mentioned in Annex II 3.i .35

4.1.2 Directive 2001/42/EC Assessment of Certain Plans and Programmes

This directive, ratified in 2001, is an addition to directive 97/11/EC and focuses on the EIA, and any plans and programs of the EU, or financed by the EU. The objective is to establish high environmental protection as well as a sustainable development. This should be done by examination, if an EIA should be committed, for all plans and programs that might have significant effects on the environment36. This means all projects financed by European banking, KFW for example, must commit to an EIA.

4.1.3 Directive 2009/147/EC on the Conservation of Wild Birds As described in Article 1, the directive has the goal to maintain and protect all existing, native species of birds living in the territory of the European member states. Additionally, the law defines the protection, the management and the rules for exploitation. To reach these goals, the directive asks in Article 3 and 4 to define suitable protection areas and to take measures to restore areas for wild living birds. Article 5 requests to define a law for prohibition of capturing and killing, harming or destroying of eggs and nests, (especially in breeding season), for protected species. Further regulations for dealing, hunting, capturing and legal killing are requested in Articles 6, 7 and 8. Whilst Article 9 allows the member states to differ the protection laws for certain reasons, Article 13 restricts this, as these measurements should not lead to a worsening of the problem. Furthermore, the directive asks for laws for research regulation, resettlement, and the duty to report to the European commission.37

4.1.4 Directive 92/43/EEC Conservation of Natural Habitats This directive embarks on the strategy to save the ecological pluralism, regarding economic, cultural and regional demands. European countries are asked to agree to protect about 220 habitats, and more than 1,000 species, which are defined to be protected in the annexes of the directive. The objective is to create an ecological network of environmentally protected areas all over Europe, called “Natura 2000”.

Article 12 asks the member states to establish strong protection systems, to forbid any killing, removing or disturbing of animals, especially in reproduction, migration or winter phases, as well as destruction of propagation and settlement areas. Article 13 and Annex 4b define the protection of plants. It asks to forbid picking, collecting, cutting, excavating or destroying of these floras. Further terms define the duty to inform the EU, the promotion of science, the resettlement, and the education and information to the public about these protection measurements.38

35 Directive 97/11/EC of 3 March 1997 amending Directive 85/337/EEC of 27 June 1985 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment, 1985.06 36 Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 27 June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment 37 Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds (codified version) 38 Directive 92/43/EEC of the European Parliament and of the council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora

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4.1.5 Directive 2001/77/EC Promote Renewable Energy The objective of the norm is to increase the availability of renewable energy for generating electricity, and to create a foundation for a common European framework. The member states should reach this share as fixed in the Annex of the directive. The countries should report their efforts and figures to a European commission. The commission suggests following instructions for their actions: The national regulations should lead to a share defined commitment in the directive, as simple and as cost efficient as possible. The measures taken should not harm the inner European free market, and should respect the varying characteristics of different renewable energy technologies and locations available39. The transition period should be quick, so as to keep the confidence of private investors. For Germany, the goal was to reach a share of 12,5% by 2010. Based on the well- working feed-in-tariff-system, this target was reached by 2007.40

4.2 German Environmental Protection Legislation

Based on Article 1 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, all humans have the right to life and the right for physical integrity. In Article 2,2 it is defined that the nation and government has the duty to respect and protect these rights, especially from 3rd parties. Based on these duties, an area of conflict arises. On the one hand, the responsibility of the state for long distance protection of environment and energy supply, and on the other hand, the direct interference of renewable energy, in this case, wind turbines, into environment and human health. This is also confirmed in Article 20a of the constitution, as it says that the government must also protect the natural resources and animals by law, and is the executive in responsibility for upcoming generations. This generates a conflict between climate protection, by CO2 reduced energy production technology, and securing energy based on sustainable, renewable power plants contra protection of residents, species conservation, and landscape conservation near wind turbines.41 It is the duty of the state to resolve these problems by setting regulations and laws.

The environmental laws in Germany, concerning wind energy, are mainly based on the Federal-Environment-Protection-Law (BNatSCHG Bundes-Naturschutz-Gesetz), the Federal-Immission-Limitation-Law (BImSchG Bundes-Imissionschutz-Gesetz), and the Construction-Law (BauGB Bau Gesetzbuch). To support the implementation, development, research, and production of wind energy technology and as well to push the economical market expansion, Germany has established a very successful Feed-in-Tariff-Law, the so called EEG (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz). As a result of this law, Germany is placed 3rd worldwide, in wind energy production, whilst the country has the highest density of wind turbines worldwide.42 This high density, in combination with a large population of about 81 million people, has a potential for high conflict to arise. To reduce conflict and encourage acceptance of wind energy, the legislation and technical norms in Germany are much elaborated and will be used as a benchmark in this thesis.

39 Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 27, September 2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market 40 Die Welt, http://www.welt.de/politik/article2796036/Deutschland-hat-das-Klimaziel-schon-erreicht.html, Retrieved 2008.11.28 41 Alfred Scheidler & Tischenreuth, KRZ Zeitschrift für Landes- und Kommunalrecht Hessen / Rheinland-Pfalz / Saarland, http://www.lkrz.nomos.de/?id=1406, Retrieved 2010.11.25 42 World Wind Association, http://www.wwindea.org/home/index.php, Retrieved 2010.11.27

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4.2.1 Feed in-Tariff-Law The goal of the Feed-in-Tariff-Law EEG (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz), is to create a sustainable development of energy supply, in order to support climate and environment protection. Further, it aims to reduce the long distance, national economic cost for energy supply, to save fossil resources, and to promote the technology for generating electric power via renewable energy. In §1,2 EEG the goal is to produce 30% of the electrical energy by renewable technology. The law does not only support wind energy, but also all other renewable energy technologies, like hydro power, landfill gases, biomass, geothermic energy and photovoltaic. The law constitutes in §5 EEG that renewable energy plants must be given priority in connection to the grid. The electrical energy produced must be feed into the grid, then be transmitted and distributed evenly, before conventional power plants like, coal, oil or atomic power. In §9 EEG it is regulated that the carriers must enhance and optimise the grids to state of the art technology to reach the primary goals. The carriers must pay a fixed amount of feed-in- tariff to renewable energy operators for the delivered energy. The amount depends on the technology of energy production (hydro power, landfill gases, biomass, geothermic energy, photovoltaic, wind energy on-off shore). Technologies with higher investments and running costs will be provided with higher tariffs. The tariffs will be paid for 21 year including the first year of implementing the plant. The actual initial feed- in -tariff for onshore wind turbines is 9,2 Euro cent/kwh. The tariffs are set in a way that an economical operation of the different technologies for small and large private investors is achievable, even for less windy midland locations. Besides more regulations, the law defines how the additional costs for the electricity utilities are distributed, to have equality between the utilities with high and low share of renewable energy. The minimum price system of the German feed- in- tariff (EEG) is the most efficient regulation to promote renewable energy. More than 22 countries worldwide, plus 18 in the EU, including Denmark and Spain, has taken this regulation as benchmark for their legislation. This means that the German feed -in -tariff is the most duplicated system worldwide.43

4.2.2 Federal-Environment-Protection-Law The Federal-Environment-Protection-Law (BNatSCHG Bundes-Naturschutz-Gesetz) is a concretisation of Article 20a of the constitution. The goal of the law is to protect nature and landscape, as it is valuable not only in itself, but also as a foundation for the health and well-being for existing and future generations. The protection should care for biological diversity, correct operation and function of the ecological balance, and sustainable use of nature. Further, the plurality of nature, the beauty, and the value of relaxation for humans should be considered. The protection also includes the care, the development and re-establishment of nature and landscape. For wind parks, the following paragraphs are especially important. §2.1 BNatSCHG asks to protect viable populations of wild living animals and plants, including the opportunity of exchange of other populations, migration and re-establishment. §3.1 and §3.2 BNatSCHG claims to protect not only the landscape, ground, fresh water areas, but also the sea, air and climate. §13 and §15 BNatSCHG regulate that interventions into environment should be reduced to a minimum and the 43 Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit: Erfahrungsbericht 2007 zum Erneuerbaren-Energien-Gesetz (EEG-Erfahrungsbericht), 2007, Page 46

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persons/companies involved in unavoidable interventions should implement compensatory measures. This topic will be important for the construction of larger wind parks, as German authorities will ask for compensation. These restrictions are standing in certain contradiction to §1,3,4 BNatSCHG, which asks for the establishment of sustainable energy supply, especially through renewable energy. This contradiction is also not defined in this law.44

4.2.3 Construction-Law The German Construction-Law (BauGB Bau-Gesetzbuch) has the objective of coordinating and declaring the usage of ground and construction, in terms of law. The law enables cities and counties to declare grounds for special use in the land development plan. Since 2010, the law has been extended by environmental aspects in §1a for setting up the land development plan. Further, the law defines in §35 BauGB which construction projects are acceptable. Any construction must follow the land development plan, and must not harm Federal-Emission-Limitation-Law (BImSchG).

4.2.4 Federal-Emission-Limitation-Law The Federal-Emission-Limitation-Law, (BImSchG Bundes-Imissionschutz-Gesetz), provides an objective to protect humans, animals, plants, ground, water, and the atmosphere and culture assets, and to prevent negative influences. The law differentiates between approval requiring and non-approval requiring assets. These regulations and a list of approval conditions for different assets are listed in the 4th regulation for approval procedure of the Federal-Emission-Limitation-Law (Vierte Verordnung zur Durchführung des Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes). All wind turbines taller than 50 meters need the approval of responsible authorities, based on the BImSchG. The approval procedure requests to consider all environmental impacts of the asset, and is therefore a very complex procedure. Depending on the size of the project, it may have to be publicly communicated, and public concerns and protests must be respected. The details regarding the approval procedures for different assets are described in 31 regulation documents (BimSchV Bundes- Immissionschutz-Verordnung).45

The issue of conflict mentioned in the constitution and in federal-environmental-protection-laws regarding climate protection via wind turbines and the environmental impact of WTG’s are solved in this way, as the law requests an approval procedure for the erection of WTG’s. This means that not all environmental impacts of WTG’s and wind parks are accepted for the protection of climate change, and an approval for is needed, based on construction, environmental, and emission laws.46

The approval for a project can be given if §5 BImSchG and §7 BImSchG or any other law has not been broken. §5 BImSchG defines the duties of the operators of the projects. It is imperative that the operator avoids harmful environmental impacts and danger to neighbours and to the public. They must avoid these dangers and harmful impacts, by utilising state of the art technology. Waste must be avoided, and must be removed in an environmentally friendly way. Energy also should not be wasted. The projects should also be removed, according to these stipulations, in an environmentally friendly way, once the project has finished, and needs to be closed down.

44 Hentschel A.; Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen; 1/2010; Page 160 45 Bundesministerium der Justiz; Gesetz zum Schutz vor schädlichen Umwelteinwirkungen durch Luftverunreinigungen Geräusche, Erschütterungen und ähnliche Vorgänge (Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz - BImSchG); 11. August 2010 46 Hentschel A.; Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen; 1/2010; Page 163

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4.2.5 Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law The objective of the Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law (UVPG Umwelt Verträglichkeits Prüfungs Gesetz), defined in §1 UVPG, is to evaluate the environmental impact of any private or governmental project based on unique principles. This should be done by determining, describing and evaluating all impacts as early as possible in what is called an “environmental impact examination”. These results must be taken into consideration for official approval of the project. For wind parks, the environmental impact assessment is a part of the Federal-Emission-Limitation law guidelines.

As defined in §2 UVPG, the environmental impact examination contains the description and the evaluation of the direct and indirect impacts on protective resources and goods. This contains impacts on humans, health, animals, plants and biology diversity, as well as ground, water, air, climate and landscape; further the impact on cultural and material goods, and the interaction of all protected resources.

As defined in Annex 1, Chapter 1.6 of UVPG, wind parks with more than two turbines must be evaluated. All parks with more than 20 turbines must commit to the EIA approval procedure. Wind parks with 3-19 turbines must be evaluated in a screening procedure, based on §3c UVPG. In the screening, 3-5 turbines are evaluated by the location-based criteria’s mentioned in Annex 2.1. Wind parks with 6-19 turbines are evaluated in the screening with the general case criteria’s, which include all aspects of Annex 2. The criteria’s of Annex 2 are separated into three parts: The first part (2.1) asks to evaluate the project based on following criteria’s:

1. Size of the project 2. Use and implementation of water, ground, air, nature and landscape 3. Waste production 4. Environmental pollution and annoyance 5. Accident hazards

The second part (2.2) defines criteria’s for the location of the project. The actual specific use of location should be considered, and also the distance to special environmentally protected areas. Minimum distances are normally kept, to ensure that any harmful impacts are avoided. The third part (2.3) asks to demonstrate the long distance effects of the criteria’s, their frequency, probability, complexity, and the size of the impact.47

47 Ministry of law federal republic of Germany, Gesetz über die Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung (UVPG), up dated 2010.08.11

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4.3 Approval Procedure for WTG’s in Germany

4.3.1 Designated Areas for Wind Parks The state has the duty to define suitable areas for positioning of wind turbines. Therefore, the state, the federal states and the counties or the cities have legal instruments, which allow them to define the use of the land. This applies not only for state owned land, but also for private areas. In turn, this means that wind turbines are only allowed to be built in these designated areas. Officials must consider the interest of the surrounding population and environments, defined in environmental and construction law and state specific regulations, by using the laws for regional planning. The general plan of how the areas should be used, such as for housing, farming, tourism, and industry, are defined by officials and politicians, and must be considered. These so-called “regional planning’s”, are different for all federal states in Germany, but of course, all respect the federal and European laws.48 The most specific way to define these areas is to regard certain distances to population and environment. Each federal state has compiled different distance guidelines for their counties and cities.

4.3.1.1 Distances Between WTG’s and Population Settlements are distinguished between continuous settlements like cities or villages, settlements outskirts like farms, and settlements for relaxation, like health resorts and spa towns. In general the distances to outskirt settlements are smaller, compared to the distance to settlements for relaxation. As the regulations are varying between the federal states, the following list delivers average ranges for different developments:

• Cities 500 – 1000 meters

• Rural settlements are 225 – 500 meters • Outskirt settlements 225 – 450 meters • Relaxation areas 600 – 1200 meters

Sometimes, this is not a fixed value, but a multiplication of the height of the turbine. In Schleswig Holstein for example, the distance for cities is tenfold that of the complete height of the turbine49 .

4.3.1.2 Distance Regulations to Roads The minimum distances to roads are defined in the Federal Freeway Law (BFStrG Bundesfernstrassen Gesetz) in §9. But most federal states have exceeded the values for different reasons. As modern wind turbines are higher than the ladders of fire fighters, the turbine must be in a secure distance to the street, so that they can burn out safely. Further, distances must be strictly adhered to, as rescue helicopters must be able to land safely near roads, and not be disturbed by turbulences from the WTG’s. Hence, this is why the street-building-authority in average asks for a minimum distance of 1,5 times the height of the turbines or 150 meters.50

48 Dachverband der deutschen Natur- und Umweltschutzverbände (DNR) e. V, Grundlagenarbeit für eine Informationskampagne Umwelt- und naturverträgliche Windenergienutzung in Deutschland (onshore), 2005.03, Page 22 49 Dachverband der deutschen Natur- und Umweltschutzverbände (DNR) e. V, Grundlagenarbeit für eine Informationskampagne Umwelt- und naturverträgliche Windenergienutzung in Deutschland (onshore), 2005.03, Page 25 50 Dachverband der deutschen Natur- und Umweltschutzverbände (DNR) e. V, Grundlagenarbeit für eine Informationskampagne Umwelt- und naturverträgliche Windenergienutzung in Deutschland (onshore), 2005.03, Page 26

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4.3.1.3 Distance Regulations to Railways The railway authorities suggest a distance of double that of the turbine radius in a directive from 1999. But actually the federal states defined distances between 50-250 meters. The reason for the distance to the tracks is based mostly on the same like for roads. Additionally further aspects must be mentioned. The turning blades of the turbine disturb the radio relay system for the communication with trains. Further there might also be an increased risk of flashlights, as the turbine attracts the flash due to its height. This can affect the trains (and tracks), if the voltage cone, of an impacting flash, reaches the tracks. The last argument for a certain distance, is the wake of the turbines, which could escalate the swinging of the over-wires.51

4.3.1.4 Distance Regulations to High Tension Lines The Technical University of Aachen (RWTH Aachen) suggest that, the minimum distance should be one times the radius to damped mounted power lines, and 3 times the radius to un-damped. So the federal states ask for distances of 1-3 times of the rotor radius to the high-tension lines 52

4.3.1.5 Distance Regulations to Pipelines The distances are distinguishable between above ground and sub ground pipelines. The enclosed distances for each case are calculated reference values, but are not fixed by a law. The distances for each project should be requested at local authorities. Sub ground pipelines: The danger for sub ground pipelines is the possibility of being hit by the nacelle when the turbine crashes. The blades are not expected to have enough energy to harm the subground pipeline. Therefore, the German association of gas and water (DVGW- Deutscher Verein des Gas und Wasserfaches) recommends the following minimum distance of the tower to the turbine:53 Distance = 0, 1063 x NH + LG/2 + 2, 0 m + BS/2 NH: Hub height LG: Maximum value of length, width or height of the nacelle BS: Protection area should be about 10 meters Above ground pipelines: Above ground pipelines are also vulnerable of being hit by the blades. Hence, the distance is based on the complete height of the turbine, plus a safety distance. Distance = NH+BL+10 meters NH: Hub height BL: Blade length

51 Bundesministerium für Umwelt Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit, Abschätzung der Ausbaupotenziale der Windenergie an Infrastrukturachsen und Entwicklung von Kriterien der Zulässigkeit, 2009.03.31, Page 75f 52 Bundesministerium für Umwelt Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit, Abschätzung der Ausbaupotenziale der Windenergie an Infrastrukturachsen und Entwicklung von Kriterien der Zulässigkeit, 2009.03.31, Page 77 53 Industry and Chamber of commerce of the town Halle in Germany, Auswertung und Anregung und Bedenken zum REP für die Planungsregion Halle, 2009.05.29, Page 184

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4.3.1.6 Distances to Environmental Protection Areas WTG’s are not allowed to be built in actual and planned, environmentally protected areas, especially if these are bird protection areas. Rivers, lakes, biotopes and also forest, are also defined as a protected area. The distance depends on German law, suggestions of the federal environment department, and laws of the federal states. Below are some example distances, based on federal laws and the state law of the federal state Niedersachsen (NNatG):54 1000 Meters to:

- Environmentally protected areas, according to §24 NNatG - National Parks according to §26 NNatG - Natura 2000 areas (If it is a special bird protection area)

500 Meters to:

- Natura 2000 areas (If it is a special bat protection area) - Lakes, biotopes and rivers varying between 200 and 500 meters.55

200 Meters to:

- Forests (A forest is defined as a tree covered area of more than 1ha) - Lakes, biotopes and rivers varying between 200 and 500 meters.

Additionally, there are distance regulations to nests, hunting areas for birds, bats and other animals. This will be discussed in chapter 7.1.

4.3.2 Proceeding on the Granting of Permission Wind turbines are constructions in terms of the construction laws. Hence, they need approval from officials. Turbines smaller than 50 meters are handled only by the Construction-Law. For all WTG’s higher than 50 meters, the construction and the environmental approvals are regulated by the Federal-Emission-Limitation-Law (BImSchG). As all commercial turbines to be used in wind parks light Al Hijana are higher than 50 meters, only this case will be dicussed.56

4.3.3 Approval Procedure Immission-Limitation-Law and Environmental-Impact-Law

Based on the Federal-Immission-Limitation-Law (BImSchG) and the Federal-Immission-Limitation-Regulation (BimSchV), turbines higher than 50 meters must have a construction approval, based on the (BImSchG). The law defines two procedures; the formal procedure based on §10 BImSchG, and a simplified procedure based on §19 BImSchG. In contradiction to the simplified procedure, the formal procedure asks to integrate the public opinion into the approval procedure. This means everybody, even private persons, can argue against the project, and officials must discuss the arguments. The simplified procedure must be decided within 3 months, while the formal procedure may take about 6 months. The Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law (UVPG) defines regulations if an

54 Niedersächsische Landkreistag, Hinweise zur Berücksichtigung des Naturschutzes und der Landschaftspflege sowie der Durchführung der Umweltprüfung und Umweltverträglichkeitprüfung bei Standortplanung und Zulassung von Windenergieanlagen, 2005.05, Page 9 55 Dachverband der deutschen Natur- und Umweltschutzverbände (DNR) e. V, Grundlagenarbeit für eine Informationskampagne, Umwelt- und naturverträgliche Windenergienutzung in Deutschland (onshore), 2005.03, Page 34 56 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.01, Page 356

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environmental impact assessment is needed for wind parks larger than 3 turbines. Thereby, it must be declared if the turbines are defined as a wind park, or as group of single turbines, which would mean no EIA is needed, but only a single approval for each turbine separately. Unfortunately, there is no clear law to define this issue. Some courts have defined that turbines with a distance of less than 10 times the height must be seen as a park.57 If the situation is unclear, then a location-based evaluation must be performed. Following different approval procedures defined in the Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law (UVPG), it depends on the amount of turbines in a wind park.58 The different cases are additionally shown in Figure 7. Wind Parks with 3-5 Turbines: For 3-5 turbines in a wind park, the Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law (UVPG) asks in (§3 c Abs.1,2 UVPG) for a location based screening, to determine whether an EIA is needed. Governmental authorities must conduct the screening. The EIA is notified if massive negative impacts on the environment are to be expected. If the screening implies that an environmental impact examination must be committed, the formal immission-limitation procedure must be applied. (§10 BImSchG). If there are no negative environmental impacts, a simple immission-limitation procedure can be accomplished. In most cases the simplified procedure is sufficient. The wind park operator can always conduct a formal procedure. This would lead to more legal security, and the park could not be prevented later, due to private law issues, and if the formal procedure has earlier been approved. Wind Parks with 6-19 Turbines: Wind parks with 6-19 turbines must always be considered by formal procedure defined in §10 BImSchG. Unlike in the situation of 3-5 turbines, the authorities decide in a general case screening, if an EIA must be conducted. The conditions for this general case screening are defined by the Environmental-Impact-Assessment-Law (UVPG) in Annex 2. For the screening, the applicant must deliver a detailed plan of criteria’s defined in this Annex. As this is a general case screening, it must be open and communicated to the public. Wind parks with more than 19 Turbines: Wind parks with more than 19 turbines always need the formal approval procedures, which are defined in the Federal-Immission-Limitation-Law (§10 BImSchG) and an EIA, which is defined in the EIA Law (UVPG).

57 Administration Court Magdeburg, judgement 0f 3.06.2005 – 4A 276/03 –juris RN 20. 58 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.01, Page 370

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Figure 7: Environmental approval procedure Germany; Source: Created by the author

4.3.3.1 EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) UVP If the governmental authorities have decided in the screening that the project needs an EIA based on the UVPG. The applicant must deliver all information needed, to the responsible governmental authorities. The approval process then starts, and will take a minimum of 6 months. As discussed above the EIA (UVP) includes always the participation of the public. Therefor the documents will be published for one month. In parallel other authorities and organisations can give their statements. Then the public can submit their doubts, which will be discussed at the “Scoping” appointment. Firstly, the approval authorities invite environmental organisations, specialists, and other authorities, to the “Scoping” appointment (§5 UVPG). Here, the applicant will present the planned project. Organisations and authorities then have the option to request further analysis, more content, or additional measures to protect the environment. Subsequently the applicant has the possibility to realize the necessary examinations and to bring in the additionally needed documents. Authorities will check for full completion of the forms, once all documents have been submitted. In the next step the authorities will create a summary based on all inputs (§11 UVPG), which will be the basis for the decision if the project will get the approval (§12 UVPG).59

59 Bülow G., http://www.buero-buelow.de/index.html, Retrieved 2010.12.09

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4.3.3.2 Content of an EIA Study (UVP)  The EIA study must be delivered to the authorities, and must contain the status and the effect of the planned project to the protected resources, which include humans, animals, plants, ground, water, air, climate, landscape, cultural goods, and their interactions. As these request for wind parks differ also in the German federal states, the enclosed requirements for and EIA (UVP), of the state Thürigen, will be a reference.60 Requirement List: 1. Reason for the project 2. Outline of the project 3. Project owner, legal background, methodical framework of study 4. Total of the resources to be protected

4.1. Humans: Settlements, usage of the area by humans, acceptance of the project, importance for tourism, cultural goods

4.2. Ground: Usage of the ground, geological situation; topology 4.3. Water: Situation of ground water and surface water, running and stagnant

water, quality of water 4.4. Climate of the location: Including importance for the area; wind speed,

temperature distribution 4.5. Flora and Fauna (description of animals and plants)

4.5.1. Animals and biotopes 4.5.2. Flora and vegetation: Actual vegetation and biosphere in the area 4.5.3. Avifauna Breeding birds: breed, amount, location of breeding area 4.5.4. Migrating birds: Air corridor; bird migrating routes 4.5.5. Bats: Breed, amount, location, Activity in the height of the rotor 4.5.6. Deer’s and wild boar: Breed, amount, usage of the area

4.6. Landscape; structure of landscape; usage; settlements; recovery potential 4.7. Environmental protection areas close to the project

5. Description and evaluation of environmental impact 5.1. Environmental pre-loads 5.2. Impact on humans and cultural goods 5.3. Impact on ground 5.4. Impact on water 5.5. Impact on climate 5.6. Impact on Flora and Fauna 5.7. Impact on landscape

6. Measures to minimise or avoid impacts 7. Suggestions for compensation 8. Evaluation of the document 9. Sources: Standards laws, standards, limits or consultants, reports used for this

document

60 Landesverwaltungsamt Thüringen, Immissionsschutzrechtliche Genehmigungen zur Errichtung und zum Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.12.09, Page 8

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4.3.4 FFH Flora and Fauna Habitat Environmental Impact Assessment

Based on the EU directive 92/43/EEC (Conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora) described in chapter 4.1.4 and Directive 2009/147/EC on the Conservation of Wild Birds) described in chapter 4.1.3, any projects close to these protected areas must commit to an FFH (Flora-Fauna-Habitat) environmental impact assessment. The methodology of the EIA is similar to the UVP described before, but focuses on the actual development objectives of flora and fauna in the affected areas. The actual status of the habitat will then be compared with the effect of the planned project. Based on these findings, an approval may then be given. The guidelines also ask to establish compensatory measures for any harm that may occur. This could include any environmentally friendly activity, such as reforestation. These actions can either be suggested by the applicant or by the authorities.61

4.3.5 Landscape-Recovery-Plan Another analysis procedure is the so-called Landscape-Recovery-Plan (Landschaftspflegeriscer Begleitplan), based on the Federal-Environment-Protection-Law (BNatSchG) described in chapter 4.2.2. Following §17,4 the project owner has to describe the environmental impacts. In contradiction to the EIA (UVP), the Landscape-recovery-plan does not pertain to human and cultural goods. For wind Park planning, these guidelines can be used in screening for the EIA, to inform the authorities about the impacts, and to avoid completing an EIA, which would be a huger effort.

Figure 8: Landscape-Recovery-Plan as part of EIA62

61 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.01, Page 178 62 Buchwald K. & Engelhardt W., Umweltbeiträge zur Verkehrsplanung, Page 216

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4.3.6 Content of Approval Documents for the Federal-Immission-Limitation-Law

This chapter shows up, as an example, the information, which was requested for an approval document based on Federal-Emission-Limitation (BImSchG) in §10 and §19 BImSchG.63

Location and surrounding

• Description of the planning o Location, next settlement, actual use of the area o Exiting turbines o Wind conditions o Description of the planned turbines:

Type, power, height, diameter, number of blades, colours of the turbine, pitch or stall driven, rotational speed

Position plan 1:2000 of the planned turbine o Demand on the driveway for cranes and trucks

Width of the streets, bridge minimum height, maximum slopes Preparation of the ground, maximum load on ground Map of roads 1:25000;

o Erection of the turbine Crane technology, amount and type of cranes Description of the turbine erection

o Effort of maintenance

Description of the turbines, foundation, tower and grid connection

o Type of foundation, size, depth o Type of tower e.g. steel, pre-stressed concrete o Grid connection o Plan of the turbine

Handling of garbage and waste

• Amount of garbage at erection o E.g. Oil, Metal, Wood, plastic, cable, per volume and weight o Disposal plans

• Amount of garbage for the running turbine per year o E.g. Gear oils, oil wasted rags, filter, per volume and weigh o Disposal plans

Handling of rain sewage

• Description of how and where rain water will be disposed (e.g. drainage, to rivers, canalisation)

Immission

• Sound immission prediction o Location and kind of immission points and limits

63 Based on the BImSchG documents of a realized project of the company WPD Think energy, Kassel (project company, realized several wind parks world wide), http://www.wpd.de

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o Location and sound power pressure of each turbine, possible planned reduction at night

o Description of the prediction calculation o Results of prediction and comparative width limits

• Shading prediction o Location and type of immission points and limits o Description of the prediction calculation o Results of shading (Max. hours per year, max. hours per day) o Measures to prevent exceeding the limits

• Measures to reduce the disco effect

System safety to protect the public and workers

• Function and safety o Description of generator type; controlling of the rated power, breaking

systems, emergency stop systems, blocking system of rotors whilst maintaining system in case of an energy blackout

o Description of tele-monitoring systems o Flash protection systems o Protection of cable drilling in the tower, based on azimuth turning of the

nacelle o Description sensors (temperature, vibration, acceleration, power

measurement of the motors) • Ice detection system

o Function of the system o Measures for stopping and restarting of the turbine

• Detailed description of flash protection system o Protection at the blades o Protection for the nacelle o Protection of the electronic and internal parts of the turbine o Grounding systems

• Fire safety o Information regarding burnable elements and liquids in the tower o Fire protection whilst constructing

• Worker protection at erection and maintenance o Location and content of the medical box o Ladder securement o Lighting systems o Falling protection nets o Electrical winches o Training of the maintenance team

Handling of Water-Hazardous Liquids

• Protection system against leaking liquids on the gears and bearings, etc. • Description of water-hazardous liquids

o Ingredients o Hazards; explosion, acid, heath harming, o First aid measures o Fire fighting strategies o Cleaning

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o Reaction with other liquids o Protection measures for workers o Disposal strategies

Documents for Construction

• Copy of land register map • Distance approval to neighbouring properties • Stability report regarding collapse caused by turbulences of other wind turbines

Application for the Screening of an EIA

• Based on §3c UVPG

Landscape-Recovery-Plan

Arrangements After Closing Down of Turbine

• Disassembling • Waste removal of concrete, plastics, metals, liquids etc.

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4.4 Syrian Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) In the Environmental Affairs law No.50 in 2002, the Syrian government defined the duties and organisation of the “Public Authorities for Environmental Affairs”. In chapter 2, the law stipulates that, in general, authorities should evaluate the actual and future environmental problems, and establish a mechanism to limit these in future. The authority is asked to conduct studies, and research and monitor the situation. Based on this, a national strategy for environmental protection should be prepared and implemented. This includes establishing standards and specifications for limits and measurements of impacts. Further public awareness for environmental protection should be increased. Chapter 3 defines the internal organisation and formation of the authorities, which should report to the minister for environment affairs. Their duties for the organisation are regulated in chapter 4. Chapter 5 defines the tasks of the council, which consists of several ministers, engineer representatives, and further organisation, which should be involved in legislation and strategy building for environmental aspects. The main task of the council is to approve the policy, strategy, actions, regulations, standards and terms recommended by the “Public Authorities for Environmental Affairs”. Chapter 6 asks to establish an environment protection and support fund, for all grants and donations of Arab and international organizations for the treatment of environmental damage. The next chapter discusses the regulations for payment of damage compensation, and liability resulted in case of environmental impacts. As law 50 leaves many details open (i.e. how accomplish an EIA) a sub law, the EIA directive called “Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedures in the Syrian Arab Republic” was created. The development of this guideline is a result of cooperation between the authorities of Syria, represented by the Minister for Local Affairs and the Environment, and the Federal Republic of Germany, represented by the GTZ (German Corporation for Technical Cooperation). The final draft was released in December 2005.64

To support and communicate the concept, the EIA-SUSY (Environmental Impact Assessment - Support System) for the Syrian system was established, in cooperation with the GTZ, which can be accessed at http://www.eia-susy.com. The system should communicate, support and inform all parties involved in the EIA process in Syria. In particular, it enables the authorities to communicate news, standards, and changes in laws on a central platform to project developers and EIA experts, as well as the public. Through the website people are able to apply for courses to obtain an EIA Expert license, which is compulsory to conduct an EIA in Syria.

For wind turbine projects, no special EIA regulations have been created yet. The reasoning might be that, as no wind park project has actually been constructed in Syria, there was no need for a definition of EIA Scoping.

4.5 Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure in Syria The sub law “Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedures in the Syrian Arab Republic” (EIA EP) was established to define the process of the EIA. As defined in Article 1, all projects, which have a significant effect on the environment, need to identify and describe these impacts, before an approval is given. This means that future projects must take the EIA process into consideration, before working on a project plan. 64 Schmidt M. & Albrecht. E., EIA-Support System, EIA Expert Training Manual, http://www.eia-susy.yourweb.de, 2010-12-13

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The document asks to inform the public about any project, which has significant environmental impact, and then give the public the opportunity to comment and contribute information. The regulation aims to encourage responsible governmental authorities to raise sustainable activities, and to maintain a healthy environment and economy. Environmental impact is defined as anything that negatively affects human health, living conditions and welfare, soil, water, air, climate, organisms and biological diversity, the community structure, buildings, landscape, townscape and cultural heritage, and the utilisation of natural resources. The General Commission for Environmental Affairs (GCEA) and its directorates in the government, define the content of the EIA, evaluate the EIA, and grant approval. As defined in Annex 6 of law No. 50 (2002), the EIA should respect the complete lifetime of the project; throughout the initial design, the construction, the operation and finally, the deconstruction.65

4.5.1 Procedure of EIA In Annex 1 of the Executive Procedure law, different projects are defined, which are in the scope of this act. The projects are divided into different categories. Firstly, there are projects with a compulsory EIA. These are projects with a large environmental impact, due to their size, location, or production process (e.g. electricity power generation by combustion more than 200MW). Secondly, there are projects where the authorities must decide whether an EIA is necessary or not by individual screenings. Article 4 has an additional “omnibus clause”, which allows the authorities to ask for a screening for projects which are not listed in Annex 1.

Wind park constructions are mentioned in this Annex in point 1.6. Basically, wind turbines no higher than 35 meters, or with less than 10 kW of power, or with less than 3 turbines (in a park situation), must not be considered for an EIA. With 3-5 wind turbines in a park situation, a site related screening must be conducted, as defined in Article 4, §2. With 6-19 wind turbines in a park situation, a general screening must be conducted, as defined in Article 4, §1. Wind parks with more than 20 turbines must conduct an EIA. It is not defined as to what the maximum distance of the turbines has to be, to label them as a wind park for an EIA. The flow chart in Figure 9 displays the process of the described process.

65 Environmental Impact Assessment - Support System (http://www.eia-susy.com/), Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedures in the Syrian Arab Republic, Annex 6, 2010.12.13

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Figure 9: Flow chart of EIA procedure in Syria; created by the author

4.5.2 Content of the Screening Document The content for the screening documents are defined in Annex 2 (Screening Criteria’s), and asks for information about “Characteristics of the Project”, “Location of the Project” and “Characteristics of the Potential Impact”. Based on these screening criteria’s the public stakeholders, the General Commission for Environmental Affairs (GCEA) and it’s Environmental Directorates in Syrian Governorates must decide if an EIA is necessary for the project approval.

1. Part “Characteristics of the Project” should provide the size of the project, the use of resources such as water, nature, and landscape, and the production of soil and waste. Further environmental pollutants and nuisances should be mentioned, and also the risk of accidents, and their impact. 2. Part “Location of the Project” should describe the actual status of the area, where the project is planned. Aspects in chapter 2.1 ask for the human usage of the area, which includes close settlements, agricultural, commercial and recreation areas etc. The second half of 2.2 requires information about the capacity of the water, soil nature, and landscape. In part 2.3, further special areas should be focalised like Flora and fauna, bird

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sanctuaries, nature conservation area, national parks, biospheres. Further all close water conservations areas should be listed. Additionally areas close to the project should be mentioned, where environmental quality standards have already exceeded. Finally cultural aspects, like archaeological monuments and landscapes should be listed.

3. The part “Characteristics of the Potential Impact” must consider the significant effects in relation to parts 1&2. “Potential impacts” defines impacts that can occur in worst-case scenario situations. The following aspects should be considered:

- The extent of the impact (Geographical area and possible affected population) - The trans frontier nature of the impact (If the impact is crossing Syrian border) - The magnitude and complexity of the impact - The probability of the impact, the duration, frequency and reversibility of the impact

4.5.3 The Scoping Process If an EIA is necessary, the project developer should submit a scoping document as soon as possible to the authorities. The purpose of the document is to appoint those environmental aspects that can be affected by the planned project over its whole lifetime. As defined in Annex 6, the scoping should contain a list of all estimated impacts, including prioritisation, and how they are evaluated. It is important to start the scoping at an early stage of the project, as this enables the developer to integrate mitigation, or to implement avoidance measures into the project plan. Additionally, time consuming studies or researches (like bird biosphere studies) could be started and would not delay the project. The scoping document defines which aspect the EIS (Environmental Impact Statement), also called an EIA report, has to cover, which information must be transmitted from the developer to the authorities, and what depth of analysis is needed.66

The Scoping process in Syria is handled in the following way: 1. The developer has to prepare a draft-scoping document to be submitted to the licensing authority for review or approval. 2. The authorities have to review the document within 4 weeks and decide if the document is accepted, or must be changed or extended. The authorities must inform the developer regarding the reasons of the decision, and advise him/her on how to optimise it. The project developer is allowed to start the project, despite neither the EIS nor the scoping document is yet being approved (article 5,2). 3. If the final scoping document is approved, it is valid for a period of one year as a basic for the EIS.

66 Schmidt M. & Albrecht E., EIA-Support System, EIA Expert Training Manual, Prof. Dr. M. Schmidt and E. Albrecht, http://www.eia-susy.yourweb.de/, 2010-12-13, Page 18

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4.5.4 Public Consultation for the EIA Article 6 of EIA EP clearly asks for public consultation about the project. The process of communication is described in Annex 4. As mentioned in Article 1 of Annex 4, the environmental authority should publicly announce the plans for the project, once the project application and description is complete, and in a public method of media, such as in newspapers, etc. The contents of the release, defined in Article 2 of Annex 4, should mention the location and timeframe of the project, and also the necessary technical and environmental information. Article 1.3 of Annex 4 also commits to public meetings. The first meeting should explain the project and its objectives and the second meeting should be held once the EIS has been completed. Besides representatives from the developer and the authorities, everybody (including neighbours, NGO’s, citizens, etc.) is able to participate in the meetings. The objections and views of the public should be discussed, noted down, and then assessed by the project developer.

After the completion of the EIS, a second public consultation must be committed, as described in Article 6. It is not clearly described if this public meeting should be conducted before or after the approval of the GCEA. The author assumes that this will be done before the approval, in order to respect the public arguments in the decision. The public meeting should be conducted in the same way as the first public meeting. It is also not described clearly how the results of the public meeting will be considered in the approval of the EIS by the GCEA.

4.5.5 Preparation of the EIS (Environmental Impact Study) Based on the accepted scoping document, an EIS (Environmental Impact Study) (also known as an EIA document), should be drawn up. Article 7 of the EIA EP claims that a licensed EIA Expert shall prepare the EIS. The qualifications for the EIA Expert are defined in Annex 3. Furthermore, it should be drawn up in the methodology, defined in Annex 5, which is based on the terms of reference of the World Bank.

The expert should be a person with an appropriate background in EIA. This means he or she must have an equivalent bachelor degree in science, engineering or geography, and needs a minimum of 10 years job experience in environmental fields. He or she also needs to participate in an examination from the GCEA (GCEA General Commission for Environmental Affairs) Environmental Impact Assessment training course.

The EIS must then be sent to GCEA. The GCEA and its directorates will then review the document for up to a maximum of one month, and will then decide if it fulfils the requests of Article 7, and the scoping document. If requests are not complied, then authorities must inform the applicant. The applicant must then update the documents within a certain time frame.

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4.5.6 Content of the EIS (Environmental Impact Study) The enclosed structure of the EIS, recommended for Syria, is described in Annex 6.67 It is based on the recommendation of EPA (Environmental Protection Agency).

1. Introduction: The introduction should describe the purpose of the document, the project, (which should be assessed), and the planned outline.

2. Background Information: This part gives information about the most important components of the planned project, the timetable, the background of the developer, and details of the implementing parties.

3. Objectives: This part outlines the scope, and the timeline of the EIS.

4. Environmental Assessment Requirements: This lists the national and regional laws, regulations or standards used for the EIs, and any EIA regulations of financing institutes whom are involved in the project.

5. Study Area: The study area will specify the geographical boundaries of the area that are analysed. This should be not only the direct area of the project, but also the areas of right-of-ways (ROW) for transportation, cables, pipelines, etc. Also included should be the adjacent areas, which could be affected by the impact.

6. Scope of Work: Defines how the EIS is completed to reach sufficiency from a consultant, or from other studies.

7. Description of the proposed work: The following details should be provided:

a. Locations of all project related developments, including maps from right-of-ways (ROW) areas, and any adjacent affected area. The maps should contain details regarding; water, roads, railways, parks, town centres, and the existing use of land.

b. Layout of the project: flow diagrams of the facility processes; size, capacity, flow-through, all construction activities, operation and maintenance activities.

8. Description of the environment: A description for the existing areas analysed by different criteria’s, should be given. The information should be relevant and show all aspects of decision-making.

• The characteristics of the land and the actual use. This includes the characteristics, the topography and stability of the terrain against erosion.

• The characteristics of the landscape of the site and the surrounding area. This includes the existing views, especially from residential areas, and for recreational and touristic areas.

67 Public Authority for Environment Affairs Syria, Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedure in the Syrian Arab Republic Annex 6 (Sample Terms of Reference), 2010.12.12

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• Information about existing habitats of flora and fauna and in particular, the amount of present species, their population, and their rarity.

• Water including Hydrology, Groundwater and Water Quality and the use of the water. Information about existing drainage from valleys, canals, rivers, ponds and the ground water level.

• Information about air quality, which includes the climate and meteorology per season. Additionally, existing environmental preloads from industry, traffic etc.

• Existing noise levels should be measured. The procedure suggests measuring these levels at the closest sensitive location-like residential areas, schools or hospitals during a typical working day. They should be monitored over 4-5 periods, with each lasting about 15 minutes.

• Protection of Antiquities and Other Sites of Historical and Cultural Importance must be guaranteed. Description of the location of any site of cultural importance and the actual touristic use. It is mentioned especially to consider the ground water situation as a change which can lead to settling and destruction.

• For the Social and Economic Context a description of the economic situation of the area is requested, such as existing industries, employment levels etc. Furthermore, the social context should be published. This includes the education level, economic activities, and cultural values of the local population.

• The existing Transport Infrastructure and Traffic Flows should be analysed. This includes roads, railways, ports and canals and their actual and predicted traffic flows.

• Existing Utilities Infrastructure and Usage must be listed; this includes sewerage and wastewater treatment, electricity capacities and water supply, as well as the existing demands on infrastructure.

9. Legislative and Regulatory Considerations for any environmental aspect must be listed, affecting the project. This includes national and international regulations, laws, standards, etc.

10. Determination and prediction of the impacts of the project. The impacts of the

project should be analysed, using the same criteria mentioned in Point 8 “Description of the Environment”. It should be divided into construction, operation and deconstruction. All effects must be compared with assessment criteria’s. These evaluations should be based on local standards. If there are no regulations or standards available in Syria, appropriate international standards should be used, and must be explained in an acceptable form.

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11. Alternatives to the proposed project should be suggested under the criteria’s of; location, technology, construction, operating and maintenance. The alternatives should be compared in terms of potential impact, investment and running costs. What also should be mentioned are the impacts, which can be mitigated, and what impacts are unavoidable and also irreversible. Finally, it should argue why the proposed project has been suggested.

12. Development of Management Plan to Mitigate Negative Impacts. Feasible and cost effective actions should be suggested to mitigate or prevent negative impacts. Measures for accidents and unplanned worst case scenario situations should be respected. Impact and compensation costs should also be listed.

13. Identification of Institutional Needs to Implement Environmental Assessment Recommendation. The EIS should also analyse the local and national authorities, their capabilities in implementing the EIA, and the proper monitoring of the project. Their recommendations may include the implementation of new laws, law adaptation, standards and regulations, or expansion or training of the staff.

14. A detailed plan for monitoring the implementation and the operation of the project should be elaborated. Capital and operational costs, as well as human resources, should be considered.

15. How to participate in Inter-Agency Coordination and Public/NGO Participation should be described. In particular, how the inputs of NGO’s or other affected groups are handled.

16. The different Consulting Teams should be listed, which are needed for the EIS for analysing e.g. flora, fauna, air hydrology etc.

17. The Schedule should define the dates for following up reports (interim, final or other significant dates)

18. Any Other Information, including a list of data sources, project reports, studies, relevant publications, and other items.

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4.6 Comparison Germany – Syria The main difference between the EIA in Syria and the EIA in Germany is the project approval procedure. In Syria, the developer has to deliver a full EIA for a project (if this indicated in the screening process). In contrast, different approval procedures depending on the size and screening must be conducted in Germany. Smaller projects are approved via (BImSchG) and bigger ones on the EIA (UVP). The workload for the BImSchG approval document is smaller than that of an entire EIA (UVP). This means the relation between project size and EIA is provided.

In Germany there are a lot of sub-laws, regulations and standards elaborated by the federal and local environmental authorities, especially for wind park constructions, (noise, shadow, flora, and fauna). As these regulations differ slightly in each federal state, the granting of an EIA is becoming increasingly complicated. It would make more sense to harmonise the regulations, which in turn would reduce the workload for both the developer and the authorities. Syria does not yet have any special regulations developed, as no large wind parks have been constructed. For projects in the coming future, it would be helpful to have some general Syrian regulations for wind parks. For example, these could include distances to settlements, roads, protected nature areas, maximum noise impact, shadow, and many more. This helps to clarify laws and project developments, and also the size and layout of the wind park can be given in advance for corresponding regulations. This information will be more important for private investors, as the project development is more predictable and the profitability can be calculated more accurately.

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5 Noise Impacts from Wind Parks Due to their size and construction, wind turbines can produce noise pollution up to 120 dB(A). This will cause problems when turbines are close to human habitation. Firstly, the noise emitted can violate the laws of noise protection, which were set up by government as a social responsibility to its citizens. Secondly, the resistance against wind turbines from people living close-by to the turbines can result in long-term legal struggles, and a lot of difficulties with administration. Clear measurement, prediction, and impact laws are needed to reduce the sound emitted onto locals.

5.1 What is Noise? In general, humans hear noises via vibrating air, which is swinging due to a source of noise emission. This swinging is an alternation of relaxed and compressed air, which is overlaying the existing air pressure. These pressure differences spread wavelike over large distances, with an average airspeed of about 333m/sec. If these blast waves reach the ear, the drumhead will swing simultaneously which will

result in being able to hear noise.. The larger the pressure difference (P+ - P-) between the relaxed and the compressed air, the higher the sound intensity will be. Additionally, the frequency (swinging over Time t) of theses amplitudes can be heard. These frequencies are measured in Herz, and are felt as a higher tone, depending on how high the emitted frequency is. The pressure and frequencies can be measured and physically evaluated. To understand the further relations and reasons of noise, the following definitions are added:68

Figure 10: Sinus curve of noise 68

Sound pressure p: The sound pressure is the quadratic of the arithmetic mean of the compression pressure P+ and the relaxation pressure P-, measured in microbars.

Sound pressure level Lp: Humans start to hear from a sound pressure of 0,0002 microbars (minimum audible pressure). The pain threshold starts at 200 microbars. In order to make these large differences more manageable, the ratio between measured sound pressure and minimum audible pressure is created. We can say that the measured sound pressure, for example, is 10, 100 or 100,000 times higher than that of the minimum audible pressure. In order to get smaller numbers, the sound power level Lp is expressed in dB and is calculated by the following logarithmical formula.

This means, if the measured sound pressure is equal to the minimum audible, the ratio is 1, and the log of 1 is 0, so the sound power level will be 0 dB. The pain threshold will result in a value of 120 dB. If the sound power level is increased by 10 dB, the audibility experienced doubles.

68 Grundmann & Reinhard & Schönholtz, Schalltechnische Grundlagen, 1999, Page 1 ff

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Sound power P: The sound power is a theoretical value, which cannot be measured, but can only be calculated, and is denoted in Watt. The sound power is the power that is necessary to create the sound power waves emitted by a source in all directions. The sound pressure that we hear depends on the distance to the sound emitter. But sound power emitted is always the same.

Sound power level Lw: The sound power level stands as the sound pressure level in relation to the lowest sound humans can here. This value is the reference power W0 = 10-12 Watt. The sound power levels are indicated in decibel dB.

Lw = 10 log (W / W0) With: W0 = reference power = 10-12 ; W = Sound power level of the source

The A-rated sound power level LwA in dB(A): In tests it was recognised that humans have different impressions of audibility, depending on the frequency. For example, sounds with lower frequency are not rated to be as loud as sounds with higher frequency, even having the same physical dB. These different audibility impressions are shown in Figure 11. Sounds to 60 dB follow the A-rated line. This means humans recognise the sound, varying over the frequencies with different sound pressure levels, as having the same sound intensity. There are similar curves for 60 – 100 dB, which is called B-rated, and with a curve over 100 dB, called C-rated. The y-axes shows the value of the sound pressure level over different frequencies displayed at the x-axes. For example, to reach the same felt volume at 40Hz compared to a noise with 1000 Hz and 40 dB, the 40Hz noise must be emitted with 70 dB. Based on the A-rated line, the sound power level is determined in dB(A). The A-rated sound power level delivers a psychoacoustic, standardised value, which takes the human cognition of sound into consideration.69

Figure 11: Audible frequencies depending on sound pressure level70

69 Grundmann & Reinhard & Schönholtz, Schalltechnische Grundlagen, 1999, Page 4 ff 70 Springer Medizin Verlag, Infraschall und tieffrequenter Schall- ein Thema für den umweltbezogenen Gesundheitsschutz in Deutschland, 2007.11.03

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Cumulative sound pressure level: The sum of several incoherent sound sources, for example several wind turbines in wind parks, is calculated by the energetic addition of all sources.

If the sound source values are available as sound pressure level, following formulary must be used.

If the sound source values are available as sound power level:

The Octave Band and Third spectrum: Most noises consist of different frequencies. The audible frequencies for humans range from 20-20.000 Herz (Hz). The frequencies from 20- 15.000 Herz are divided into 8 parts, the so-called “octave band”. For some sound evaluations the octave band is to rough, so each octave band is additionally separated into three third frequencies. This means the frequencies from 20 – 15.000 Hz consist of 24 Thirds. This is the so-called “Third-Spectrum”. Table 1: Frequency range and average values

Number Frequency range Average value 1 20- 90 Hz 63 Hz 2 90- 179 Hz 125 Hz 3 179- 352 Hz 250 Hz 4 352- 704 Hz 500 Hz 5 704- 1.408 Hz 1.000 Hz 6 1.408- 2.816 Hz 2.000 Hz 7 2.816- 5.600 Hz 4.000 Hz 8 5.600- 15.000 Hz 8.000 Hz

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5.2 Effects of Noise on Health and Mood Every noise has an effect on humans. Some noise (like music), is appreciated, other noises (like jackhammers), are not generally welcome. The impression and the effects of noise on the one hand are physical, which is more or less the same for everybody, but on the other hand also psychological, which depends on personal moods, personal interpretation of noise, and cultural aspects. Additionally, we have to differentiate audible noise with frequencies from 20-20.000 Hz and infrasound, which is below 20Hz. As wind turbines emit noise in the frequencies from infrasound of a few Hz, to 8000 Hz, right up to 110 dB(A) environment, and especially settlements, must be protected from this influence.

Firstly, there are the physical, aural impacts of noise. Only one short impact of 150 dB(A) can harm the ear and reduce hearing. Continuous noise of 85 dB(A) leads to hardness of hearing and tinnitus. Wind turbines in general do not create harms and consequences even if they are emitting up to 110db(A) as they are operating in distance to living and working areas.

It’s more the extra aural effect, which has a negative influence. Noise influences the nervous system and the human organism will be brought to a higher activity mode. This results in setting free stress hormones, which results in an increased heart beat and blood pressure, reduced availability to sleep, and general stress, which can lead to permanent illness like cardiovascular-, metabolism- and immune system diseases, depression and headache.

The level of noise causing the most harm depends on individual perception. General statistics describe that at 35 dB(A), the curtailing can begin.71 An import aspect whether the noise is felt as annoyance, is the individual perception. Investigations over the effect of different kinds of unwanted noises showed that the following measurable effects are especially disturbing. Higher noises like beeping are generally considered more disturbing than lower noise. The felt loudness of a noise can is increased if a special single tone (frequency) is significantly audible. Additional pulsating noise is considered to be more unpleasant than noise of a continuous level.

Figure 12: Examples of noises in decibel72

Furthermore to those measurable effects, subjective, social, and cultural factors influence the aggravating feeling of noise. Noise depends on the time and location: noise at bedtime is differently rated to noise at work in an industrial area. Additionally, it depends on a personal rating: sound, like music in a discotheque, can reach up to 120 dB, and is rated positively from the audience. Further aspects are the so-called “Social, 71 Hospital Charitee Berlin, Phatophysical Seminar I WS 06/07, Macht Krach krank?, 2006, Page 6 ff 72 Siemens, Source: http://hearing.siemens.com/_resources-re/files/05-about-hearing/01-how-we-hear/02/loudness/_resources/images/pic1.jpg, Retrieved 2010.10.03

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Cultural Ratings”. For example the sound of church bells are widely accepted and appreciated in a Christian environment. Noise also depends on the personal mental state of individuals. Specific illness, pregnancy, and depression, can alter the feeling and interpretation of noise. Even gentle noise in a special frequency can be felt as very unpleasant if people are sick.73 Additionally to the aural noise of a wind turbine, there is a huge discussion about the impact of inaudible infrasound and low frequent sound. Analogue ISO 7196 [4] infrasound is defined in the frequency range between 1-20 Hz and low frequent noise is considered to be below 100Hz, according DIN 45680. As seen in Figure 11, the audibility decreases below 100 Hz. Anything below 20 Hz is no longer audible. Infrasound below 10 Hz with high decibels cannot be heard, but rather felt as a vibration. Low frequent noise can be recognised as pressure on the ears, and some people report an unsettling feeling. Infrasound compared to normal audible noise has a larger wavelength. For example, at a frequency of 20 Hz, the wave has a length of 17 meters. This can affect resonances in indoor rooms, which leads to a higher noise pressure, which can then rattle dishes or doors etc. Normal noise insulation measures do not have an effect on these waves. The study from the Robert Koch Institute, describes several impacts of infrasound and low frequent noise.74 Low frequent noise can have aural and extra aural impacts. Aural impacts can occur if the sound exceeds 120 decibels, which are the same as audible harms. Extra audible effects can include fatigue, (due to negative effects on dormancy), reduced productive concentration, headaches, and depression. The effect of infrasound on health, and especially the effect of infra sound of wind turbines, has not been researched deeply enough to prove any negative influences on human health. So unfortunately, no findings on effects can be provided. Additionally, no clear measurement norms and regulations have been established. For example, measurements with the A-Filter of dB(A) underestimate the emission of infra noise.

Organisations like the Bundesverband Windenergie e.V (German Association for Wind Energy) say that the influence has no impact.75 Of course, these institutions have no interest in developing additional restrictions for wind turbines, as this information would be critically analysed. Non, or semi scientific studies, prove that people living close to turbines, suffer from the above mentioned symptoms, even if the legal noise impact levels are respected. The phD “Wind turbine Syndrom” researched these illnesses affecting several people living close to wind turbines, and explains that the infrasound is the reason. It states that the infrasound vibrations masquerades the body movement and instability, like what happens when suffering from sea sickness.76 Other authors argue with the so-called “Nocebo Effect”. This is more or less the opposite of the placebo effect, in which the positive belief of an impact, results in the desired effect. With the Nocebo Effect, the belief that something will harm you, results in a negative impact even if there is no direct, physical relation. This might base on the huge media coverage of negative health effects of wind parks to people living close.

73 Wikipedia, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lärm, Retrieved 2010.08.06 74 Robert Koch-Institut, Infraschall und tieffrequenter Schall – ein Thema für den umweltbezogenen Gesundheitsschutz in Deutschland?, Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforsch – Gesundheitsschutz, 2007, Page 5 75 Bundesverband Windenrgie, http://www.wind-energie.de/de/themen/mensch-umwelt/planung/infraschall/, Retrieved 2010.10.22 76 Pierpont N., PhD, Wind Turbine Syndrome, 2009, Page 20

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This has a paradox effect that anti-wind-park activists create via the media those problems they try to protect.77

In quite rural areas, there is a large difference between the expected “nature silence”, and the legally defined limits of noise impact, which can lead to conflicts.78 In a study of noise impact on people living close to turbines the authors announced this quotation: “The wind turbine noise was by some of the informants perceived as intruding into private domain, physically into the garden and the home, but also as intruder into themselves. The informants’ conception of the countryside as either a place of peace and quietness or a place for development and economic growth seemed to influence the adverse effect of the noise, together with feelings induced by the experience of lacking control, being subjected to injustice, lacking influence, and/or not being believed.” 79

5.3 Reasons for Noise Emission and Technical Reduction The noise emission of wind turbines has significantly decreased over the last few years (see Figure 13) 80, in order to increase public acceptance, and to abide the environmental impact laws. This is the reason why the sound power level diagram is the second most important, after the power curve. Based on technical optimisation, the most of the actual turbines are designed with 3 blades, and with a tip speed ratio of 6-7.

Figure 13: Sound power level over turbine diameter80

Based on this assumption, the following guided values for noise emission can be assumed:81

- Turbines to 40m diameter (0,5 MW): 95dB(A) - Turbines to 80m diameter (1 MW): 100dB(A) - Turbines to 130m diameter (5 MW): 107dB(A)

The most significant reasons for noise caused by wind turbines are mechanical and aerodynamic noises. In this thesis we will solely focus on the noise emission of vertical upwind turbines, as they are used in state of the art technology, and are commonly used.

There are four basic types of sound which are generated by a wind turbine:82

77 Colby D. & Dobie R. & Leventhall G. & Lipscomb D & Robert J. & McCunney, M. & Seilo T, Søndergaard B., American Wind Energy Association Dezember 2009, Wind Turbine Sound and Health Effects An Expert Panel Review, Chapter 4.1 78 Landesamt für Natur Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrheinwestfalen, http://www.lanuv.nrw.de/geraeusche/windenergie.htm, Retrieved 2010.10.22 79 Pedersen E. & Persson Waye K., Department of Environmental Medicine Göteborg University presented at First International Meeting on Wind Turbine Noise, Human response to wind turbine noise – annoyance and moderating factors, 2005.10.17, Page 1 80 Hau E., Windkraftanlagen, 2008, Page 602 ff 81 Hau E., Windkraftanlagen, 2008, Page 609 82 Manwell James F., White Paper, Renewable Energy Research Laboratory Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering University of Massachusetts at Amherst USA, Wind Turbine Acoustic Noise, June 2002

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1. Tonal sounds are emitted at special frequencies. These can clearly be heard as pinging or buzzing sounds, compared to other background noises. 2. Broadband sounds are characterised by a continuous distribution of sound pressure over frequencies higher than100 Hz. A hissing sound is typically produced in this way from a wind turbine. 3. Low frequency sounds are the frequencies, which range from 20 to 100 Hz. A special part of this is the so called ‘infra sound’, which is below 20 Hz and normally not heard by humans. 4. Impulsive sound is defined as a repeating acoustic impulse, which can come in different frequencies or amplitudes.

5.3.1 Mechanical Noise The reasons for mechanical noises include; gears, generators, yaw drives, cooling fans, hydraulic pumps and electrical converters. The gearbox emits the most significant sound at special frequencies depending on the rotation speed. It also has a broadband component. These peaks in the frequency spectrum are generated when the gears transfer their forces onto each other. The example below, and Figure 14, illustrates the rotating frequencies and their harmonics.83 Example: The driving speed of the second gear level is assumed as U= 1530/min and the number of teeth are 28. With the formula of 28 x 1530/ 60 Hz the frequency is 714 Hz. By doubling the frequency the 1st harmonic frequency 1428 Hz is calculated. This effect can be seen at the noise emission peaks in Figure 14 at 714Hz and 1428 Hz.

Figure 14: Mechanical noise over different frequencies83 Figure 15: Rubber mounted Gearbox80

83 Klug H., Magazine Sonnenenergie, Viel Wind um wenig Lärm, Geräsuchproblematik bei Windkraftanlagen, Date 1991.04, Page 1 ff

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Those noises are emitted typically via the ventilation of the hub, and by impact sounds from the rotor, tower and hub. To reduce the mechanical noises different technologies can be applied. First helical gears can be used in the gearbox, which reduce the noise but slightly increase the load on the bearings. Further sound absorbing and encapsulation of the gearbox and generator with sound absorbing material is commonly used. These damping materials as well as the use of special swinging blocking masses are also used to reduce the noise emission of the tower. For reducing the impact of sound from gear and generator to the tower, elastic embedded brackets of the gearbox are used. As to be seen in Figure 15 the two elements are separated with a rubber element. But at state of the art turbines the mechanical noise is much less than the aerodynamic noise emission.84

5.3.2 Aerodynamic Noises Compared to mechanical based noise, which penetrates mostly in special frequencies, the aerodynamic noises are more broadband. The aerodynamic noises are separated into the categories of inflow turbulence sound, air foil self-noise, and low frequency sound.85 These noises are created mostly from the blades in the positions shown in .Figure 16. Figure 17 shows the sound pressure level, which is emitted over the relevant frequencies from these effects.

5.3.2.1 Audible Sound The Inflow Turbulence Sound results from the interaction of atmospheric turbulences and the moving blades. This results in a very broadband noise, with a large amount of low frequent sound.

The Air Foil Self Noises include all noises generated at the surface of the blade:

- The trailing edge noise appears at the end of the air foil, as an interaction between the boundary layer, and trailing edge. The sound pressure appears in frequencies between 300 Hz and 2 kHz. Blunt trailing edges generate vortexes with additional sound.

- The tip noise at the wing tips is based on the interaction of the vortexes, resulting from the pressure differences between the top and bottom of the blades, and blade surface. This kind of sound can be reduced by using special fold up wing tips, as used in airplane wings.

- Noises from airflow over holes, slots or unevenness resulting from uncontrolled vortexes. These disturbances can be the result of screw slots or connection gaps, based on the production of the blades. But they can be also created by insects, clinging onto the surface, or by wholes based on birds or hails impacts on the blades.

- The stall separation noise and the turbulent boundary appear as interactions of turbulences with the blade surface. This depends on the blade form, and the pitch angle of the blades, relative to the incoming air. This in turn has a special effect on stall-controlled turbines.

84 Hau E., Windkraftanlagen, 2008, Page 601 85 Siegfried W. & Bareiss R.& Guidati G., Springer Verlag Wind turbine noise, 1996, Page 1ff

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.Figure 16: Aerodynamic noise generated at blades87 Figure 17: Aerodynamic noise intensity86

The typical sound created by wind turbines is the “swish” “swish”, depending on the tip speed and the amount of blades. The frequency of this sound ranges between 500Hz and 1000Hz.87 Surprisingly, the reason for this “swish” “swish” sound is not 100% clear. Some references explain the sound as an interaction between turbulent air caused by the

trailing edge of the blades, and the slowed down wind in front of the tower when the blades are passing by. Another study from Stefan Oerlemans describes that most of the sound is based on the convective amplification (Doppler Effect), which appears when the blades move downwards into the direction of the recipient on the ground. For this study, a large horizontal microphone array was positioned closely in an upwind direction to the turbine to elaborate the source and amount of sound. The study describes that the sound is produced in the outer part of the blades, but not at the tip, and increases with the 5th power of local flow speed. The results can be seen in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Test set-up with G58 wind turbine and microphone array platform. The noise sources in the rotor plane (averaged over several rotations) are projected on the picture87.

5.3.2.2 Comparison of Stall and Pitch Regulated Wind Turbines The rotation speed of wind turbines is regulated to produce the rated energy. This means that from specific wind speed, modern turbines keep a fixed rotation speed (tip speed), even as wind speed increases. Therefore two different kinds of concepts are used, the pitch and the stall controlled turbines. With stall controlled turbines, the air foils are shaped in a way so that the air stalls at the blades, if wind speed increases a fixed value. This reduces the lift force, and keeps the

86 H.Klug, Magazine Sonnenenergie, Viel Wind um wenig Lärm Geräsuchproblematik bei Windkraftanlagen, Date 1991.04 87 Oerlemans S., National Aerospace Laboratory NLR, Emmeloord, First International Meeting on Wind Turbine Noise, Perspectives for Control, Localisation and quantification of noise sources on a wind turbine, 2005.10.18, Page 2

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turbine within wind speed limits. But the noise emission increases with the increased wind speed, as the turbulences of the stall lead to additional noise (see Figure 20)88. Pitch regulated turbines adjust the pitch angel of their blades, depending on the tip speed, to reach maximum rotation force. If the wind speed increases the desired level, the angle of attack will be reduced, to keep in line with the rotation speed. The blades will now offer less resistance to the wind, and also less sound emission. This can be seen in Figure 19 88, where the noise emission increases with the wind speed till design wind speed of about 9,5 m/s. Then noise emission is kept on the same level. This is one of several advantages of pitch-controlled turbines, and might also be an additional reason as today most new turbines are pitch controlled.

Figure 19: Noise emission of a pitch-controlled turbine80 Figure 20: Noise emission of a stall-controlled turbine 80

88 Landesumweltamt Nordrheinwestfalen, Sachinformation zu Geräuschemissionen und Imissionen von Windenergieanlagen, 2005, Page 1

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5.3.2.3 Infrasound and Low Frequency Sound (non-audible sound) Low frequency is mostly generated when the blades pass airflow deficiencies. These deficiencies can be caused, on the one hand, by the blades passing wakes of other turbines, (especially in wind parks), and on the other hand, by natural wind turbulences when the blades pass the tower. Especially with downwind turbines, the infrasound is significant as the tower is generating turbulences before the air flow meets the blades. The sound is a sum of single tones, which is the total multiple of the product of rotating speed, and number of blades. Figure 21 shows the results of sound pressure measurements within a 200 m distance, completed by the German Federal Agency for Natural Resources. The figure shows significant impulsive signals caused by each blade passing the tower.

Figure 21: Infrasound of wind turbine measured89

Upwind turbines are also generating infra-, and low frequency sound. Figure 22 shows the octave band of noise of the Vestas V80 turbine in db(). In comparison to the A-weighted dB(A) diagrams, where the infrasound has more or less no influence, this diagram shows, that there is a large impact in infrasound. For the human ear, the frequencies are below the audible limit. This can be seen in Figure 11 at the audible threshold line, and DIN 45680, where audibility is above 70 dB() for these frequencies. Based on several studies, infra noise of wind turbines, as well as natural infra noise of waves or wind, do not exceed the critical threshold.90

Figure 22: Sound spectra of Vestas V-8091

89 Ceranna L. & Hartmann G. & Henger M., Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), Der unhörbare Lärm von Windkraftanlagen – Infraschallmessungen an einem Windrad nördlich von Hannover, Page 4 90 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.01, Page 411

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It is also important to note that the typical “swish” “swish” has no infrasound frequencies, as it is a modulation of frequencies, ranging from 500- 1000 Hz.91

5.3.3 Mapping of Noise of the Wind Turbines by Background Wind Wind in general causes a sound power level. Noise from leaves on trees, turbulence noises based on wind passing houses, cars, and other obstacles, can all be used as examples. Particularly with higher wind speeds, these noises can block the noise from wind turbines so that the noise emission from turbines is not audible. These background noises are constantly changing though, and are not continuous. Hence, the intensity cannot be measured accurately, and mapping of wind turbine noise is not given all the time. In general, accepted rules are not given, as these noises depend on local condition, natural cover, buildings and topography. Additionally, these conditions can change over time through deconstruction, or through construction of new buildings. Based on the noise characteristics of a wind turbine, in combination with the background noises, the environmental administrative office of Nordrhein Westfalen (Germany) assumes that the noise of a pitch controlled turbine is completely mapped at a minimum wind speed of 7m/s as the mean noise immission of the turbine in the critical area is 10dB(A) lower compared to mean background noises. This is only the case if the turbine noise does not include tonality or impulsivity. This is based on the measurement, where wind from 7 m/s wind speed causes about 45db(A). 92

5.3.4 Reduction of Aerodynamic Noise Some manufactures are producing their turbines with the technical compromise of reducing noise emission, but with the effect of reducing energy efficiency. This could be noise reduction by special constructions, like encapsulation of the gearbox. To reduce the aerodynamic noise the majority of the turbines have different operation modes. As the noise emission increases with the power of up to 5 related to the tip speed, the reduction of the rotation speed is the most efficient way to reduce aerodynamic noise. For example, a reduction of the tip speed by 25% will reduce the emission by 6 dB(A). This means that turbines with a lower tip speed have a noise emission advantage.

Pitch controlled turbines can vary their speed by changing the pitch angel, and can reduce noise by about 4dB(A). These noise reductions unfortunately include a loss of power and efficiency. The turbine software offers by default different types of driving modes (levels). But there is a difference for gear driven and gearless generators.

Figure 23 shows the power curves for different noise modes of the Vestas V-80 gear controlled generator. Compared to this turbine the gearless Enercon turbines, as seen in Table 2, produce less power in the noise reduced mode. The most extreme possibility in reducing noise in sensible periods, like at night-time, is to turn off the turbines in these timeframes..

91 Leventhall G., Noise Consultant, First International Meeting on Wind Turbine Noise, 2005, How the "mythology" of infrasound and low frequency noise related to wind turbines might have developed, Berlin 2005.10.17, Page 13 92 Landesumweltamt Nordrhein Westfalen, Windenergieanlagen und Imissionsschutz, 2002, Page 21

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Table 2: Sound power level in different mode. Source: Enercon E-82 E2 Data sheet, 04.2010

Figure 23: Power curves at different sound levels for the Vestas V80-2.0 MW turbine, equipped with OptiSpeed®. Source: Product leaflet Vestas; 2010.11.05

Level 95% of design power Sound power level dB(A) Level 0 2300 kW 104,0 Level 1 2000 kW 103,5 Level 2 1600 kW 103,4 Level 3 1400 kW 103,0 Level 4 1200 kW 102,5 Level 5 1000 kW 99,5

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5.4 Norms, Laws, and Regulations for Noise Impact Based on environmental impact laws and regulations, population and nature must be protected from harmful influences. This also means that noise immission that may affect receivers must be kept to a minimum. There are no actual international norms or laws for these limitations, only country specific regulations. For planning or repowering of wind parks, it is necessary to predict these noise levels, to keep the limits within a certain area. The noise immission at the receiver depend on the amount, and quality of emissions, and the reduction of these noises by attenuation between the source and receivers. The International Standard Organization published in 2002 the latest version of the ISO 61400-11 (Wind Turbine Generator Systems - Part 11: Acoustic Noise Measurement Techniques). These norms define a unique, comparable methodology of measuring noise emissions from wind turbines. This norm is accepted in most countries using wind turbines, but with local interpretation. As there are no specific norms for the attenuation of noise from wind turbines, the international general norm for attenuation of sound (ISO 9613-2), is recommended to predict the noise received by the receiver. As this norm was developed for industrial noise, the attenuation of high positioned noise in complex terrains is not being calculated accurately.

Figure 24: Attenuation of Sound Outdoors

5.4.1 Measuring Sound Emissions of Turbines with ISO 61400-11 The ISO 61400-11, delivers a uniform methodology to measure and analyse the acoustic emission of wind turbines in a uniform and consistent way. This norm is applicable for vertical as well as horizontal turbines. The results characterise the acoustic profile of each turbine type in sound power level, octave bands, and third octave bands, depending on wind speed and are describing tonality. Turbine producers to evaluate acoustic emission performances apply the norm. These emission results are then utilised by wind park planners for the sound emission forecast calculations, and to evaluate if the sound of planned turbines exceed the emission limits, which are part of the environmental impact approval procedures.

The norm asks to measure the sound pressure level at 6,7,8,9 and 10 m/s or at 95% of the designed electrical power of the turbine. The measurement for 95% will be done if the design power is reached at less wind speed than 10m/s. Thereby the sound pressure spectrum minimum, within the borders of 63 Hz to 4 kHz in octave or full third octave bands, must be evaluated.

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Additionally, the tonalities, the maximum sound power level, the frequencies of the tones, as well as information regarding impulsivity, must also be metred. Optionally, low frequent infrasound emissions, or any other unusual sound, should also be analysed.

The measurement must be performed by a predefined setup of measurement tools, and in a specific manner. The most important equipment’s are the 4 microphones, with a minimum frequency response of 45 Hz to 5600 Hz.

Figure 25: Positioning of microphones94 Figure 26: Distance of microphones94

The microphones, using a windscreen, must be installed on a noise reflecting board with a standardised size. As seen on Figure 25, the 1st microphone is positioned behind the wind turbine in the distance R0. The 2nd and 4th microphone are each positioned 60 degrees to the left and right of the 1st microphone, also on Radius R0. The 3rd microphone is directly positioned in distance R0, in front of the turbine. To control the wind direction (and thus the correct position of the microphones), a wind direction transducers in a minimum height of 10 meters, must be installed. An anemometer with a measurement range of 3-20m/s should be installed on the same mast. A power transducer should measure the actual output power of the turbine. Lastly, a barometer and a thermometer to measure temperature and pressure for at least each two hours is needed.

The norm describes how to measure and record the A-weighted sound pressure level over broad-band of wind speed. This, and all further measurements, must be recorded at running and non running wind turbine conditions, and any intruding intermitted background noise (i.e. airplanes), should be taken into account and not be evaluated. The octave band measurement must be taken over the frequencies 63 Hz to 4 kHz and shall be determined as energy average in minimum five spectra. To evaluate the tonality narrow band measurements between 63 Hz and 5 kHz in steps between 20-57 Hz should be taken, to find noise peaks. The non-acoustic measurements should be taken synchronically with noise measurement. The norm suggests measuring the wind speed from electric output and the power curve of the turbine, to 95% of maximum power point normalised with atmospheric pressure and temperature. After 95% the power cannot be taken to calculate the wind speed as the power curves, as the curve gets to flat. Additionally, the wind speed should be taken from the anemometer, particularly if the turbine is parked.

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The norm mentions the topic infra and low frequent sound in Annex A, but does not give real measurement recommendations, as they state that those phenomena were not fully understood at the point in time when the norm was created.93 For further calculations, the noise emission values are calculated to the middle of the rotor area. This simplification is used for sound pressure level predictions in apart places calculated by the formula of ISO 9613-2.

It must be considered that this norm does not respect the special noise emission characteristics as discussed in chapter 5.3.2.2 (Comparison of Stall and Pitch Regulated Wind Turbines). This means that the noise emission can increase, when wind speed increases, even the turbine has reached 95% design power. As actually mostly all new turbines are pitch controlled, this insufficiency of the norm is not that important any more.

5.4.2 Attenuation of Sound During Propagation Outdoors ISO 9613-2 The most common norm to calculate the attenuation of sound outdoors is ISO 9613-2. It has the goal of predicting the A-rated sound pressure level at locations in a specific distance to noise sources. Hence, it closes the gap between the norms of measuring the sound emission of assets, and the limits regarding maximum immission regulations. The described methods are based on optimal sound propagation due to weather conditions and ground inversion conditions. They expect the wind to blow from the source to the immission point at a maximum angle of 45 degrees, and with a wind speed of 1-5 m/s measured 3-11 meters above the ground. Sound sources are assumed as a point.

The attenuation algorithms respect the physical effects of geometric expansion, absorption by air, the ground effect, the reflexion on surfaces, and the shielding from obstacles.94 The norm ISO 9613-2 delivers two methods to calculate the attenuation of sound outdoors; the frequency specific method, and the alternative method of A-rated sound pressure levels.

For the frequency specific method the sound power level in octave bands (63 Hz – 8 kHz) of the noise source are needed, to calculate the frequency specific damping of the ground and air absorption. This method is optimal for flat areas, and takes the ground noise reflection quality in consideration. In combination with the other damping factors, the direction correction and the meteorological factor the A-rated sound pressure at the target area is calculated.

The alternative method differs in the ground absorption damping. This method does not take the frequency and the ground noise reflection quality into consideration. It instead it takes care of the topography of the landscape.

5.4.2.1 Calculation of the Attenuation To calculate the noise immission at the target, adequate sound power level data of the turbines from wind turbine manufactures are needed (see Chapter 5.4.1 Measuring Sound Emissions of Turbines with ISO 61400-11). These are sound power levels in the frequencies 63 Hz, 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 4000 Hz and 8000Hz.

93 IEC 61400-11 1st edition 1998-2009, Wind turbine generator systems- Part 11 Acoustic noise measurements techniques, 1998 94 ISO 9613-2, Acoustics – Attenuation of sound during propagation outdoor, 1996

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Alternatively the A-rated 500 Hz middle level sound emission, which is calculated as an acoustical sum of the other bands can be used To calculate the A-equivalent sound pressure (LAt) from the equivalent-octave-sound pressure level, the following formula should be used:

j: Index for the 8 octave bands Af: Standardised A-rating filter based on IEC 651 (see Figure 11) Lft: Equivalent-Octave-Sound Pressure Level per Frequency

The basic formula to calculate the equivalent-octave-sound pressure level Lft(DW) per frequency is:

(1) Lft(DW) = Lw + Dc – A

LW: Sound power level of the turbine in decibel dB(), per frequency. DC: Direction correction value to describe the sound pressure level difference between a point source with a special direction and the point source without any direction. In the case of a unidirectional sound source like a wind turbine DC = 0. Only if the ground effect is calculated in the alternative way described later, DC = DΩ. A: The damping’s per octave band

The damping is the sum of different influences:

(2) A = Adiv + Aatm + Agr + Abar + Amisc

Adiv: Damping based on geometric spreading. Aatm: Damping based on air absorption. Agr: Damping based on ground effect Abar: Damping due to shielding Amisc: Damping based on miscellaneous reasons

5.4.2.1.1 Calculation of the different damping factors

Damping based on geometric spreading: The damping based on geometric spreading is calculated as a spherical broadening of noise. This is considered in the formula (4).

(4) Adiv = (20lg(d)+11db)

d: The distance from the source to the receiver, in meters

Damping based on air absorption: The damping based on air absorption is dependent on the frequency, the temperature, and the humidity. The most disadvantageous values are shown at 10 degrees centigrade, and with 70% relative air humidity. Further values for different humidity’s and temperatures can be found in ISO 9613-2.

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If only the A-rated sound power levels are known, the damping of the middle value of 500 Hz should be used.

(5) Atm = αd / 1000

α: absorption co-efficient of air d: distance in meters

Table 3: Absorption co-efficient per frequency

Frequency 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

α 0,1 0,4 1 1,9 3,7 9,7 32,8 117

Damping based on ground (standard methodology): The standard methodology is only applicable for, flat areas, or areas with a consistent slope. The area near the sender and the receiver mainly causes the damping. These areas are defined with the length of 30 times that of the height (h), in the direction of the receiver and the sender, where h is the height of the sender or the receiver, respectively. As the nacelle of state of the art turbines are in a height of 100 meters the emission area would be 3000 meters (30 x 100). But the significant immission points for wind parks are much closer. This leads to inaccuracy in the prediction with this method.

Figure 27: Ground damping areas based on ISO 9613-294

Hence the Agr is calculated as the sum of the 3 areas:

Agr = Asource + Amiddle + Areceiver

The damping effect of the ground is considered with the ground factor G. G is a value between 1 and 0. The value 0 is used for high reflecting ground, such as ice, concrete, asphalt, or just hard ground in general. The value of 1 represents high absorbing ground, like high porous ground, and area’s with natural cover, such as wood, grass or acreage.

0 <= G <=1 (ground damping factor)

The damping of the three areas (Asource, Amiddle, Areceiver) are now calculated for each octave band using the adequate ground factors Gsource, Geceiver and Gmiddle, by the formula below, which can be found in the ISO 9613-2 norm.

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Figure 28: Formula to calculate Aground94

Damping based on ground (alternative methodology):

To calculate the ground absorption for any ground forms, an alternative method can be performed. This method should only be used under the following conditions; the ground must be predominantly absorptive (G is near to 1); and the noise must not be a single tone. This means that the noise should consist more or less of equal octave level values.

(6) Agr = 4,8 – (2hm/d) [17+300/d] >= 0 dB

d: The direct distance between sender and receiver in meter hm: The middle height to be calculated with the formula: hm = F/d (see graph) below.

.

Figure 29: Calculation of hm94

As described in Formula (1) of this chapter, DC = DΩ for the alternative method. This value considers the increase of immission based ground reflection near the source.

(7) DΩ = 10 lg {1+ [dp^2+ (hs-hr) ^2]/ [dp^2+ (hs+hr) ^2]}

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hs: Height of sender over ground, in meters hs: Height of receiver over ground, in meters dp: Distance between sender and receiver, projected onto horizontal ground

Damping due to shielding: Abar

If no special sound protection is installed, which is used for a worst case prediction, the value is set to the least favourable case of Abar = 0. For calculations of shielding’s or reflections from obstacles, see the ISO 9613-2, Chapter 7.4. As the damping factor is only used in special conditions, it will not be discussed in this thesis.

Damping based on miscellaneous reasons: Amisc Also the damping based on miscellaneous aspects, as planting, construction or industry buildings, the value is set to the worst case Amisc = 0. For calculation of Amisc see the ISO 9613-2 annex A.

5.4.2.1.2 The Metrological Correction Factor Cmet Metrological effects, such as wind speed, temperature, and humidity, can reduce immissions. In case of a point source of sound, the following equations should be used.

(8) Cmet = 0 if dp <= 10(hs+hr) (9) Cmet = C0 (1-10(hs+hr)/dp) if dp > 10(hs+hr)

hs: The height of the sender in meters hr: The height of the receiver in meters dp: The distance between the sender and receiver, projected to the horizontal ground C0: Dependent on local weather statistics for wind direction, wind speed and temperature. This value can be fixed from local authorities. In general, this factor has a value between 0 and 5 dB.

5.4.2.1.3 Noise Immission of Several Sources For evaluating the influence of several sound sources at one immission point, the individual immission of different incoherent sources must be summed up logarithmically.

(10)

Lat: The emission based on all sound sources Lat(j): The individual A-rated immission of the source (j) j: The index of the sources Cmet: Meteorological correction; see Chapter 5.4.2.1.2

5.4.2.2 Accuracy and Evaluation of the Norm The damping of noise outdoor depends on the atmospheric conditions, like temperature, air pressure, humidity, snow, and wind direction. Therefore, inaccuracy appears in the noise prediction, which is discussed in Chapter 9 of the ISO 9613-2. The estimated inaccuracy depends on height and distance of the source and target. Here, the norm delivers figures for conditions up to 30 meters in height difference between target and

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source. As modern wind turbines are clearly higher than 30 meters, and the emission points are on the ground, these values cannot be used.

The ISO 9613-2 does not comment on whether the frequency specific method, or the alternative method, is more accurate. Different studies conducted by the environmental ministry of Nordrhein-Westfalen have shown that the frequency specific method overestimates the ground damping of grassland for high positioned sound sources. This has the result that the predicted noise immission is lower than that of the real value. The alternative method was more accurate and slightly above the measured results. Hence the alternative method is closer to reality and is used especially in Germany for professional immission prediction.95

5.4.3 Noise Immission Regulation (Acceptable Sound Pressure Levels) The noise immission at critical point is calculated by reducing the emissions of the turbine, by the weakening of noise over the distance. There are no international noise immission limits for sound pressure levels. Most countries have regulations or laws, which describe the maximum amount of sound pressure limits that people can be exposed to. The limits differ upon the location and utilisation of the impact zone (commercial area, mixed area, general residential, purely residential), and on the time of day or nigh.96 The huge difference between the international regulations is whether to take the existing background noise for the limits into account. As described in Chapter 5.3.3 (Mapping of Noise of the Wind Turbines by Background Wind), the background noise can depend on wind-based noise like wind in trees, turbulences of obstacles, or non-wind-based noise, like industrial, traffic or society noise. Fixed noise limits: Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and The Netherlands The immission regulations for Germany (TA Laerm), Denmark ("Bekendtgørelse om støj fra vindmøller" (Umweltministerium) No. 304 von 14/5/91) and Sweden (“Metod för mätning av bullerimmission kring vindkraftverk” von Statens Narturvårdsverk, Sten Ljunggren, FFAP-A-935, 1992), for example compare the immission of the wind park or wind turbine at the immission point with a critical level, regulated by law. The limits depend on the type of noise critical zone like commercial area, mixed area, residentiall area and the time, but do not differ for different wind speeds on the location. The limits generally define the maximum sum of all noises, (wind turbine noises, wind and non-wind induced noises) which are allowed to impact the area. Table 4: Noise limits comparison DK, NL, DE; Source 96

95 Landesumweltamt Nordhrein Westfalen, Sachinformationen zu Geräuschemissionen und –immissionen von Windenergieanlagen, 2006, Page 8 96 Rogers A., Ph.D A white paper Prepared by the Renewable Energy Research Laboratory Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering University of Massachusetts at Amherst, MA, Wind Turbine Acoustic Noise, 2002.06, Page 21

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The advantage of this method is to determine very simply, if the limits are exceeded. It is only a comparison of the sound immission, caused by the maximum sound emission of the turbine, reduced per the distance attenuation effects, but only if the turbines are the only source of noise. As the maximum sound emission of the turbines is used, the calculation is totally independent on local wind conditions. The disadvantage of this method is that it does not take the local situation of existing, masking noise into account. This means that the sound annoyance from neighbouring home will be judged by fixed value and not adapted to the situation.97 Noise limits that depend on existing background noise levels: Great Britain, Austria; France The immission regulations applied in Great Britain (ETSU-R-97), and Austria, follows another concept. Here, the emission noise of the turbine at critical point must not exceed the existing background noises at the immission point for a regulated value. In this calculation, the noise of the wind speed at the immission point is included. For example: the noise of existing wind passing trees, grass and buildings can be estimated by: La(Vw) = 27, 7 dB + 2, 5 Vw dB, where Vw is the wind speed.98 A similar procedure is used in France. Here, the immission noise level of turbines depends on the background noise level. The ambient sound level must not surpass 5dB in the daytime and 3dB at night. Following the French standard, NF S31-010, the according ambient levels will be measured at less than 5m/s wind speed, and the lowest levels of the period, (around 26db(A), in winter in the countryside).99 The advantage of this method is that it takes both immission into account, the turbine, and also the ambient sounds of nature. This means that the disturbance levels are adapted to the situation, and in turn are lower than that of the method used in Germany. This also results in various disadvantages though. Firstly, the ambient sound can vary once the measurements have been completed. For example, noise protecting forests, houses, or other noise emission sources can appear or disappear. Suddenly, increased annoyance may occur and lead to new rules and regulations for the situation. Even a standardised measurement of the ambient noise is complicated. Where to position the microphones? Should the masking wind be taken in consideration in very windy locations? Finally, measuring to find the quietest periods over the course of one year is very time consuming and costly, which can delay project development.97

5.4.3.1 Noise Immission Regulation in Germany: TA Lärm Wind turbines are noise-emitting assets. Based on §3,5 BImSchG of the German environmental impact law must be appraised by the TA-Lärm. The TA Lärm (Technical advice for protection of noise) is the federal regulation of any noise limits and immission in Germany. Within the approval procedure of the environmental impact law an immission prediction must be conducted based on these regulations, to check immission limits before the construction of any assets. The TA Lärm defines the limits, general regulations for noise and regulations for noise prediction and measurement. The prediction of the immission must not exceed the limits within a probability of 90%.

97 Sloth E., Vestas Wind System, First International Meeting on Wind Turbine Noise Modelling of noise from wind farms and evaluation of the noise annoyance, 2005.10.17, Page 1ff 98 Hau E., Windkraftanlagen, 2008, Page 602 99 Dutilleux P. & GabrielJ., DEWI Wilhelmshaven, Recommendations for Improved Acceptance of Wind Farm Projects in France with Regard to Acoustic Noise, 2010.11.18, DEWI booklet page 81

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But some of the regulations and calculation methods in TA-Lärm are not defined clearly. Therefore the federal administration of all states of Germany developed own guidelines how to calculate and handle the TA-Lärm.

Noise immission limits

The environmental approval can be given under different conditions:

1. The approval will be given if the rating noise immission level (Lr) in the critical zone is lower than the guideline values given in chapter 6.1 of TA Lärm (see Table 5) This means that the sum of all sources of noise (wind turbines, commercial, industrial noise), but not ambient wind noises, do not exceed these values.

Table 5: Noise limits based on German regulation of TALärm Chapter 6.1

Number of TA Lärm

Description of location

Immission value at day time

(6:00-22:00)

Immission value at night time

(22:00-6:00)

6.1 a Industrial area 70 dB(A) 70 dB(A) 6.1 b Commercial area 65 dB(A) 50 dB(A) 6.1 c Mixed area 60 dB(A) 45 dB(A) 6.1 d Residential area 55 dB(A) 40 dB(A) 6.1 e Living area 50 dB(A) 35 dB(A) 6.1 f Hospitals 45 dB(A) 35 dB(A)

2. Under special conditions, the approval can be achieved by the so-called criteria of ‘no relevance’ (German: “Irrelevanz Kriterium”). In case that already existing noise sources are at the limit of the immission values, an additional new turbines is allowed to be build, if the additional noise of the turbine is less than 6 db(A) of guideline values and the sum of the rating noise including the additional turbine noise not higher than 1db(A) as the critical immission value. But this can only be done for one additional single turbine, as several additional turbines, each of them keeping the criteria of no relevance would increase the noise emission in a “salami-slice strategy” and this would mean the increase is not more non relevant.

5.4.3.2 Regulations for Noise Emission Rating Levels in Germany The maximum noise emission rating levels of running turbines should be used for further calculations. They should be measured at a wind speed of 10 m/s in 10 m height or at 95% of operating point with method with accuracy class II like ISO 64100-11, described in Chapter 5.4.1. For the official environmental approval procedure an independent expert report, or the data of the producer of the used turbines must be delivered. For stall controlled turbines, increasing noise with wind speed (see chapter: 5.3.2.2 Comparison of Stall and Pitch Regulated Wind Turbines), a special report must be delivered.100

100 Landesumweltamt Nordhrein Westfalen, Sachinformationen zu Geräuschemissionen und –immissionen von Windenergieanlagen, 2002, Page 7

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5.4.3.3 Additions for Tonality (KT) and Impulsivity (KI) To calculate the emission value of the turbine, additions for tonality or impulsivity should be added. This should only be completed if these factors are clearly audible and disruptive, and could be rated objectively. Depending on the audibility additions of 3dB() to 6dB(), ratings should be given for tonality and impulsivity. More definite directions are given in the federal state directions on how to handle the TA-Lärm. With modern wind turbines, these values are normally zero, as state of the art turbines do not emit tonal or pulsating sounds.101

5.4.3.4 Prediction (Attenuation) of Sound Immission The TA-Lärm accepts three kinds of different noise immission predictions:

1. Estimated prediction Here no attenuations are considered. This means emission values are equal the immission values. As the emission value of wind turbines is about 100dB(A) and far more than the maximum allowed values, this method is not used in practice for WTG’s.

2. Detailed frequency specific method This method should follow ISO 9613-2 within the frequencies of 63-4000 Hz, but should be only used in flat areas. In general, the TA-Lärm asks to use this method if the data is available. For wind turbines though, the German federal environmental departments recommend the 3rd methodology, as described below.

3. Alternative method If no other data is available, the prediction can be completed with the A-rated data. These data’s must not be used if the noise is a single tone. In the case of wind turbines, this does not apply, as the sound is more broadband. Furthermore, it must not be used if noise spreads over the ground with a high acoustic reflection. Normally, grassland and forest, which is the location of turbines, have a low acoustic reflection. So this method is most of the time adequate for WTG’s.

As discussed in chapter 5.4.2 (Attenuation of Sound During Propagation Outdoors ISO 9613-2) the frequency specific method overestimates the damping of ground, and so results in a lower emission. Additionally, different kinds of investigations have shown that the alternative method is closest to accuracy.102 This is the reason why German federal environmental departments ask for the predictions to be completed by the Alternative Method for the EIA.

5.4.3.5 Quality of Prediction The TA Lärm, requests the report of a noise immission prediction, and also a statement of the quality of the prediction. Quality means for the prediction to take different uncertainties into account. Based on investigations of the environmental administration of Nordrhein Westfalen, the prediction of noise emission has in sum an uncertainty of about +2,6 dB(A).103 The TA Lärm does mention this in the request, but does not describe how it should be reported. Hence, judicature and the federal environmental

101 See reports of noise emissions of modern wind turbines like Vestas V-90 or Enercon E-82 102 Staatliches Umweltamt Herten, Windenergie Handbuch, 2006.06, Page 81 103 Landesumweltamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Sachinformation zu Geräuschemissionen und –immisionen von Windenergieanlagen, 2002, Page 8

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departments request to add an unsecure addition to the immission value. Three uncertainties must then be taken into consideration:104

• Uncertainties of emission measurement (Standard deviation: σR) is calculated by the difference of the measurements of the same turbine, at same conditions, but executed by different persons and laboratories. If the turbine was analysed based on ISO 9613-2, a typical value for this is σR = 0,5 dB(A)

• The standard deviation based on production variations (Standard deviation: σP) takes the differences in sound emission of the same turbine type, and compares it with typical production tolerances. Based on DIN EN 50376, Appendix B, and evaluation from a German federal commission of noise protection, a typical value would be σP <=1,2 dB(A).

Uncertainties of the attenuation models (Standard deviation: σProg) This values cares for the uncertainties in the prediction model following ISO 9613-2. Based on the federal environmental department of the state Brandenburg (Germany) a typical value is σProg=1,5 dB(A)105 • .

5.4.3.6 Handling the 90% Statistical Security in Brandenburg (Germany)107 Each federal state has slightly different guidelines about the interpretation of TA Lärm. To clarify the basic method, the procedure on how to handle the uncertainties in the federal state of Brandenburg will be described below.108 The method shows how to calculate the emission value of a single turbine. Calculation of the 90% statistical security sound power level (emission of turbine) 1. Average sound power level of all turbines:

n: number of turbines measured LWA(j): Sound power of turbine (j)

2. Standard variation of sound power level:

If the sound power level only from one turbine is available, as it is most common, as not all turbines of a production are measured σP = 1,2 dB() , based on DIN EN 50376 (Nov 2001)

104 Länderausssschuß für Immisionsschutz Hinweise zum Schallimmissionsschutz bei Windenergieanlagen, 2010, Page 400 105 Sicherheitszuschläge bei Windenergieanlagen; Staatliches Umweltamt Herten; 4.12.2006; http://www.stua-he.nrw.de/download/pdfs/formulare/windenergie/sicherheitszuschlaege.pdf 107 Federal state of Brandenburg Germany, WEA-Geräuschimmissionserlass, Appendix 1-3, 2003.07, 1ff 108 Federal state of Brandenburg Germany, WEA-Geräuschimmissionserlass, Appendix 1-3, 2003.07, Page 13 ff

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3. Combined standard deviation of production and emission measurement:

A typical value, as mentioned above for σR = 0,5 dB ()

4. Sound power level, 90% (emission of the turbine). This sound power level is used for further calculations of attenuations in ISO 9613-2.

LWA, 09 = LWA, m + k* σLWA k = 1,28 is a standard normal variable of Gauss to reach 90% security

Calculation of 90% sound prediction The environmental department of Brandenburg expects that the prediction uncertainty will be increased by distance.

1. Standard deviation depending on the distance of wind turbine and immission

dj: distance to turbine noise immission area d0: 1 meter For d<100 meter σd = 1,0 dB

2. Standard deviation of immission sound power per turbine

σLWA: Combined standard deviation of production and emission measuremen.

3. Sum of uncertainties of several wind turbines If several turbines emit noise, like in a wind park the resultant standard deviation is smaller than of a single turbine, if all uncertainties are predicted as independent, as done in the documentation of uncertainty of Prost and Donner.109 Than the variance for the whole wind park can be calculated, based on the propagation of error as followed

m: Number of wind turbines Lp,j: Emission of sound power levels of single turbine

109 Probst W. & Donner U., Die Unsicherheit des Beurteilungspegels bei der Immissionsprognose, Zeitschrift für Lärmbekämpfung Booklet 3, 2000, Page 86-90

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But some newer researches claim, that for example the attenuation errors are statistical depended, as it can be claimed, that if the attenuation conditions are good for one turbine it must be also good for the others, as they are standing in the same area. Therefore other calculation models, as described in the document of the environmental department of Herten (Germany), are requested.110 But generally the calculation model of Probst and Donner is accepted by German courts. 4. Calculation of immission sound power level with 90% statistical security

Lp,90 = Lp + k σp

Sum of all emissions, including 90% statistical security This value, in addition to the existing noise immission, must be lower than that of the limits of emission discussed above.

Lr,90 = Lp,90 + KT + KI - Cmet

KT: Additions for tonality at immission point

KI: Additions for impulsivity at immission point

Cmet: Meteorological Correction based on ISO 9613-2

5.4.3.7 Calculation of Rating Noise Immission As an example of sound approval calculation, the suggested way of calculating for Brandenburg is described in this chapter. As explained above, the methods vary over Germany in each federal state, so the method from Brandenburg is only an example. As the authorities ask for the Alternative Prediction Method of ISO 9613-2, there is no need of a frequency specific calculation. Additionally it is presumed that the turbines are running continuously with the maximum noise emission at 10m/s or 95% of the rated power. Therefore, most turbine developers already provide the A-rated middle sound power value LWA,m which is integrated over time.

1. Calculation LWA,m A-Equivalent sound pressure level over octave band; (see ISO 9613-2):

j: Index for the 8 octave bands Af: Standardised A-rating filter, based on IEC 651 Lw: Unweight sound emission of single turbine per octave band

2. Calculation of LWA 90% statistical security LWA = LWA,m + 1,28 σLWA

See method from the authorities in Brandenburg

110 Probst W. & Donner U., Die Unsicherheit des Beurteilungspegels bei der Immissionsprognose, Zeitschrift für Lärmbekämpfung Booklet 3, 2000, Page 90

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3. Calculation of the predicted (attenuation) sound power level at immission point, per turbine Calculation based on alternative method (see ISO 9613-2)

LPA,m = LWA(j) + Dc – A(j)

LWA: Sound power level of the turbine A-weighted DC: Direction correction value (see ISO 9613-2)

A: Damping factors A = Adiv + Aatm + Agr + Abar + Amisc 4. Accumulation of emission of all turbines

5. Calculation of immission sound power level with 90% statistical security

LPA,90 = LPA + 1,28 σP 6. Noise immission with 90% statistical security, and additions

Lr,90 = LPA,90 + KT + KI + Cmet Cmet = Meteorological correction (see ISO 9613-2) KT = Addition for tonality (TA Lärm) KI = Addition for impulsivity (TA Lärm) 7. Cumulative noise immission - existing and additional- from wind park

Lc = 10 lg (100,1 Lr,90 + 100,1Lex) Lex = Existing noise at critical location in dB(A)

8. The immission must be lower than that of the limits Lc< Limits of TA-Lärm

This does not predict existing noise.

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5.4.4 Noise Immission Laws and Regulations in Syria Currently, Syrian officials do not have an official guideline for noise immission approval for wind parks. Additionally, no Syrian norms are defined for emission measurement and attenuation of sound.112 This means for a prediction and evaluation for an EIA, reasonable international standards should be used. The limits for noise, however, are defined in the document “Official Limits of Noise” legalised on the 13/10/2002.113 This document defines, besides the acceptable limits of noise in workplaces, the limits for noise outside, and further, some noise limit guidelines for special locations in Damascus. Based on the recommendations of the head of the experimental department of environmental Ministry Damascus, the limits for noise outside can be used for the immission limits for wind parks.113 Unfortunately, the table of limits (see Table 6) does not mention fixed values, but a range of limits for the location and time. As they have a range of 10 dB(A), the allowed impact difference is quite large. The authorities argued that the specific upper or lower value depends on the specific location. This means that for each noise immission approval procedure, the responsible authorities must be requested for the correct value, as the “specific” is not defined. Furthermore, not all areas are defined clearly. For example, limits for farmyards or single housed dwellings in the countryside’s are missing. It is also unclear what kind of noise should not exceed the limits. The value of 25dB for suburban residential area with weak traffic at night-time could already be exceeded by noises caused by wind. To be on the safe side in the EIA, it is recommended to take the lowest value in the table. The author recommends that the limits should be defined more clearly by the authorities, to clarify the procedures for future EIA’s.

Table 6: Table of noise immission limits in Syria, Environmental Impact Ministry Syria

Type of area Noise limits dB(A) Day Time

(7am – 6pm) Evening

(6pm - 10pm) Night

(10pm – 7am) City centre & commercial, administrative buildings 55-65 50-60 45-55

Residential areas (near highways, with small workshops) 50-60 45-55 40-50

Residential areas in the city (less noise area) 45-55 40-50 35-45

Suburban residential area with weak traffic 35-45 30-40 25-35

Industrial area (heavy industry) 60-67 55-65 50-60

112 Field research of the author 2010.09, at the National Syrian Norming Institute. Interview with the head of the Experimental Department of Environmental Ministry, Damascus; Mrs. Rawnak Jabbour 113 Ministry of Environment Syria, Official Limits of Noise, 2002.10.13, ; ا�����������و�د �ا������ح ���� ����ة �ا����ت �و���ة �ا�����ض� �ا��� �ل

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6 Optical Impacts WTG can also have an optical impact. The most annoying effects depend on the rotating rotor. First of all, the blades can emit periodic light reflections, which can occur at strong sun light. This phenomenon is called “disco-effect”. Further a periodic shadowing can be impacted, based on the blades shading the sun. This effect, which is called “shadow flicker”, depends on the position of the sun, the wind direction, and the cloud situation. At night, WTG’s can emit annoying light effects, as tall wind turbines must have aircraft warning lights. These lights, blinking in a rhythmical way, can illuminate bedrooms, and disrupt sleeping patterns. Lastly, WTG’s themselves, and especially WTG’s in operation with turning blades, have an aesthetic impact on the landscape, thus disturbing optical impression.

6.1 Flicker Effect (Shadow) If the sun and rotating WTG’s are placed in a particular angle, disruptive shadowing can occur. The disruptive shadow is not caused by the tower, but by the moving blades, which causes a rhythmical change of shadow and light, and large differences in brightness, depending on the tip speed ratio of about 0,5-3Hz. If these shadows cover parts of living or working rooms this is unfortunate. These changes in brightness can reduce concentration and, in turn, cause negative health effects.

6.1.1 Health Effects of the Shadow Flickering The Institute of Psychology at Christian-Albrecht’s-University in Kiel (Germany) has committed to a study regarding the annoyance of periodic shadowing on behalf of the German Ministry for Economics and Technology. The goal of the study was to evaluate if the influence of periodical shadowing for more than 30 minutes created stress factors. Those factors were; general performance indicated by calculation and logic test’s, and mental and physical state as well as heart frequency, blood pressure and further physical aspects. The test groups consisted of 32 students (averaging 23 years of age) and 25 employees (averaging 47 years of age), and involving both men and women. The test participants were separated into two groups, with equal women, men, employees and students. Both groups had to fulfill the test requirements. Whilst one group had normal light conditions, the second group was penetrated with spotlights and shadowing. Stress effects could be proven in all participants of the “shadow group”. The shadow penetrated them for 60 minutes, with a shadow contrast of 80%. On the one hand, the performance of the participants in the test had been reduced, but on the other, physical stress, including blood pressure, sweating and further indicators, could be proven. Older participants noticed that these stress symptoms stayed for some time, even after the ending of the test. In sum the university judged the effect of the labor test, as not very strong annoying but it is proved that increased physical and psychical requirements are needed to fulfill duties. Further, they predicted that the impact of permanent shadowing for a long time would be strongly annoying.114

114 Institute for Psychology at the Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Belästigung durch periodischen Schattenwurf von Windenergieanlagen Laborpilotstudie, Kiel, 2000.04.15, Page 2

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6.1.2 Positioning and Intensity of the Shadowing The influenced areas of the shadows mainly depend on the height of the turbine, the diameter of the rotor, and the cord length of the blades. With growing turbines of more than 100 meters in hub height and diameter, the shadowing problem is increasing. The shadowing also depends on the geographical position of the turbine. For example the more southern or northern away from equator, the turbine is positioned the longer the shadows will be at noon. The movement of the shadow depends additionally on the day of the year, as sunrise, sunset and the shadow positions at noon are constantly changing.115 But there are multiple factors for the shadow intensity. Light passing through the atmosphere is diffused. This has the effect, that the shadow intensity is reduced as scattered light is reaching the shadowed area. The longer the light is travelling through the atmosphere, the more shadow attenuation occurs. This happens when the sun is standing low at dusk and dawn, and in northern or southern regions with a low sun height at noon. Furthermore, clouds, dusk, smoke or moisture, can diffuse the sunlight and reduce the shadow intensity to more or less zero. Another effect, which reduces the shadows intensity, depends on the distance to the shadow-causing object. The larger the distance gets between the observer and the object, the smaller is the part of the sun covered by the object. Figure 30 shows different areas of shadowing and the effects. In the area called umbra, the sun is completely covered by the object. In the area penumbra, and in antumbra, the sun is only partly blocked. This leads in both cases to a reduction of the shadow intensity.

Figure 30: Parts of a shadow116

The size of the blade blocking the sun depends also on two factors; firstly, the wind direction. If wind blows in the direction from, or against the sun, the turbine stands orthogonal to the sun and the maximum chord length is the widest element to create shadows. If the wind blows rectangular to the suns direction, the turbine blade rotation area is then parallel to the sunrays, and the maximum sized element to block the sunlight is the thickness of the blades. In this situation, the flickering shadowed area is reduced to a stripe, due to geometrical reasons. The umbra of a blade with 1,5 metre chord length ends about 145 meters behind the 115 DEWI Magazin Nr. 20, Hans-Dieter Freund, FH Kiel / UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES, Einflüsse der Lufttrübung, der Sonnenausdehnung und der Flügelform auf den Schattenwurf von Windenergieanlagen, Februar 2002, Page 2ff 116 White G., Expert Witness Statement of Experts of Stockyard Hill Wind Farm Pty Ltd; Page 10

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turbine. The thinner outer parts will then end at an even shorter distance. Only 40 to 45% of the sun will be blocked by the thickest part of the blades with a distance of about 10 diameters. The more the shadowing is reduced, the less the disturbance appears.117

6.1.3 Calculation of Shadowing and Limits in Germany118 A clear prediction of shadowing in general and for certain locations in special is impossible as to many unknown factors and a too complex situation must be taken in consideration. For example, to predict the shadowing on a window of a specific house, (depending on the shadow of only one turbine), accurate data must be collected. Firstly, the whole topography of the landscape, the direction of the windows, and covering obstacles must be taken into consideration for the calculation. Secondly, the form and the pitch angle of the blades must be respected each second over the prediction time, as the form and the pitch define the form of the shadow. The most critical aspect is the unknown weather situation. The prediction of sunshine for the locations, which leads to shadowing, is especially impossible for cloudy, northern regions. Furthermore, the azimuth direction of the wind turbine, depending on the wind direction, can only be defined as a probability.

Nevertheless, the shadowing is an environmental impact stated in the German law of BImSchG must be predicted, and emission limits must be adhered.119 Because of the difficulty in prediction, and the unclear effects of shadowing, currently in Germany neither scientifically proven prediction methods or limits, nor law-based rules exist.120 To close this gap, federal official government experts from the Bund-Länder-Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Immissionsschutz (LAI), developed guidelines in 2002 the so-called ‘Guidelines for the Prediction and Evaluation of Optical Emission of Wind Turbine Generators, (“Hinweise zur Ermittlung und Beurteilung der optischen Immissionen von “). These guidelines are accepted, and requested by the EIA, and by all federal environment officials. The guidelines define the prediction method, and the limits of impact. They work with three different kinds of shadowing definitions:

The astronomic maximal amount of possible shadowing (worst case): This is the theoretical amount of time, shadowing would occur if the sun shone continuously all day and every day, over the course of one year, from dusk until dawn, with a cloudless sky. Furthermore, the wind turbine would then also be running continuously over the course of the year, with the rotor area rectangular to the sun, relative to the specific immission area. This value can be calculated more or less accurately. Metrologic probable shadowing: This is the calculated time of shadowing regarding the common weather situation at the emission location. The data for the prediction must be taken with long-dated weather measurements.

Actual, real shadowing: This is the real measured time period of shadowing at the emission location, if the sun shines with more than 120W/m2 on an area normally exposed to rays.

117 White G., Expert Witness Statement of Experts of Stockyard Hill Wind Farm Pty Ltd, Page 10 118 Die Bund-Länder-Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Immissionsschutz (LAI), staatliches Umweltamt Schleswig; Hinweise zur Ermittlung und Beurteilung der optischen Immissionen von Windenergieanlagen, 2002, Page 1-12 119 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, 2010.01, Page 415 120 OVG (Court) Lüneburg, Decission of 17.0.2007 – 12 ME 38/07

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6.1.3.1 Periodic Shadowing Limits Based on the guidelines, the impact of periodic shadowing is not considered annoying, if the sum of the time of shadowing of all WTG’s at a critical location is less than 30 hours a year and maximum of 30 minutes per day, if the prediction is completed in a worst case scenario situation. Critical locations can be considered to be living rooms, bedrooms, study rooms, offices, medical, and work areas, as well as balconies and terraces. Further, undeveloped areas, which are officially defined, are to be used for areas mentioned above. The critical prediction point for undeveloped areas is 2 meters above the ground. The limits are based on studies from the Institute for Psychology of the Christian-Albrecht’s-University Kiel.

6.1.3.2 Prediction of Periodic Shadowing 118 For the prediction of periodic shadowing, all WTG’s must be considered that have an influence on the critical area with the worst-case scenario approach. The influenced area is defined as the area where the blades cover a minimum of 20% of the sun. In areas with less than 20%, the difference in brightness between shadowed and un-shadowed areas is not high enough to cause disturbance. As the chord length of the blade varies, whilst becoming smaller at the end, a rectangular blade form has to be presumed for the prediction. The presumed chord length has to be calculated in the following way: Presumed-Chord-Length = 0.5*(Max.-Chord-Length + Chord-length-at-position (0.9 of the blade length)) The topography must be considered in the calculation. Any distinction between umbra, penumbra or antumbra must not be considered. In order to generate comparable and clear predictions, further simplifications and assumptions must be considered for the worst case scenario:

- The sun has to be assumed as a source of a point of emission. - Sun is shining from dusk until dawn every day of the year. Dusk and dawn times

depend on date and latitudinal position of the location. The day has 24 hours, and the year, 365 days.

- Cloudless, clear sky each day of the year. - The wind direction is equivalent to the azimuth direction of the sun. - All turbines are constantly running. - The distance between tower and rotation area can be dismissed. - Shadowing for solar altitude below 3° over the horizon can be dismissed, as the

sunbeams are mostly blocked by vegetation, construction, or atmospheric influence in certain areas.

- Permanent, existing, opaque obstacles may be considered. The prediction results in a typical shadowing “butterfly”, as seen in Figure 31, which is an example of area the shadowing is influencing over the course of one year, at a location of 52° north of the equator.

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Figure 31: Shadowing area for example WTG122

6.1.1 Situation in Syria Currently no standards, laws or specifications have been implemented in Syria.121

6.1.2 Mitigation Measures If the periodic shadowing exceeds the limits, mitigation measures must be taken. The only mitigation is the cut-off of the WTG if its shadow is passing a critical area, if shadowing occurs at this time. The possible timeframes of shadowing must be calculated accurately with regards to the size, position, correct distance, and viewing direction of the critical area. This schedule must then be stored in the computing system of the turbine. The reference point for windows on houses is in the middle of the window, and for free areas 2 meters above the ground. In contrast to the worst-case scenario for this situation, real shadowing impact limits must be considered. Based on the statistics of real shadowing to worst case scenario shadowing, the limit of 8 hours per year and the of 30 minutes per day though, must be kept.122 These limits are guilty for the influence of all WTG’s affecting the critical area. If additional wind turbines are constructed, then existing impact must be considered. There are different types of deactivation modules available. Enclosed the technology of the turbine manufactor Enercon is described. The deactivation module uses a calendric system. Based on the criteria’s mentioned above, the worst-case scenario shadowing schedule is programmed into the control system of the WTG. This means the turbine “knows” at what time and date shadowing can occur for the calculated critical areas. As the real shadowing depends on illumination the system must check in the critical time if the shadowing condition reach a critical value. Based on the reference document (“Hinweise zur Ermittlung und Beurteilung der optischen Immissionen von Windenergieanlagen”) disruptive shadows can be expected if the suns radiation is higher than 120W/m2 on an area normally

121 Field research in Syria in environmental ministry, standard officials; In September 2010 122 Die Bund-Länder-Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Immissionsschutz (LAI), staatliches Umweltamt Schleswig, Hinweise zur Ermittlung und Beurteilung der optischen Immissionen von Windenergieanlagen, 2002, Chapter 1.3 &4

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exposed to the sun’s rays. This means that the system only shuts down in the scheduled time frame if this value is exceeded. To meter the radiation and evaluate possible shadowing, Enercon uses the following system: In order to measure the radiation, 3 sensors are installed at an angle of 120°, and at a height of 3-4 meters on the tower. With this assembly, at least one sensor is located in the shadowed area, with the other in a sunnier position on the tower. The system can now calculate the difference between the sunny and shadow sided radiation, if the limit is reached. This system works independently from the actual position of the sun. The turbine will be stopped, if in the time frame calculated in the worst-case scenario, the sensors measure a critical radiation. If the turbine has stopped and the radiation conditions are changing to non-shadowing conditions, within the time frame, the turbine will not be activated at the moment. Only if the conditions stay non-critical for about 5 minutes the turbine will be reactivated. Of course the turbine will be activated automatically if the critical time frame is passed.123

6.2 Flicker Effect (“Disco Effect”) Under certain conditions, WTG’s can create the so-called “Disco Effect”. This is caused by the rotating blades, which reflect sunlight and so blind spectators. Depending on the rotation speed and the number of blades, the reflections can appear several times per minute. As the sun moves over the sky, this can affect a certain area for a few minutes. There are no scientific studies that prove that these reflections have any negative health effects, or any other disadvantages.

6.2.1 Situation in Germany These flashes of light are defined in Germany as emission, based on the BImSchG §3, 2. The intensity of the flashing light depends mostly on the reflection and the colour of the blades. Hence, this is why the federal environmental officials recommend special non-reflecting, matt colour tones for the blades. State of the art turbines are using these colors to help minimize this effect. Based on the actual statistics from the environment agency in Nordrhein-Westfalen, no complaints have been filed concerning turbines with these colours. The effect is not harmful, and must not be avoided by cut-off mechanisms such as in the case of periodic shadowing. Therefore, no prediction calculation is necessary.124

6.2.2 Situation in Syria Currently no standards, laws or specifications have been implemented in Syria for this reflecting effect.125

123 Enercon (Energy for the world), Technische Information Schattenabschaltung Enercon_SiAs-SH-Information Schattenabschaltung-Rev1.5-ger-ger.pdf, 1.06.2010 124 Landesumweltamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Windenergieanlagen und Immissionsschutz, Essen 2002, Page 25 125 Field research in Syria in environmental ministry, standard officials, In September 2010

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6.3 Illumination by Flashing Warning Light Due to their size WTG’s are a hazard to air traffic. To avoid collisions with planes and helicopters, they must be signalled. Further a distinction between night and day markings must be carried out.

6.3.1 Legal Regulations in Germany In Germany, the regulations for marking obstacles can be found in the General Administrative Regulations for Marking Obstacles of Air Traffic, part 3 (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zur Kennzeichnung von Luftfahrthindernissen). Based on this regulation, WTG’s with a total height of more than 100-meters must be marked. The detailed description about position, intensity and colouring of the light and marking is described in the regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). The markings for daytime can be distinguished by colour coding on the blades. Turbines higher than 150 meters must also be marked on the nacelle, and on half of the height of the tower. Instead of the blade being marked with colour, white flashing warning lights can be installed. For night time, special warning flashlights must be installed. These can be installed on the nacelle. Depending on different flashing red lamps. But the highest point of the turbine must not be more than 60 meters above. Alternatively, a flashlight can be installed on the blade tip, whereby a special control system, must guarantee that the highest blade is always flashing (for three blades, the flashing must be in the area of +120 -120 degrees from the top). All flashes must have a certain intensity to be able to be seen over a defined distance. Additionally the lights might be shielded towards the ground in a defined angle, but must be seen from every direction around the turbine.126

The red or white flashlights are light emissions, and must be considered for the purpose of the German BImSchG §3,2. Therefore, the Federal Commission for Emission (Länderausschuss für Imissionsschutz) has defined in the document for measurement and evaluation of light emissions, that the light emissions of warning flash lights are not relevant if the distance to houses, hospitals, or other critical areas, is large enough.127 This distance is normally kept, due to the distance that is necessary for the reduced noise impact. But in practice, residents close to the turbines lament the disturbing effect of the flashing lights. Hence, the acceptance of wind parks in particular areas may be lower.

6.3.2 Impact of Flashing Warn Lights To study the impact of warning flashlights, the Federal Environmental Ministry has commissioned a study at the Institute of Psychology at Martin-Luther University in Halle, Germany. The study released a survey among the residents of different WTG’s and wind parks. As mentioned above, the lights do not have a strong level of disturbance, but about 16% of the participants felt clearly uncomfortable, stressed and mentioned various undefined illnesses. With a low cloud situation, the flashing is reflected quite significantly by the clouds to the critical area. The study emphasises that these symptoms should be taken seriously.128

126 Federal Republic of Germany, Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zur Kennzeichnung von Luftfahrthindernisse, incl. Apendix 2&3, 2007 127 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei der Errichtung und Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen, Page 426 128 Hübner G. & Pohl J.,Martin-Luther-Universität Halle–Wittenberg Institut of Psychology, Akzeptanz und Umweltverträglichkeit der Hinderniskennzeichnung von Windenergieanlagen, 2010.04.30, Page 25

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6.3.3 Situation in Syria The author did not find any regulations for air traffic warnings in Syria in the field research, but the author expects that the regulations of the ICAO must be respected.129

6.3.4 Mitigation of the Impact There are several ways to reduce the impact of the flashing warning lights. All measures must guarantee the safety of air traffic though. Enclosed are several methods, which have been discussed:130

- In larger wind parks with several turbines, only the marginal turbines could be illuminated. Due to air cover however, this solution must be discussed in each individual case, as the distance between the turbines can be huge enough to pass especially for rescue or military helicopters. And then there would be no warning lights

- The flashing of all turbines in a wind park should be synchronised. This reduces the perturbation caused by “uncontrolled” blinking. An actual technology is to use the time signal of GPS to synchronize all turbines constantly.

- Avoidance of Xenon lamps, as the colour impression given off is considered to be more annoying than LEDs.

- Control systems can regulate the illumination depending on visibility. This means at low visibility, the light intensity is increased, and vice versa.

- Reduce the angle of irradiation towards the ground. This reduces the impact on low standing obstacles, but sustains the visibility for air traffic.

- A new technology is currently being tested. This testing involves the idea that flashing should only occur if an aircraft is approaching the turbines. The transponder on the aircrafts could be used to activate the system.

129 Field research in Syria by the author, in the environmental ministry and at standard officials, 2010.09 130 Bundesverband Windenergy e.V., Entwicklung eines Hindernisbefeuerungskonzeptes zur Minimierung der Lichtemission an On- und Offshore-Windenergieparks und -anlagen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Vereinbarkeit der Aspekte Umweltverträglichkeit sowie Sicherheit des Luft- und Seeverkehrs, September 2008, Page 84 ff

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6.4 Effects on Landscape As WTG’s are large constructions mostly built in the countryside, outside of an urban context and so far away from other tall buildings, they have a significant visual impact on the landscape. This is especially so, as they are constructed for better wind yields either on flat land or on the top of hills or mountain crests, and are visible over large distances. Turbines higher than 150 meters can be seen at good visual conditions up to 40 km away.131 Even with the growing number of turbines in a region, WTG’s, or wind parks, are no more a point of interest, but are becoming dominant in the landscape. This can lead to negative opinions by the residents impacted by the WTG’s, and reduce the acceptance of wind power.

Landscape is changing all over the world - with the growth of cities, roads, high tension lines, and industrial uses of area. But the aesthetic change of landscape depends on the observer, their education, historical and cultural background, as well as the opinions of the observer towards the WTG’s. Furthermore, it was researched that the interpretation of WTG’s is dependent on the financial participation of the surrounding residents.132 Negative aspects are overturned when persons participate financially in the WTG.

In general, WTG’s can change the natural characteristics of a landscape into that of a more technological shape. Due to their vertical orientation, landscape can be divided into an optical sense, and visual axis can be changed. A further disturbing effect is the rhythmical rotation of the blades, including the shadowing and the disco-effects. As there is no pendant to such movements in nature, this becomes eye-catching, and a focus point. This can then lead to the destruction of beauty in landscape, natural areas, or historic, cultural areas. Especially in areas with high tourism, this can become problematic as the attractiveness of the area and touristic value may reduce. Furthermore, the cultural aspects of residents must be respected, as some landscapes may play an important part in their cultural or religious views.

To avoid conflicts and problems with acceptance, visual aspects should play an important part in the planning and communication in the realization phase of wind parks. To optimise the chances of acceptance, several methods described in Chapters 6.4.1 to 6.4.3 can be utilised. Wind turbines are a new element in a changing landscape. Compared to other human influence in landscape, like forest clearings, roads, bridges, high tension lines, wild growing settlements or even brown coal mining areas, WTG’s have a relatively small impact. Further WTG’s can be also seen as a visual upgrading in a region if visual aspects are respected in the planning.133

6.4.1 Photomontage to Predict Visual Impact An aesthetic impression of landscape is always an individual opinion, but a photomontage in the planning phase can lead to an objective discussion, which can then calm any fears, and avoid unfounded arguments. This method is common business for projects like bridges, roads, dams and skyscrapers. Based on the pictures, the wind park impression can be visualised from several viewpoints. It can even be seen how other obstacles like houses, forests etc. are covering

131 Hasse, Bildstörung, 2005, Page 53 132 Instsitute for tourism in northern Europe, Effects of On- and Offshore wind turbine generators on tourists in Schleswig Holstein, 2000, Page 7 133 Technische Universität München Fachgebiet für Landschafsarchitektur regionaler Freiräume, Documentation of an exhibition: Forschungs- und Entwicklungsvorhaben Windenergie und Kulturlandschaft Dokumentation einer Ausstellung, 2004

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the view of the WTG’s. Furthermore, the size dimension between the existing elements and the new construction can be evaluated.134

With modern software like WindPro2, realistic photomontages can be created, based on the coordinates and the types of turbines. For a realistic photomontage, an appropriate photo of the existing area from the desired view is needed. Via renderings, respecting the position of the photo, the turbines, and the topography, the software can create the photomontage. To create a more realistic effect, light and weather conditions; like moisture and clouded sky, must be considered in the rendering, otherwise the rendering will look like a silhouette. Figure 32 shows a location of countryside in Germany without any wind turbines. In Figure 33 the gridline is displayed, based on the positioning of the photo and the turbines, created by the software. The rendering is completed in Figure 34, respecting the cloudy weather conditions; the turbines are displayed as realistically as possible. The aesthetic evaluation of the picture depends on each individual.

Figure 32: Location: Immenhausen Germany, without turbines; Source Windpro2 Tutorial 2.7

134 DEWI German Wind Energy Institute, Magazine Nr.4 February, 1994, Page 36 ff

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Figure 33: Location Immenhausen Germany with rendered and wireframe turbines; Source Windpro2 Tutorial 2.7

Figure 34: Location: Immenhausen Germany, with rendered turbines; Source: Windpro2 Tutorial 2.7

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6.4.2 Zones of Visual Influence (ZVI) Additional to these pictures, which show the view from certain positions, a prediction of the zones of visual influence can be completed. The zones of visual influence are the regions from where the WTG’s can be identified in the landscape. These predictions show the visual intrusion of wind parks in landscape, and can also be used for an objective discussion about the visual influence of WTG’s in this situation. Common software used for the predictions is ESRIs, ArcGIS 3D Analyst, and windpro2. The calculation determines if a ray from all positions of the investigated area can reach the WTG’s.135 In this particular instance, the height of the eyes is set at 1,80 meter. All software takes the height of the turbines, the topography and impediments, (like other buildings or forests), into consideration. The quality of the prediction depends on the accuracy of the input data. First of all, accurate contour lines of the landscape are needed. This data is available for example from the satellite radar ground measurement. Further obstacles, like woods or other buildings, must also be inputted. As a 1:1 integration of all obstacles in nature would result in an extraordinary workload, (especially in urban or village surroundings), obstacles should just be approximated. If a certain area of interest must be analysed accurately though, the intruding obstacles can be created with larger effort. In the example in Figure 35, the zones of visual impact of the 12 turbines, positioned in the middle of the map, are displayed with different levels of colour. In the bright orange area, all 12 turbines can be seen clearly. The more yellow the marking becomes, the less can be seen from the turbines. In the chequered area, the software determined that there was no visual impact. The rest of the area, (nor coloured, nor chequered) was not calculated. As shown in the city centre of Immenhausen, the turbines cannot be seen, as buildings are covering the view. All other covering is caused by topography.

Figure 35: Zones of visual influence; Demo map Immenhausen of WindPro2.7

135 EMD Software manual WindPro 2.7, Zones of visual impact chapter 4.3, 2009, Page 329

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6.4.3 Aesthetic of Wind Turbines Another aspect of aestheticism is the design of the turbine itself. In earlier years, the manufactures did not care for visual aspects of their machines, but only functionality. When wind turbines became more widely installed, the focus turned to design. So design then became a selling point, and manufactures optimised the shape. Today, wind turbines are designed by well-known architects and designers. The most famous might be the turbines of the German company Enercon. The famous British architect, Sir Norman Foster, designed their turbines. The Figures 36 – 39 show some examples of different nacelles.136 Individuals must judge for themselves the level of aestheticism.

Figure 36: Enercon E-66136 Figure 37: DEWIND D-8; Porsche designed136

Figure 38: Vestas V66136 Figure 39: REpower 5M136

For wind parks in general, a unique selection of turbines, in the same colouring, create a more harmonious scenery, compared to those with mixed configuration. Not only does the nacelle have an aesthetic impact, but also the tower. Currently four kinds of towers are in use; truss towers, steel towers, concrete towers and a hybrid tower, which is combination of concrete and steel. As steel and concrete towers are more slim and smoother than truss towers, they do have a smaller visual impact. Furthermore, the colours of the tower can help support the integration into landscape. Enercon towers for example have green coloured rings on the bottom of the tower, which become brighter towards the top. This supports the aesthetical integration of the towers into the green of the ground.

136 Hau E., Windkraftanlagen, 2008, Page 311

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Figure 40: Truss Tower Figure 41: Enercon turbine tower

6.4.1 Legal Background for Aesthetic Aspects The basic law for aesthetical aspects of landscape is the German construction law (BauGB). In §35,3 sentence 5, it mentions that constructions cannot be approved if the development negatively affects landscape, scenery or any preservation of sites of historic, cultural, or recreational value137. A negative impact can be assumed if the construction does not fit into the scenery and takes on the view of a foreign body. This depends on the existing use of the land, and also the visual preload.138 If a planned wind park reduces these values, it must be evaluated within an EIA for each individual case. A similar legislation could not be evaluated in Syria.139

137 BauGB (German Construction Law), §35,3,5; 31.7.2009 138 Hentschel A., Umweltschutz bei der Errichtung und Betrieb von Winkraftanlagen, Page 488 139 Result of the field research from the author in Syria, 2010.09

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7 Impacts on Flora and Fauna Besides the emission effects on humans, wind turbines strongly intervene with the habitat of animals. Birds and bats are especially affected, as they carry the risk of being hit by a rotating blade. The effect to wild animals, like deers, is relatively low as they get used to the obstacles, and as they are living below the rotating blades, no harm can occur.140

7.1 Impacts on Birds Even in 2010, no universal statements can be given about the effects that WTG’s or wind parks have on birds. This is based on the fact that the situation is complex, and the effect depends on the species and their behaviours. Breeding birds behave in a different way to migrating or resting birds. Furthermore, each park situation is different, as the local conditions differ for points of attraction for food, breeding, their flight or hunting corridors, and other side effects, like roads, buildings, rivers and forests. The different sizes and kinds of turbines also have different effects on the birds, as the flying height differs for all species. Another aspect is the distance between the WTG’s, as small turbines are quite close, and large turbines have bigger distance between them. As the situation is quite intricate, the evaluation of the existing bird situation, and the effect of an established wind park, is time consuming and is only one interpretation for an individual site. To evaluate the location, nests and species must be counted and their behaviour at the single location must be analysed.141 As the habits of the birds change over the course of one year, a good report should be completed over a minimum of 12 months.

But in general, wind turbines have the following negative impacts on birds142:

- Killings by collision of birds by rotating blades or static elements - Barrage effect for migrating birds, causing a change of flight route - Effect of shooing. Some birds keep distance to wind turbines. This means

existing breeding areas or habitats can be destroyed.

7.1.1 Dispatches by Collision The number of birds killed by wind turbines is relatively small, compared to other anthropogenic reasons, like collisions with buildings, traffic, or on high tension lines. In a comparison conducted in the United States of America, statistics show the relatively small number of birds killed by WTG’s per year:143

- Collision with buildings and windows: 100-900 million - Traffic, trucks, automobiles: 50-100 million - Electric transmission lines: 174 million - House cats: 100 million - 15.000 wind turbines at state of statistic: 10.000 - 40.0000

This means that WTG’s, in general, are basically not a threat for birds. But they could be a threat to specific species, which have critically endangered habits. In Germany, the 140 Hantsch S. & Nährer U. & Fliegenschnee-Jaksch M., IG Windkraft, Windenergie Ja! – Aber? Häufig geäußerte kritische Fragen bei Windkraftprojekten, 2004.01, Page 11 141 BioConsult SH GmbH & Co.KG, Report about the influence of WTG’s on Fehmarn Island in Germany, February 2010, Page 6 142 Bergen F., Lehrstuhl Allgemeine Zoologie und Neurobiologie; Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der Errichtung und des Betriebs von Windenergieanlagen auf Vögel im Binnenland, 2001, Page 5 143 BioConsult SH GmbH & Co.KG, Report about the influence of WTG’s on Fehmarn Island in Germany, February 2010, Page 9

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environmental department of the federal state of Brandenburg is collecting the number of dead birds found, clearly killed by the WTG’s (see Figure 42). The effect of the killing is not only the reducing of the number of birds, but also reducing the number of reproduction.144

Figure 42: Amount of found dead birds; Source: environmental department of the federal state of Brandenburg145

It must be mentioned that the statistics in Figure 42 are neither representative, nor scientifically based. It consists of accidental discoveries and only a few systematic studies of certain locations.146 Even the systematic studies are not reliable, as the finding of dead birds depends on several factors. Deceased birds can be heavily found in high grass or fields. Many of these are eaten by small mammals within days. Also, agricultural machines can destroy the cadaver, so the number of unknown deaths is high. Compared to the other species, the share of killed raptorial birds is quite large, especially if we consider that the amount of raptors in general, compared to the number of non raptor birds, is relatively small. The same effect can be seen on seagulls. The most threatened species among the raptors are the Red Kite and Eurasian Buzzard. 80% of deceased Red Kites are older birds. This means that further breeding becomes endangered.

Table 7: Amount of dead birds found, caused by turbines145

144 Michael-Otto-Institut im NABU, Auswirkungen regenerativer Energiegewinnung auf die biologische Vielfalt am Beispiel der Vögel und der Fledermäuse – Fakten, Wissenslücken Anforderungen an die Forschung ornithologische Kriterien zum Ausbau von regenerativen Energiegewinnungsformen, Dezember 2004 145 Environmental department Brandenburg Germany, http://www.mugv.brandenburg.de/cms/detail.php/bb1.c.237952.de, Retrieved 2010.01.23 146 BioConsult SH GmbH & Co.KG, Report about the influence of WTG’s on the Fehmarn island in Germany, February 2010, Page 10

Eurasian buzzard (Mäusebussard) 128

Red Kite (Rot Milan) 123

Sea Eagle (Seeadler) 45

Skylark (Feldlerche) 39

Eurasian Kestrel (Turmfalke) 35

Mire Crow (Lachmöwe) 33

Eurasian Swift (Mauersegler) 30

Corn Bunting (Grauammer) 19

White Stork (Weissstorch) 16

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The reasons might include that the Red Kites are hunting at the same height as the position of the rotors, which is about 100 meters147. Especially dangerous are truss towers,as birds try to land on them, whilst being at risk of being hit by a blade148. Amongst the singing birds, the Corn Bunting has the highest rate of mortality. Some studies mention that the birds may have problems in seeing the mostly white-coloured tower, as they are involved in numerous collisions with it149.

7.1.2 Shooing Effect Wind parks have a banishment or barrage effect on birds. After construction, local birds can become accustomed to the turbines, but some of the guest or migration birds, which stay temporarily, avoid the area completely. The reason might include the short stays in the area, which does not in turn lead to habituation. Some gooses and ducks hold distance up to 500 Meters, the Lapwing about 200 Meters. This results in a loss of habitat and, especially for travelling birds that need special conditions, these unpleasant areas also have negative effects, as rest or settlement areas are lost150.

7.1.3 Barrier Effect for Bird Airways The barrage effect of wind parks can prevent migrating birds from following their airways. This is only critical, however, for birds not flying above the turbines. The left park configuration shown in Figure 43, orthogonal to the airway, is a huge obstacle. If the birds do not have local knowledge, this circumnavigation can lead to loss of orientation, additional stress and energy loss.151 The problem may increase if the barrier is placed in front of a settlement or a rest area.

Figure 43: Evasion movement of migration birds from WTG's149

147 Akademie für Natur- und Umweltschutz Baden-Würtemberg, Report of a meeting: Windkraftanlagen- eine Bedrohung für Vögel und Fledermäuse, 2003, Page 11 148 Arbeitsgruppe für regionale Struktur- und Umweltforschung ARSU GmbH, Oldenburg, Langzeituntersuchungen zum Konfliktthema “Windkraft und Vögel“, February 2003, Page 97 149 Akademie für Natur- und Umweltschutz Baden-Würtemberg, Report of a meating: Windkraftanlagen- eine Bedrohung für Vögel und Fledermäuse, 2003, Page 10 150 BioConsult SH GmbH & Co.KG, Report about the influence of WTG’s on the Fehmarn island in Germany, February 2010, Page 15 151 Breuer & Südbeck, Windenergie und Vögel – Ausmass und Bewältigung eines Konflikts, 2002

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7.1.4 Protection Measures To protect wildlife, and to avoid disruption and/or killings, the following aspects can be considered in wind park planning:

- First of all, an extensive ornithological study of the potential area is needed, to determine the existing species living, passing or utilising the area.

- Depending on the study, the position of the WTG’s should be kept to a well-defined distance from the habitat, or the area of the birds needed to be protected.

- If possible a wind park setup should be chosen, in which most of the turbines are parallel to the airway. This is to help avoid disturbance for migrating birds on their route.

- Avoid truss towers, as they invite birds to land, and increase the risk of being hit by a blade.

- By re-powering, the number of turbines can be reduced, and in turn, the airways between the turbines can be used by the birds again.

- Sealing of the foot of the tower of the turbine, to help reduce the encouragement of habitat for small animals, as they attract raptors like the red kite. Hunting in this area increases the risk of being hit by a blade.

7.1.5 Legal Aspects in Germany The legal aspects of bird protection in Germany are based on several laws. Discussed first will be the German Construction Law (Bundes BauGBesetzbuch). Following §35,3,5 BauGB constructions in outer areas are forbidden if any environmental protection requirements are not respected.152 This leads to the content of the German Environmental Law (BundesNaturschutzGestez), which forbids harming any specially protected bird species. Harming occurs if the change in environment reduces the development of a species.153 These specially protected species are defined in §7 2, 4 BNatSchG, based on European law, e.g. directive 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds. Further details aregiven in federal state laws and regulations. The regulation mostly contains minimum distance criteterias between WTG’s and the habitat, hunting, and also passing areas for birds. Some distances displayed are based on the regulations for the state of Brandenburg, shown in Table 8.

To evaluate if a planned wind park configuration is a threat to birds, an assessment is normally needed. The assessment describes the results of the on-site research, of breeding and migrating birds and their habitat, as well as the airways of passing birds. It should then decide whether the planned wind park would harm the species.

152 Bundes Bau Gesetz, §35,3,5; 2009.07.31 153 Bundes Naturschutz Gesetzt § 44,1,2 BNatSchG, 2009.07.29

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Table 8: Distances between birds and WTG's based on federal state regulations, Brandenburg Germany: Source Tierökologische Abstandskriterien für die Errichtung von Windenergieanlagen in Brandenburg (T AK), 13.12.2010

Bird species Conditions for WTG’S African hobby 1.000 meters to the horst Sea Eagle (Seeadler) 3.000 meters to the horst; No WTG’S in airway to

the hunting area. Crane (Feldlerche) 500 meters to the horst Eurasian Kestrel (Turmfalke) 3.000 meters to the horst Mire Crow (Lachmöwe) 1.000 meters to the breeding colony

Red Kite (Rot Milan) 1.000 meters to the horst; No turbines in hunting habitat up to 2500 meters around the horst

White Stork (Weissstorch) 1.000 meters to the horst; No WTG’s in

7.1.6 Legal Aspects in Syria In the field research of the author in Syria and based on a request to the Syrian Society for the Conservation of Wildlife regarding environmental protection, no laws or regulations could be found that define distances from construction to environmentally protected areas. A representative from the Syrian Society for the Conservation of Wildlife confirmed that even after a request to the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, this issue has still not yet been raised.154

154 Email conversation with Syrian Society for the Conservation of Wildlife sscw.syria@gmail.com, 2011.1.25

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7.2 Impacts on Bats In the first days of wind energy, WTG’s were built close to the coast, or in open fields. With new technology working more efficiently, inland sites have also become more attractive. These sites were often close to woods, which could be the habitat of bats. The effects of WTG’s on bats are mostly the same as for birds:

- Killings by hitting the WTG, or by pressure differences on the turbine - Barrage effect for migrating bats, causing a change of flight patterns - Effect of shooing

7.2.1 Dispatches by Collision Details regarding the amount of dead bats are acquired in the same way as birds by counting the number of deceased bats surrounding the turbines. For the same reasons as for the birds, the number of unknown hits is high. Based on systematic studies however, the following facts can be stated. Most dispatches occur in late summer and in early autumn, as seen in Figure 44, once the female bats have finished raising their young.155

Figure 44: Dead bats found over the year (n=616) in North America154

The statistics in Figure 45 also shows that most of the victims are migrating bats, or bats that hunt in high areas, like the Common Noctule and Pipitrellus Nathusli. There are three different ways as to how the bats are being killed. Firstly, there is the direct mechanical collision with the blades. However, a lot of bats were found dead close to the turbines, without any outside mechanical injury. Rather, their internal organs had been affected. Scientists assume that the pressure differences at the front and backside of the blades leads to an “implosion” of the animals when they pass-by the rotor area.156

The bats do not seem to notice the rotating blades neither with their eyes, as they are hunting in dawn or night situation, nor by the acoustic organ. Additionally, bats may try to hunt in the area of the nacelle, as the heat emission or the lights of the flight warning system attract insects. Lastly, some bats try to occupy the nacelle for breeding or sleeping, and get hit by the gears, or other mechanical parts of the turbine. 155 Dietz M., Vortragmanuskript zur Zugang der Sächsischen Akademi für Natur und Umwelt, Fledermausschlag an Windkraftanlagen, 2003.12.18, Page 4 156 Akademie für Natur und Umweltschutz, Baden-Württemberg; Windkraftanlagen – eine Bedrohung für Vögel und Fledermäuse?, Documentation of a meeting, 2003.09.25

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Figure 45: Found dead bats in the timeframe 2000-2003 under WTG's154

7.2.2 Barrier and Shooing Effect Some bats have fixed airways between their place of sleeping and their hunting areas. WTG’s erected in these areas lead to different reactions. Some bats circumnavigate the obstacles up to a distance of 100 meters, whilst others try to fly through with the risk of being killed by collision. The same effect occurs if the WTG’s are constructed in the hunting area of the bats. The bats are avoiding the rotation and the strong turbulence areas. This means that not only the hunting areas are lost, but also the habitats of the bats.157

7.2.3 Legal Aspects in Germany Due to a significant decrease in the amount of bats, these animals are strongly protected by law. On the European level, the Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, asks the European countries to establish laws to protect bats. In Appendix IV of this directive, all bats that are named must be protected. The protection of these bats is stated in Germany in the Federal Environmental Protection Law §10 1,11b (BNatSchG). Based on this federal law, the federal states of Germany have developed their own laws and guidelines. This means that for wind parks or turbines, a certain distance is needed for breeding, hunting areas, and to the habitats of their airways. Enclosed are the suggestions and regulations as an example of the federal state of Brandenburg:158

WTG’S must keep a minimum distance of 1,000 meters away from the following areas: - Breeding locations with more than 50 individuals - Winter residential with more than 100 individuals - Hunting areas with more than 100 individuals hunting at the same time of the

specially protected bats

157 Bach L. & Rahmel U., Information des Naturschutz Niedersachsen 26Jg Nr.1 47-52, Fledermäuse und Windenergie – ein realer Konflikt?, 2006, Page 1 158 Ministeriums für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Raumordnung Brandenburg, Tierökologische Abstandskriterien für die Errichtung von Windenergieanlagen in Brandenburg, 2003.06.03, Page 14

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To analyse the bat activity on a designated wind turbine area special ultrasonic measurement tools should detect bat activities on each position of the planed WTG’s. Further, nets should be used to catch and identify the species.159

7.2.4 Legal Aspects in Syria In the field research of the author in Syria and based on requests to the Syrian Society for the Conservation of Wildlife for environmental protection, no laws or regulations could be found which define distances for construction to environmentally protected areas of bats. A representative from the Syrian Society for the Conservation of Wildlife confirmed after a request at the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, that this issue has not yet been raised.160

7.3 Impact on Soil The construction of wind turbines has further impacts on the soil, based on the foundation of the turbine, the stand space for the crane and electricity substation, as well as the approach roads to the system and the electrical cable. These interventions are changing the situation of the ground, and are also changing the habitat for Flora and Fauna, based on soil and mixture of ground. These impacts have further influence on the water, drainage and filter situation of the ground. So on the one hand, existing structure is removed, but on the other hand, new structure is created.

7.3.1 Wind Turbine Foundation One of the main impacts is the foundation, which depends on the ground situation and the turbine. At uniform, stable soil mostly a surface foundation, is installed. A hole about 2-3 meters (or deeper, depending on the size of the turbine) is excavated. On the blinding layer, the construction of the concrete reinforcement steel is built and poured with concrete. The different forms of foundations (such as circles, squares or crosses), depend on the type of turbine, manufacturer, and situation. The foundation is normally built below ground surface, so vegetation can once again grow close to the tower. If there is an instable ground auger piles in depth till more than 5 Meters (depending on soil) must be constructed to stabilise the turbine.161 The impact on the surface flora and fauna is low, as the foundation lays about 1 meters below the greensward, and so existing habitats can re-occupy quite easily.

Figure 46: Circle foundation; Source: http://www.gaia-mbh.de/windenergie/leistungen/

159 Niedersächsicher Landkreistag, Hinweise zur Berücksichtigung des Naturschutzes und der Landschaftspflege sowie zur Durchführung der Umweltprüfung und der Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung bei Standortplanung und Zulassung von Windenergieanlagen, Mai 2005, Page 14 160 Email conversation with Syrian Society for the Conservation of Wildlife <sscw.syria@gmail.com>; 2011.1.25 161 Wikipedia, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windkraftanlage, Retrieved 2010.01.23

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Nevertheless ground situation is changed and typical water filter and storage qualities of the infected area is lost or changed.

7.3.2 Cable Laying Plough One method to lay the electrical cables from the turbines to the substation is the cable laying plough. This has two advantages. Firstly, the cable laying is completed quickly as no digging must take place. Secondly, the impact on the soil is minimal, as the plough opens the ground, lays the cable, then and closes the surface within one construction step. The cable is positioned deeply enough so that agriculture can continue in the area. The relevant impact on humans and nature occurs in the construction phase.

Figure 47: Cable plough: Source: http://www.cableplough.co.uk/

7.3.3 Road Making For maintenance and construction, appropriate roads and spaces for cranes and trucks are needed. The road and spaces must be able to support the large loads of heavy cranes and trucks. Hence, it is imperative that the ground is prepared properly. Depending on the use of the road, the surface must be able to support either large or small amounts of transport. Main roads in wind parks must be constructed for several transports, whereas single tracks to one turbine have only to be able to help assist with one transport for the specific turbine, and with possible maintenance. The road surface can consist of concrete, asphalt or compressed ground. The invasion of water onto the street must be controlled, as it can destroy the road.

As well as the foundation of the turbines, road making has an influence on the habitats, as ground is removed, the surface could then be sealed, and, in turn, the water drainage situation has then since changed. Especially in regions of heavy rain, a drainage system for broad, long, sealed roads must be considered. Then, depending on the situation of the drainage water, can then be delivered to a water outlet, such as rivers, or seas, or be drained into the ground, or connected to the sewage system.

7.3.4 Legal Aspects The German Construction Law (BauGB) requests in §35, Abs. 5 sentence 2 for a deconstruction of all obstacles once regular usage has ceased. This means that for wind turbines and parks, turbines, the foundation, and the unused roads, must be removed in an appropriate way after the end of use of the turbine. This also includes the removal of all sealing’s. To guarantee that the deconstruction will be financed, the project developer must invest in a bank guarantee before the start of the project. This fixed money guaranties the deconstruction, even if the developer bankrupts.162

Special Syrian legal aspects to this issue could not be evaluated in the field studies.

162 German Wind Energy Associatin, http://www.wind-energie.de/de/themen/windenergie-von-a-z/rueckbau/, Retrieved 2010.01.24

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8 Further Aspects: Radar, Garbage, Ice Throwing This chapter sums up further aspects of wind turbine impacts.

8.1 Radar Wind parks and individual single WTG’s can reduce the efficiency of military and civil air radar. The problem with the military radar is that the shadowing and scattering effect of the rotating blades leads to uncertainties in the detection of the position of the aircrafts, or even avoiding any contact. Civil air traffic control radars can interpret WTG’s as moving aircrafts, which can affect the distinction between aircrafts and WTG’s. This can then lead to lags in the coverage of air traffic.163

8.1.1 Reduction of Radar Disturbances The disturbance depends on the radar unit, their technical concepts, the distance to the WTG’s, the size, the type and the amount of wind turbines, as well as topographic and weather aspects, which can lead to an adverse reaction from the rotor area.

To reduce the effect, on the one hand, the radar units can be modernised, but also, the positioning and the construction of the turbines can be improved. Modern digital radar units can filter the disturbances of WTG’s better, as they use modern algorithms to analyse the air traffic situation. But even in Germany currently, most air traffic radars do not support this technology.164 The material of the blades could also be optimised for radar-reduced reflection. Current turbine systems are using glass-reinforced systems, which have a lower reflection. Older systems, containing steel are still generating problems. The main aspect is of course the “visibility” of the turbines detected by the radar. As WTG’s are located mostly on ridges with good wind performance, most of the WTG’s are then positioned in the line of radar. In a wind park situation, the positioning of the turbines and their distances influence the radar. Depending on the situation, WTG’s must not stand in the same line as the radar.165

8.1.2 Legal Aspects In Germany, several laws define the aspects of radar and air traffic control. Based on German construction law §35,3,8 BauGB public concerns are considered, and buildings must not be constructed if the functionality of the radar is disturbed. Furthermore, there are also legislations based on air traffic law (Luftverkehrsgesetz LuftVG). Basically, the laws do not prohibit WTG’s in general, but they must receive acceptance by air traffic and military officials. So each wind park in line of radars must be discussed individually. Syrian regulations for interference of WTG’s and radar are not established yet, as not a significant amount of turbines is established. But for sure there are regulations for air traffic and military aspects. So the author recommends to contact civil and military radar authorities for any wind park planning in Syria to discuss the individual case.

163 Response of German Government to request of congressman Oliver Krischer, Hans-Josef Fell, Bärbel Höhn, Sylvia Kotting-Uhl, Undine Kurth (Quedlinburg), Nicole Maisch (- Bundestagsdrucksache 17/1357 -), Conflict between militaty radar and WTG’s (Konflikt zwischen Radaranlagen der Bundeswehr und Windenergieanlagen), 2010.04.12, Page2 164 EADS Deutschland GmbH Military Air System, Research: Radar units and wind turbines (Windenergieanlagen (WEA) – Radar Verträglichkeit, Annual report 2008, Page 4 165 EADS Deutschland GmbH Military Air System, Research: Radar units and wind turbines (Windenergieanlagen (WEA) – Radar Verträglichkeit, Annual report 2008, Page 5

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8.2 Ice Throwing Under certain climate conditions, ice can grow on the blades of a rotating WTG. This phenomenon occurs mostly in cold regions with longer periods of freezing temperatures. The map in Figure 48 shows the probability of icing in Europe. Icing occurs mostly on the leading edge of the blade, and changes the aerodynamic profile of the blade (See Figure 49). This leads to a reduction in the performance of the WTG, as the aerodynamic of the blades is less efficient and the drag is reduced. Furthermore, an imbalance of the blades can occur, which results in higher material stress. A major problem occurs if ice dissolves from the rotating blade. This becomes problematic if the ice hits humans, streets, buildings, power lines etc. The risk of ice on a WTG can be detected by sensors like thermometers, cameras, or by vibration sensors of the blades, which detects the imbalance created by the ice.

Figure 48: „Ice-map“ of Europe Source: Weco

8.2.1 Strategies Against Ice Throwing The leading edge of the blade can be covered with a special coating. The coating reduces the adhesion of the ice to the blade, so the ice will then be blown away from the headwind of the turning blade. This is shown in Figure 49. The force Fai as a result of the wind speed drives away the ice. This system is inexpensive and requires little maintenance. The biggest disadvantage though, is ice crowing, which is not prevented. The next system also does not prevent icing. Ice is removed by rubber bulges on the leading edge, which breaks away the ice, by being blown up. This system requires a high level of maintenance and disturbs the aero dynamicity of the blades. The last strategy is to heat the blade, or at least the leading blade edge. This can be performed by warm air, generated by the running turbine and led through to the blades. This needs additional air channels in the blades. Additionally, a lot of heat is required, as the glass-reinforces material, of which the blades are made, have low heat permeability. The heating also can be completed by electrical heating foils, which unfortunately consume a lot of energy, and so reduce the efficiency of the turbine. Furthermore, the foil also influences negatively on the flash protection.166

Figure 49: Icing on blades removed by wind165

166 Seifert H., Eisansatz an Rotorblättern Betrieb von Windenergieanlagen in kaltem Klima, 2007.6.22

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8.2.2 Legal Aspects In Germany, the legal request for the protection from ice throwing is based on the environmental obligation to prevent any threat defined in §5,1,2 BImSchG. This means ice throwing must be discussed in the approval procedure. For Syria, ice throwing should not be an issue, as the local climate does not create icing. The author assumes though, that this would not be a part of the EIA procedure.

8.3 Garbage and Further Pollutants With the construction and operation of wind turbines, garbage and pollutants occur. In construction, this could be spoil from the foundation, cables, packaging, and liquids, or in the form of plastic, metal, wood, oils or composite materials. Typical garbage in operations includes gear oils, oil wasted rags, and filters, amongst many other items. All of these materials must be collected and disposed of appropriately. To predict the contingency of waste, the turbine manufacturer delivers documents regarding the amount, and type, of waste, that occurs throughout construction, in both operation and deconstruction. These documents also contain health and environmental thread descriptions, as well as handling, storage and disposal information.

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9 EIA Aspects for Planned Wind Park in Al-Hijana As described in Chapter 3.1 Syria is planning to integrate wind energy into their energy mix. Currently the Ministry of Electricity is compiling a bid invitation for two turnkey wind parks in Al Hijana and Al-Sukhna, for construction and lifetime maintenance. The wind parks will be owned by the Syrian NERC (National Energy Research Centre) as national law only allows government organisations to feed electrical energy into the grid.167 In this master thesis, a team of students, consisting of Ubay Al Khatib, Rifat Hasnou and Frank Philipp, are closely analysing the Al Hijana project, based on the RFI (Request for Information). Ubay Al Khatib is analysing the wind energy potential, and is designing a park configuration for a wind park of about 50-100MW, as requested in the RFI. Rifat Hasnou is analysing the planning for the grid connection. In this thesis, completed by Frank Philipp, the environmental aspects for the wind park planning are covered, based on the park design prepared by Ubay Al Khatib. Analogical to the request of the EIS described in Chapter 4.5, this chapter firstly analyses the current situation of the region where the wind park is planned for. Secondly, the impacts of the park are predicted and evaluated. Additional suggestions are given as to how possible negative impacts can be avoided, and be reduced.

9.1 Location of the Wind Park and Description of the Environment The Ministry of Electricity designated the area of Al Hijana for a Wind Park in 2009. It is located 12 km’s south of the Tishreen power station, and about 40 km’s south-east of Damascus city in the desert. The geographical co-ordinates are roughly: E 36° 38’.53 6, N 33° 17’.37 8 (geographic system) on an altitude of 605 meters a.s.l. The area has a size of 2 km’s by 5 km’s, but could be increased to surrounding areas (see Figure 50), as the area belongs to the Syrian state.

Figure 50: Alhijana area designated for the wind park168

167 Interview of the author with the project manager of the Al Hjana Wind Park, 2010.09.10 168 Syrian Ministry of Electricity; Request for qualification for Developers/ Sponsors of a 50-100 MW Wind Park Independent Power Producer (IPP) Project through International Competitive Bidding (ICB); 2009.11; Page 28

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9.1.1 Characteristics of the Land and Landscape The whole area is a dry semi-desert area with sands and rocks. The land is mostly flat, with some dunes and hills roughly 6 meters in height. It is located in a subtropical area, with an average annual temperature of about 16, 7 °C. As the area is in a rain shadow from the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, the average rainfall is only 194 mm per year. The hottest months are from June to August, with an average temperature of 24,6 °C – 26,0 °C and a maximum temperature of 37 °C. In winter, the temperature falls to 6,2 °C and with a minimum of about 2 °C.169

Figure 51: Photo of the location at East 36°37.6566' and North 33°17.6868' (geographic data), with view to the west.

9.1.2 Existing Habitats of Flora and Fauna Due to the hot and dry climate described in Chapter 9.1.1, no real fauna is found in the designated area. With the very complex living conditions, no mammals are found to be living there. The author predicts that insects, snakes and lizards though, are living in the area.170 As there are also no lakes or oases in the area, it can be assumed that there are no habitats or rest areas of any sort for birds living close to the wind park. Generally bird wildlife is widely spread across Syria, and the region is an important passing country for birds traveling from Europe, Asia and Africa. To analyse, if currently birds habituating or are passing through the area, a special bird report must be created, as it does not exist. Environmental protection areas are quite far away. The next area, Dair Mar Mousa, is about 80 km’s north (see Figure 52).

169 Wikipedia, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damaskus, Climate and Geography of Damascus, Retrieved 2010.01.25 170 The author could not get any reports regarding the flora and fauna in the designated area at his field research in Syria.

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Figure 52: Map of protected Areas in Syria: Source: Directorate of Biodiversity and Natural protected Areas Ministry of Local Administration and Environment- 2006

9.1.3 Water The closest river, which has not carried water for several years, is the Barada River. The Barada River flows through the northern part of Damascus, with a distance of about 40 km’s away from the site.171 With the amount of low rain per year, the region is neither suitable for ground water building, nor feeding the river.

9.1.4 Information about Air Quality Currently no analysis about the air quality of the region is available. As the region is close to the airport and the thermal power station, the region does not seam to have a special need for air quality.

9.1.5 Existing Noise Levels As neither industry, nor highways, or any other noise source is close to the predicted area, the noise level is based only on the sounds produced from wind at the site. Generally there might be some noise impact from the starting and landing of planes from Damascus International Airport.

9.1.6 Antiquities Sites of Historical and Cultural Importance The closest historical sites of the region are located in Damascus, which is out of the range of view of the area.

9.1.7 Social and Economic Context The closest settlement to the designated area is the village Al Baytariah, with about 3000 rural habitants in the west, with a distance of about 8 km’s to the center of the designated area. Additionally there is the village, named Al Hijana, with about 3000 inhabitants, 12km’s in the north-west. 171 Wikipedia, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barada, Retrieved 2010.01.24

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Roughly 15 km’s north, the thermal power plant Tishreen is located. Another important landmark is the Damascus International Airport, located about 20 km’s north-west. The runways head in a direction of 30 and 270 degrees of north. So the approach path of the planes do not cross with the designated area.

Figure 53: Satellite view of the wind park area: Source Google Earth

9.1.8 Existing Transport Infrastructure and Traffic Flow The closest public highway is from the airport to the city of Damascus. Paved roads pass the villages of Alhijana and Al Baytariyah, (yellow track), as shown in Figure 53.

From Alhijana, a paved public country road leads to a chicken farming area (blue track in Figure 53). From there, there is only an unpaved, desert track, which is only driveable on by 4x4 vehicles to the designated wind park area (orange track in Figure 53).

9.1.9 Existing Utilities Infrastructure The area is located 12 km’s south of the Tishreen power station. From there, a high-tension (400 kV - 230kV-66kV) line is heading west (red line in Figure 53). Transformer stations provide the villages of Alhihaja and Al Baytariyah with electricity with this high-tension line.

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9.2 Determination and Prediction of the Impacts of the Project In this chapter, the relevant impacts of the wind park at the designated site will be evaluated on the basis of the existing environmental situation in chapter 9.1.

As described in chapter 4.5 (Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure in Syria), local norms and limits will be used if they are available, otherwise German regulations.172 If information for predictions or impacts is missing, then the author will give suggestions for the evaluation of the impact.

The calculations for the impact of noise, shadow, and visual impact, will be completed with software WindPro2.7. WindPro2.7 is a widely used software package, used for the planning and design of wind park projects. It is known and used by manufactures and developers, and the predictions are accepted by authorities.173 The software consists of several modules used to predict and design wind parks. The module DECIBEL will be used for the noise prediction, the module SHADOW for the shadowing, and ZVI for visibility.

Figure 54: Module overview of WindPro2 171

9.2.1 Description of the Wind Park The wind park will consist of 50 Vestas V-90 turbines, and will be positioned in the designated area (see Annex 11.1 Map of the Area 1:150000). The turbines are positioned in rows of 5, each with 10 turbines. The rows are positioned in a trapeze form, in the direction of the main wind speed of 220° degrees from the north. To reduce the turbulences and increase the efficiency of the turbines, the distance between the turbines in each row is 435 meters. The distance of each row is 830 meters.174 Each turbine will be connected to an electrical cable connected to the main power cable, which then leads back to the transformer station at the Tishreen power station (see Chapter 9.2.10.3 Cabling). The Vestas turbines have a rated power of 2MW, with a hub height of 105 meters. Further energy details are given in the master thesis of Ubay Al Khatib. The upwind turbine is pitch controlled, and has a rotor diameter of 90 meters, with 3 blades. The tower will be made of steel, based on a concrete foundation.175 Further detailed information can be found in the document “General Specification V90–

172 Public Authority for Environment Affairs Syria; Environmental Impact Assessment Executive Procedure in the Syrian Arab Republic Annex 6 (Sample Terms of Reference), 2010.12.12; Chapter 3.5.1. 173 EMD, http://www.emd.dk/WindPRO/Modules/, Retrieved 2011.02.01 174 See Masterthesis of Ubay al Kathib; Remena Student university Kassel Cairo, 2011.03 175 Vestas cooperation, General Specification V90–1.8/2.0 MW 50 Hz VCS, Document no.: 0004-6207 V05 2010-11-19

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1.8/2.0 MW 50 Hz VCS” from the manufacturer Vestas. Due to the size of this document, further documents for environmental aspects, they are not enclosed to the Apendix of this master thesis. The documents can be found at https://www.vestas-downloadcenter.com/. For construction and maintenance, roads will be constructed. The roads will be partly paved with asphalt, and others with sand (see 9.2.10.1 Ground Change and Sealing by Access Roads and Crane Stand Places).

9.2.2 Noise Emission Predictions To predict the noise emission of the wind park at critical points, the module DECIBEL of WindPro 2.7 is used. Critical points are any settlements or any indoor places of work close to the turbines.

9.2.2.1 Noise Emission Points 5 critical points were determined. The noise impact limits for these areas are taken from the noise limits regulations of Syria, as descried in Chapter 5.4.4. The limits are always the most critical values at night from 10pm–7am. As Syrian regulation uses a range of values (see Table 6: Table of noise immission limits in Syria, Environmental Impact Ministry Syria), the lower value for the table is used.

Critical areas:

• Al Baytarizah, used limit: 25 dB(A). Al Baytarizah - a small village with low traffic. The limits of row four of Table 6 (“Suburban residential area with weak traffic”) are used.

• Al Hijana, used limit: 25 dB(A). As Al Hijana is also a small village like Al Baytarizah, the same conditions are used.

• Small village north of the area, used limit: 25 dB(A). As the “Small village north of area” is also a village like Al Baytarizah, the same conditions are used.

• Chicken Farm, used limit: 45 dB(A). The chicken farm is a commercial building in the country-side. The Syrian limits do not cover this case explicitly. The author alternatively uses the limits of the first row from Table 6 (“City Centre & Commercial Administrative Building”). This value makes full sense, as 45 dB(A) is also the limit in the German regulation (TA-Lärm) for single buildings in outdoor areas (see Table 5).

• Tishreen power station, used limit: 40 dB(A). The area surrounding the Tischreen power station could not be analysed accurately in the field study of the author, as he did not receive access to the area. He also could not receive any detailed information, due to Syrian security reasons. The author was informed though, that some workers were living in the area. The author assumed that housing would be to the south of the plant, close to the wind park area. As this situation is also not clearly described in the Syrian limits (Table 5), the author has chosen the second row of the list (“Residental areas near highways, with small workshops”), which seems to be closest to the current situation.

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The emission points are described in WindPro 2.7 as a polygonal area or an immission point (see Annex Chapter 11.2). As the villages and the power station are both larger areas the immission area is marked as a polygon. The software will calculate the loudest impact for the area. In contrast, the chicken farm, which is only a single building, is simulated as an immission point. To both kinds of emission areas the limit values can be inputted into the software.

9.2.2.2 Emission from the Turbine Vestas V-90 The WindPro 2.7 software developer, EMD, provides the emission values for the used turbine type, Vestas V-90.176 EMD guarantees that the values are correct based on 3 multiple measurements from the manufacturer.177 As Syria does not have any requests for the sound emission values, the German regulations are used for the emission. This is the value of noise emission at 10 m/s or at 95% of the rated the power, depending on which value is louder. The turbine Vestas V-90 has an emission of 104 dB(A) at the rate power. There are no additions due to tonality or impulsivity.

9.2.2.3 Propagation Prediction Method As Syria do not have any suggested methods for any propagation of outdoor sound, (neither in general nor in particular for wind parks), the international norm of ISO 9613-2 will be applied. For the prediction, the alternative method is used, as suggested by German authorities (see chapter 5.4.3.4). This could be completed, as the topographic contour lines for the prediction are available.178 The meteorological co-efficiency is set to zero, as this is the more critical case. Even meteorological data is not available at the location to predict this value.

9.2.2.4 Calculation Results and Evaluation The calculation in WindPro 2.7 delivers not only a map of the loudness contour (Isophon), but also the predicted impact of noise at the designated emission points, and the comparison of the actual sound pressure level with the limitations. The detailed report explains the single influence of each turbine on the particular emission point.179 The whole report can be found in the Annex in Chapter 11.4.

9.2.2.5 Evaluation of the Results The noise map (Figure 55) shows that the Isophone of 25dB (A), which is marked as a green line, is at a distance of 2,0 km’s to the closest designated immission point, the chicken farm. As 25 dB (A) is the lowest limit, and the noise impact decreases with further distance, none of the critical areas are affected. The limits are still kept if we add 2,6 dB (A) of the uncertainty calculation, mentioned in Chapter 5.4.3.5, “Quality of Prediction”.

As shown in Table 9, the noise impact of the turbines at night is below that of the requested limits, if they are the only source of noise. The most critical area is the small village north of the area, with an impact of 13.9 dB (A) and with a limit of 25 dB (A). Here, the simple difference between the limit value and impact level, is the allowed current noise impact on the location.

176 EMD; http://www.emd.dk/, Retrieved 2011.01.31 177 EMD International A/S, WindPro 2.6 Manual, 2008.01, Page 250 178 The topographic contour lines were downloaded from the EMD Server. Those lines base on satellite height measurements. 179 EMD International A/S, WindPro 2.6 Manual, Jan. 2008, Page 272 ff

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To calculate the allowed current noise impact, we use the formulary of energetic totals of sound pressure levels, as described in chapter 5.4.2.1.3. By solving the following equation we can evaluate the allowed current noise impact Lex in dB (A).

Lex = 24,65 dB(A)

This means that about 24, 65 dB (A) could be the existing noise level at the designated location.

Table 9: Noise limits and noise impacts; Source: WindPro 2.7 calculation Annex Chapter 11.4

Area name Sound Level from WTGs

Sound Level from WTGs + 2,6 dB(A) uncertainty

Noise (limits)

Al Baytarizah 4.6 dB(A) 7.2 dB(A) 25 dB(A) Al Hijana 6.7 dB(A) 9.3 dB(A) 25 dB(A) Chicken Farm 19.3 dB(A) 21.9 dB(A) 45 dB(A) Tishreen power station

14.3 dB(A) 16.9 dB(A) 40 dB(A) Northern Small Village

11.3 dB(A) 13.9 dB(A) 25 dB(A)

Figure 55: Noise Immission map of WindPro 2.7; Calculation see Annex chapter 11.4

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9.2.3 Shadow Flickering Effects Shadow flickering, as described in Chapter 6.1 (Flicker Effect (Shadow)), depends on the latitude location of the turbine height and the topography. The effect is not harmful, but could be very annoying.

9.2.3.1 Shadow Emission Points The emission points are the same as the noise emission areas described in Chapter 9.2.2.1. In Syria, no shadowing limit regulations exist. Hence German regulations mentioned in Chapter 6.1.3 will be used. The limits for all areas include a maximum of 30 days per year of flickering shadows, and a maximum of 30 minutes per day in worst-case scenario calculations.

9.2.3.2 Shadowing Prediction The predictions for the shadowing are based on the algorithm and position of the sun. To achieve comparable results in predictions, the worst-case scenario will be used. As a result, we will receive a map of iso-timelines for the same type of shadowing caused by all WTG’s. Furthermore, the shadowing in hours/day and days/per year, for each emission point will be calculated. Thereby the topography of the landscape will be respected.

9.2.3.3 Calculation Results and Evaluation The shadow map (Figure 56), and the total results in Table 10 show, that even in a worst-case scenario calculation, none of the emission points would be affected by the flickering shadow of the turning turbines. Therefore, there are no concerns caused by shadowing flickering effects.

Figure 56: Shadowing flicker map of WindPro 2.7; Calculation see Annex chapter 11.5

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Table 10: Shadowing flicker prediction and limits; Source: WindPro 2.7 calculation Annex Chapter 11.5

Area name Predicted hours/day

Limit hour/day

Predicted minutes/day

Limit minutes/day

Al Baytarizah 0 0.3 h 0 30 min Al Hijana 0 0.3 h 0 30 min Chicken Farm 0 0.3 h 0 30 min Tishreen power station

0 0.3 h 0 30 min Small Village north 0 0.3 h 0 30 min

9.2.4 Visual Impact and Visibility of the Park

The landscape characteristics surrounding the Al Hijana wind park are characterised by a flat stone and sand desert, with no natural or culturally important elements. This means that the visual impact of the wind park would not interfere with these aspects. Nevertheless, due to the flat environment, the wind park can be recognised at long distance, as the Zone of Visual Impact (ZVI) analysis shows in Figure 57. The ZVI module of WindPro 2.7 calculated this ZVI. The software uses the topographical data at an eye height of 1.8 meters, to analyse if any obstacles obstruct the view. In the area of the orange pattern, no obstacles are blocking the view to the turbine. The blue pattern shows areas where any topographic obstacles are covering the view to the park. In praxis obstacles, like houses or buildings can cover the view, or the foresight is reduced by fog, pollution or dusty air. The detailed ZVI of WindPro 2.7 can be found in the Annex, Chapter 11.6.

Figure 57: Zone of visual impact; Orange pattern: All turbines can be seen; Turquoise pattern: Turbines cannot be seen: Source WindPro 2.7 calculation chapter 11.6

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9.2.4.1 Visual Impact Prediction To analyse the view of the wind park from significant points of view, WindPro 2.7 offers a visualization module. With this feature, pictures from the view from the specific location are imported into the software, via the location of the picture; the topographic data, and some information regarding the camera optics, which the software can then render to turbines in the designated area.

In Figure 58, the locations of the 3 visualisations relative to the park are marked. The first perspective is at the eastern border of an Al Hijana village, the second from the chicken farm, and the last is from a small, irrigated area, east of the wind park.

Figure 58: Position of the visualization view points and wind park; Source WindPro 2.7 maps

The picture from the Al Hijana village viewpoint shows that the wind park can only be seen with clear weather conditions. Even then, the park has no significant impact, as the turbines appear very small due to the distance.

Figure 59: View on the wind park from Al Hijana; Source Windpro 2.7 Visualization Module

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At the chicken farm, the turbines can be seen much more clearly.

Figure 60: View on the wind park from the chicken farm; Source WindPro 2.7 Visualization Module

As expected, the best view of the park is from the irrigated field.

Figure 61: View on the wind park from small irrigation area; Source WindPro 2.7 Visualization Module

9.2.4.2 Personal Impression As described in Chapter 6.4 (Effects on Landscape), the aesthetic evaluation of the views is individual. In the opinion of the author, the visual impact of the wind park enhances the local visual situation. The existing desert has no natural or cultural valuable, or any extraordinary elements. The wind park gives the area an impression of individual characteristic, which carries the message of technological, ecological progress in Syria.

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9.2.5 Radar Visibility Due to the special location of the wind park, being so close to the international airport, the radar impact of the park must be analysed. The exact radar position and type of radar could be identified by the author nor the public or further military radars.180

So the author assessed the height of the airport radar tower to 20 meters and positioned the radar near the main hall of the airport. Via the ZVI module of WindPro 2.7, the clearance height can be calculated (see Figure 62). The clearance height is the difference in height between the radar beam, and the top position of the blade tips on the turbines. The software takes into account if any other obstacles, like hills, are covering the “view” of the radar to the turbines.

Figure 62: Visibility of WTG'S by radar179

In the situation of Al Hijana, the clearance height of all turbines is negative (See calculation results of WindPro 2.7 in Annex chapter 11.7). This means that the radar is affected by the turbines, and will incur problems.181

As a result, the author suggests that the project developer should contact civil and military flight authorities, to help to clear the conditions.

9.2.6 Reflexion (Disco Effect) There should be no large impact from reflexions onto humans, as the closest settlements and workplaces are quite far away. Nevertheless, the blades, the towers, and nacelles, are painted with a low reflecting colour (RAL 9001-cream white), to reduce any annoying disco effects from the 50 turbines.182

9.2.7 Air Traffic Warning Lights As the international airport is quite close to the site, clear significant air traffic warning lights must be installed on each turbine, following the guidelines of International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), and local Syrian regulations. To reduce irritation from uncontrolled flashing of the warning lights, the lights of all turbines should be synchronised. Furthermore, the light intensity should be adapted to the visual conditions. It is recommended to use only a single flash, as this gives off a calmer impression.

180 Radar conditions are in the military interest of Syria, and any information about is secret. 181 EMD, WindPro 2.7 manual, Page 337 182 Vestas cooperation, General Specification V90–1.8/2.0 MW 50 Hz VCS, Document no.: 0004-6207 V05 2010-11-19, Chapter 8

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9.2.8 Impact on Flora and Fauna The impact on flora can be considered as zero, as no plants are growing in the area. The author assumes that fauna and birds live is also not wide spread, only snakes, insects and some lizards, as mentioned in Chapter 9.1.2 can be found in the area. But the real situation must be evaluated by reports. As currently no birds reportedly exist in the region, the impacts on birds cannot be evaluated. The author assumes that the impact on migrating birds is very low, as they probably much rather prefer to pass the country on a more western passage from the wind park, as there are more green areas with water (see Figure 63) and food. The author predicts that the minimum distances to breeding area, habitats and passing routes are obviously kept.

Figure 63: Map of the region. The red rectangle shows the position of the wind park; Source Google Earth

9.2.9 Impact on Cultural Aspects, and Society As the area of the wind park is quite industrial, (flanked by the international airport and power plan), the wind park does not change the basic usage of the area, and inhabitants close by should not become concerned. Furthermore, the wind park also has no negative effect on the existing irrigated farming, as the actual position of the park do not cover them. Future farming, as seen in other countries with turbines, should not become problematic. At the time of the construction of the wind park, heavy traffic is to be expected. It should be investigated as to whether or not this traffic will disturb surrounding neighbourhoods. Avoiding transporting at night, or throughout any rest periods, could help reduce the level of irritation. This should be also mentioned for any future traffic maintenance equipment. The construction of additional roads in the desert may be an economic advantage, as the land can be developed more easily, (for example, with further irrigation). It is expected that local people do the construction and maintenance in future. This means that the wind park, effectively, creates direct employment. Indirect jobs can also be created, starting with the manufacturing of spare parts, ending with food supply for the maintenance staff. Lastly, the sustainable production of energy, independent from fossil resources, is a big

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advantage for the whole country, and even the world, for reasons known like CO2 reduction. In total, the author evaluates the impact on society and cultural aspects as very low, as the park has more positive influences, compared to negative aspects.

9.2.10 Impacts on Soil and Ground

9.2.10.1 Ground Change and Sealing by Access Roads and Crane Stand Places The wind park also needs large infrastructure, as described in Table 11 and Figure 65. In details this is roughly 211,000 m2 for access roads and about 50,000 m2 for stand spaces for the cranes to erect the turbines (see picture in Annex 11.3). The roads must be able to carry the loads from the trucks and cranes for the construction, and also vehicles of maintenance. The main road to the area in particular, must be constructed to be able to withstand frequent and heavy usage. The roads must also be able to resist erosion by wind and rain. This could mean that, at a minimum, the main roads must be constructed in a paved, solid fashion way.(Example: Figure 64).

Figure 64: Typical paved road profile; Source: http://wapedia.mobi/de/Hauptfahrbahn Table 11: Area needed for road constructions; Estimation by the author

Description Dimension Size Existing paved road Approximately: 5,500 meters x 6

meters 33,000 m2

New road to site Approximately: 6,300 meters x 6 meters

37,800 m2

New roads at site Approximately: 23,400 meters x 6 meters

140,400 m2

Stand spaces for cranes Approximately: 50 x (50 meters x 20 meters)

50,000 m2

Course of roads to be seen on Figure 65 Sum: 261,200 m2

Additionally, stand places for the cranes for each individual turbine are needed. This area has to be approximately 50 meters x 20 meters183 (See Annex 11.3). The area must be prepared to carry the loads of the crane, whilst lifting the nacelle, blades, and tower elements. The load, in sum, is about 180 tonnes184, which must be induced via supporting the feet of the crane into the ground. Depending on the ground, the soil must be prepared and also possibly compressed.

183 Result of interview with a project manager of WPD Think Energy Company; http://www.wpd.de/, Kassel, 2011.01.20 184 Weight of naclle of V-90 about 70 tonnes, Source http://www.vestas.com/Files%2FFiler%2FDE%2FBrochures%2FProductbrochureV901_8_2_0_DE.pdf; 2011.02.03, Weight of crane including counterbalance weights 110 tonnes (For exampple crane DEMAG AC 500/2), Source: http://www.fleetfile.com/krane/ nblatt/type_id=7, Retrieved 2011.02.02

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Figure 65: Possible road to wind park: Blue: Existing paved road; Yellow: Road to be constructed

The road construction and the development of the crane stand areas have an influence on the soil and its local characteristics. Habitats of existing animals would be altered, as construction changes the ground conditions. Furthermore, the road has a barrier effect and also a harmful effect from the traffic on existing animals. Additional paved road are sealing the ground, and influence the drainage, filter and reservoir capabilities. The spoil of the road construction must also be mounted in a suitable fashion. As illustrated, the area has more or less no flora, and only a small amount of fauna in the way of a small amount of reptiles and insects. Furthermore, the area does not have large importance for water storage etc. So the impact from the construction of roads and stand spaces can then be evaluated as low.

9.2.10.2 Ground Change by Foundation Each turbine needs a foundation. For the desert condition, a typical raft foundation is expected. The typical dimensions of a Vestas V-90 raft foundation, has a diameter of 16 meters, and a depth about 2.90 meters, and is constructed from concrete. 185 The foundation is covered afterwards with existing soil. Because of the concrete foundation, the existing soil and surface then changes, and the

typical filter and storage function is reduced. As the area is not important for the hydrologic balance, the impact can be considered as low. The same low impact for flora and fauna is expected, as no flora, and only a little fauna, exists in the area. Due to the desert conditions, the soil at 3 meters in depth is expected to be the same as that on the surface. Excavated soil then has no negative impact when placed on the surface. The excavation may only have negative visual impacts when small hills are left beside the turbines.

Figure 66: Picture of a Vestas V-90 foundation183

It is recommended to remove or spread the material, to then create a flat area, and a cleaner impression.

185 dirkshof.de, http://www.dirkshof.de/, Retrieved 2011.02.01

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9.2.10.3 Cabling The wind park must be connected to the public grid. The connection would be completed via the main cable to the transformer station of the Tishreen power station, approximately 8 km’s north of the wind park.186 Furthermore, each turbine must be connected to the main cable. This means in total that about 32,4 km of cable must be laid.187 The cheapest and most cost-effective way is to lay the cable underground. This can be completed by a cable-laying-plough, or by digging. The effects on the ground are only temporary, as after laying the cable the surface will resume to how it was before the installation. The hugest amount of environmental impact occurs throughout construction Due to the low amount of flora and fauna in the region, the negative impacts of the cabling can be ignored.

9.2.11 Garbage from Construction and Maintenance The garbage from construction and maintenance, (including solid and liquid waste like oils, rags), must be disposed adequately. To estimate the amount, the turbine manufacturer delivers information regarding the materials needed for the specific turbine. This information can be downloaded at Vestas https://www.vestas-downloadcenter.com/. Due to the size of these documents, they have not been integrated into this master thesis.

9.3 Conclusion and Evaluation of the Environmental Impact The environmental impact analysis was made, due to the lag of detailed regulations in Syria, mostly on German guidelines and standards. The wind park does not have critical shadow or noise impacts, neither on German nor for Syrian regulations. The visual impact at daytime or at night-time, when flight-warning lights are visible, could not be judged as critical, as the wind park is too far away from surrounding settlements, and is not influencing any valuable natural or cultural sights. The physical impact of the wind park whilst being constructed, or when in operation, on nature is evaluated as low, as there are no important habitations from local flora and fauna existing in the area. The only area, which must be analysed by long-term reporting is the influence of the park on migrating birds. Therefore, specialists should observe the location for a minimum of one year, and analyse if the area of the planned park obstructs the pathway of birds. The social impact of the wind park on people living close-by, and in general, can be rated positively. Throughout construction, transportation vehicles the traffic and can increase. The wind park in general must be seen as positive for the environment, as it produces energy with no CO2 emission, and the consumption of fossil fuel is reduced. This also has a positive economic influence for Syria, as Syria is becoming more independent from foreign fossil fuel supply. Further new job opportunities can be built up. In total, the author does not see any critical negative environmental aspects from the planned Al Hijana wind park, apart from the issue of migrating birds, which must be researched.

186 See connection details in the master thesis of Rifat Hassnou: „Grid integration of Al Haijana Wind Park”, REMENA Master Thesis 2011 University Kassel Prof. Heier. 187 Length of cable: 4,2 km for each row; 3,4 km to connect each row; 8 km from wind park to Tishreen power station.

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10 Outlook

Following the presentation for the strategy of energy supply in Syria in 2030, about 20% (see chapter 3.1.1) of energy should be generated by renewable energy. A large part of this renewable energy should be delivered by wind energy. As mentioned in the presentation, about 14 wind park sites have been deemed as lucrative.188  The first sites to be developed should be Al Sukhna, and the researched location of Al Hijana. Depending on the Syrian policy strategy, these projects can be financed by the state of Syria or by foreign investors. Nevertheless it is indicated for all projects to realize an EIA for the described reasons. Currently no detailed standards, limits and laws for the EIA for wind parks in Syria are elaborated.  So it is recommended to use the knowledge gained in the EIA procedure of the first wind parks Al Sukhna and Al Hijana to fix and designate national regulations. Regulations and standards and limits from countries, who have already installed a large amount of wind projects, like Germany, can be used as a reference.  Therefore, the legal preconditions in Syria are set as law 50, from 2002, asking that the “Public Authorities for Environmental Affairs” evaluate the actual and future environmental problems, and establish mechanisms to limit these in future.189 Clear preconditions for the EIA of wind parks, unique all over Syria, will simplify the project realisation. Even the project realisation time will be shortened and the investment security will be increased. To reach the energy goals for renewable energy in Syria, clear legislation for the EIA are a necessary precondition.

The future of wind energy in Germany will focus on repowering, off shore wind parks, and increasing wind energy in southern Germany, to reach the goal in producing 20% of the whole energy consumption by renewable energy by 2020.190 Currently, the regulations for the EIA approval differ per federal state. This complicates the approval procedure, increases the workload, increases costs for the development companies, and finally, slows down the development of renewable energy. Hence, the author recommends, unifying existing and future regulations to reach the goals more efficiently, with less effort and cost on official and private sites.

188 See chapter 3.1.1 189 Syrian Arabic Republic, Law No. 50 Chapter 2 Article 4; approved by the People’s Assembly in its session held on 16/4/1423H at 26 June 2002 190 Federal Government of Germany, Article: Strategy for renewable energy till 2020 (Erneuerbare Energie: Die Strategie bis 2020) released 04.08.2010; http://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Artikel/2010/08/2010-08-04-kabinett-energie.html, Retrieved: 2011.02.16

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11 Annex

11.1 Map of the Area 1:150000

Figure 67: Map of the wind park area 1:150000

Position of turbines in Geographic System WGS 84: 01: 36° 39, 9061 East 33° 21, 0921 North 41: 36° 39, 1034 East 33° 19, 9080 North 50: 36° 40, 9948 East 33° 18, 4808 North

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11.2 Noise Datasheet of Wind Turbine Vestas V-90 Source: Genera Specification documents Vestas V90-2MW 50 HZ VCS, (2010-11-19)

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11.3 Crane Stand Place Map As an example for a stand place of cranes. The used area prepared for the crane as about 50m2.

Figure 68: Crane Stand Place of Enercon E-82.Source: Enercon

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11.4 WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Noise Prediction

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11.5 WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Shadow Flickering Prediction

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11.6 WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Zone of Visual Impact

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11.7 WindPro 2.7 Calculation: Radar ZVI for WTGs

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Directive 97/11/EC of 3 March 1997 amending Directive 85/337/EEC of 27 June 1985 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment, 1985.06

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List of Internet Sources: Bundesverband Windenergie, http://www.wind-energie.de/de/themen/mensch-umwelt/planung/infraschall/, Retrieved 2010.10.22 Die Welt, http://www.welt.de/politik/article2796036/Deutschland-hat-das-Klimaziel-schon-erreicht.html, Retrieved 2008.11.28 Dirkshof.de, http://www.dirkshof.de/index.php?article_id=20&clang=0& i=web_rageade_fundamentbau_1.jpg&galerie=1&pos=4, Retrieved 2011.01.27 Easyvoyage.de, http://www.easyvoyage.de/syrien/berge-taeler-und-wuesten-3315,Retrieved 2011.02.01 EMD, http://www.emd.dk/WindPRO/Modules/, Retrieved 2011.02.01 Geogr Manfred Bülow, http://www.buero-buelow.de/index.html, Retrieved 2010.12.09 Environmental department Brandenburg Germany, http://www.mugv.brandenburg.de/cms/detail.php/bb1.c.237952.de, Retrieved 2010.01.23 German ministry of foreign affairs, http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/de/Laenderinformationen/Syrien/Wirtschaft.html, Retrieved 2010.11.28 German Wind Energy Associatin, http://www.wind-energie.de/de/themen/windenergie-von-a-z/rueckbau/, Retrieved 2010.01.24 German Wind Energy Association, http://www.wind-energie.de/en/wind-energy-in-germany/, Retrieved 2010.02.7 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), http://www.irena.org/, Retrieved 2010.02.7 Oberregierungsrat Dr. Alfred Scheidler & Tischenreuth, KRZ Zeitschrift für Landes- und Kommunalrecht Hessen / Rheinland-Pfalz / Saarland, http://www.lkrz.nomos.de/?id=1406, Retrieved 2010.11.25 Powergenworldwide.com, http://www.powergenworldwide.com/index/display/articledisplay/0415166555/articles/middle-east-energy/Volume_7/Issue_2/features/Syrias_renewable_energy_potential.html, Retrieved 2010-11-28 Vestas, http://www.vestas.com/Files%2FFiler%2FDE%2FBrochures%2FProductbrochureV901_8_2_0_DE.pdf, Retrieved 2011.02.02 Wikepedia, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barada, Retrieved 2010.01.24

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Declaration for the Master’s Thesis I hereby affirm that the master thesis at hand is my own written work and that I have used no other sources and aids others than those indicated. Only the sources cited have been used. Those parts which are direct quotes or paraphrases are identified as such. (Place)__Kassel_______ (date) ____2010.02.24____ ___________________

(Signature)

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