o SUSTAINABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

o THE MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY SUPPLY

o ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATION

o THE MANAGEMENT OF A DEGRADED ENVIRONMENT

TERMS

Sustainability - is how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological system.

Renewable energy - energy that comes from resources which are continually replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

Non renewable energy - comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in many, many lifetimes. e.g. fossil fuels , uranium

Energy budget - an accounting of the income, use, and loss of energy esp. in an ecosystem

Fossil fuel - a natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms.

Hydroelectric power - term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water

Solar energy - energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and converted into electricity.

Bio fuels - a fuel derived immediately from living matter. e.g. crops , plants , animal waste .

Tidal power - is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into useful forms of power .

Wind power - power obtained by harnessing the energy of the wind .

Nuclear power - electric or motive power generated by a nuclear reactor .

Technology - the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry .

Are commodities that are useful to people although the value and importance of individual resources may differ between cultures .

TYPES OF RESOURCES

Natural resources

Human resources

They take a long time to form and to be replenished , easy to develop and cheap to use, but have become major polluters of the environment.

COAL

OIL

NATURAL GAS

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Provided the basis of industrial revolution in Britain, Western Europe and USA . Despite its exploitation for almost 2 centuries, it still has far more economically recoverable reserve than any other fossil fuels 200-400 yrs

Formed from fossilized plants and consisting of carbon with various organic and some inorganic compounds.

Mined from seams of coal, found sandwiched between layers of rock in the earth.

Burnt to provide heat or electricity.

When burned coal gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases. e.g. sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide.

Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, an acidic gas that contributes to the formation of acid rain. This can be largely avoided using "flue gas desulphurization" to clean up the gases before they are released into the atmosphere. This method uses limestone, and produces gypsum for the building industry as a by-product. However, it uses a lot of limestone.

Like any other fossil fuels, is not even in its distribution and is often found in areas that are distant from world markets or a have hostile environment, e.g. the arctic (Alaska), tropical rainforests (Nigeria and Indonesia), deserts (Algeria and Middle east).

This means that oil exploration and exploitation is expensive, as is the cost of its transport by pipeline or tanker to world markets.

A carbon-based liquid formed from fossilized animals. Lakes of oil are sandwiched between seams of rock in the

earth. Pipes are sunk down to the reservoirs to pump the oil out. Widely used in industry and transport.

When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

Only a limited supply.

Most world reserves are predicted to become exhausted within 45 years.

Has become the fastest growing energy resource

It provides an alternative to coal and oil, in 2007, it comprised of a quarter of the world’s primary energy consumption.

Methane and some other gases trapped between seams of rock under the earth's surface.

Pipes are sunk into the ground to release the gas.

Often used in houses for heating and cooking.

When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

Only limited supply of gas.

Latest estimates suggest that global reserves will last another 65 years

Radioactive minerals such as uranium are mined.

Electricity is generated from the energy that is released when the atoms of these minerals are split (by nuclear fission) in nuclear reactors.

A small amount of radioactive material produces a lot of energy.

It doesn't give off atmospheric pollutants.

Nuclear reactors are expensive to run . Nuclear waste is highly toxic, and needs to be safely stored for hundreds or thousands of years (storage is extremely expensive).Leakage of nuclear materials can have a devastating impact on people and the environment. The worst nuclear reactor accident was at Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986

With the depletion of oil and gas reserves in the early years of the 21st century and the unfavorable publicity given to all fossil fuels, renewable resources are likely to become increasingly more attractive.

They are likely to become cost- competitive, offer great energy diversity , and allow for a cleaner environment.

TYPES

Continuous sources – are recurrent and will never run out. They include running water(HEP), the sun (solar) e.t.c.

Flow sources- are sustainable provided that they are carefully managed and maintained e.g. biomass, including the use of fuel wood.

Is the most widely use commercially produce source of energy.

Its availability depends on assured supply of fast flowing water which may be obtained from rainfall spread evenly throughout the year, or by building if dams and storing water in large reservoirs.

Although HEP is perceived as clean, it can still have damaging effects upon the environment.

The creation of reservoirs can mean large areas of vegetation being cleared (Tucurui in Amazonia), wildlife habitats( Kariba in Zimbabwe) and agricultural land (Volta in Ghana) being lost, and people being forced to move from their homes (Aswan in Egypt) and (3 gorges in China).

New reservoirs drown vegetation and , the resultant lake is likely to become acidic and anaerobic.

Dams can be a flood risk if the collapse or overflow, have been linked to increasing the risk of earthquake activity and can trap silt previously spread over farmland.

Is the most successful of renewable technology.

Wind farms are best suited to places where winds are strong , steady and reliable and where the landscape is either high or, as on coasts, exposed.

Can be found singularly, but usually many together in wind farms.

Potentially infinite energy supply and pollution – free.

Manufacture and implementation of wind farms can be costly.

Some local people object to on-shore wind farms, arguing that it spoils the countryside.

The sun is the primary source of the earth’s energy. Energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and converted into electricity.

Manufacture and implementation of solar panels can be costly.

Waves are created by the transfer of energy from winds which blow over them.

The movement of seawater in and out of a cavity on the shore compresses trapped air, driving a turbine.

The LIMPET is a 500kw shoreline oscillating water column.

Pelamis sea snake, 750kw hinged contour device.

Is the most reliable and predictable source. Major schemes include Bay of fundy in Eastern Canada, Rance estuary in France, Kislay in Russia and Jiangxia. in China.

The movement of tides drives turbines . A tidal barrage (a kind of dam) is built across estuaries, forcing water through gaps and stored during flood tide. Water stored is let go during ebb tide when sufficient head of water has built up , letting go potential energy of trapped water.

Tidal barrages restricts shipping access and inundates an extensive area.

In volcanic regions it is possible to use the natural heat of the earth.

Cold water is pumped under ground and comes out as steam.

Steam can be used for heating or to power turbines creating electricity.

Its used successfully in some countries, such as New Zealand , Iceland, Kenya and several countries in central America.

Geothermal energy does pose environmental problems as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide emissions may be high, the water supply can become saline , and earth movements can damage the power station.

Biomass, also known as bio fuels an bio energy, is the most dominant form of energy for most of the world’s population who are living in extreme poverty.

Its obtained from organic matter i.e. crops, plants and animal waste, of which the most important in LDCs is fuel wood. Trees are sustainable sources, providing that those cut are replaced or allowed to regenerate.

Many of LDCs have a rapid population growth, which adds great pressure to their little resources, and lack the capital and technology to develop or buy alternative resources.

In places where demand for fuel wood outstrips the supply, and where there is neither the money to replant time to regenerate, the risk of desertification and irreversible damage to the environment increases.

There is a marked energy gap between the rich and poor nations of the world.

Nearly a third of the world’s people – those living in low income countries – have no electricity or other modern energy supplies and depend almost entirely on wood or other biomass.

In MDCs oil provides the bedrock for modern life. 90% of transport relies on oil products and they are vital components in the pharmaceutical, chemical and food industries. The MDCs(17% of world’s population) consume around 75% of the 3 major fossil fuels and consume 53% of the total energy while LDCs ( 83 % of world’s population) consume 47%.

The International Energy Agency predict that the earth will need almost 60% more energy in 2030 than in 2002, and that fossil fuel will still meet most of these needs. although there is plenty of coal, it is not likely to grow in popularity because its so polluting.

Oil industry experts predict that current reserves will last for another 40 years and 65 years for natural gas.

Demand- consumer’s desire and willingness to pay a price for a specific good or service.

Supply- amount of something supplied or available for use .

Resource endowment- natural resources within the borders of a country.

Technology- the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes .

Energy gap- improvement potential of energy efficiency or the difference between optimal and actual level of energy consumption.

Globally , energy supplies are distributed unevenly. This means that energy sources are often long distances from the point of consumption.

In the modern world, fuel often travels vast distances to reach its consumers. These distances create many challenges, from the environment risks of long-distance pipelines to oil related problems linked to political instability in the middle east.

Fossil fuels are not present in great quantities in LDCs

It has been estimated that the very poorest countries in the world contain 14% coal, 8% natural gas and 5% oil.

The middle income countries including many middle eastern states such as Iran and Iraq and other NICs posses 45% coal, 70% oil, 68% natural gas reserves.

In total the developed world has fewer fossil fuels than the developing (42% of coal, 25% of oil and 24% of natural gas.)

Demand is primarily governed by the size of the country’s population and its level of economic development.

A country’s energy policy can have a significant impact on demand if it focuses on sustainability and efficiency as opposed to concentrating solely on building more power stations and refining facilities . High levels of pollution can be a strong stimulus to developing a cleaner energy policy.

The key factor in supply is energy resource endowment. Some countries are relatively rich in domestic energy resources while others are lacking and heavily reliant on imports.

Physical factors affecting supply.

Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of locations.

Large scale HEP devp require high precipitation, major steep sided valleys and impermeable rock.

Large power stations require flat land an geologically stable foundations.

Solar energy needs a large number of days with strong sunlight.

Wind power needs high average wind speeds throughout the year.

Tidal power stations require a very large tidal range.

The availability of biomass varies widely according to climatic conditions.

The most accessible and low cost deposits are invariably developed first.

Onshore deposits of oil and gas are usually cheaper to develop than offshore deposits .

Potential HEP sites close to major transport route and existing electricity transmission corridors are economical to build than those in very in accessible locations.

In poor countries foreign direct investment is often essential for the devp of energy resources,

When energy prices rise significantly, companies increase spending on exploration and devp.

Countries wanting to develop nuclear electricity require permission from the International Atomic Energy Agency.

International agreements such as the Kyoto protocol can have a considerable influence on the energy decisions of individual countries.

Potential HEP schemes on international rivers may require the agreement of other countries that share the river.

Government may insist on energy companies producing a certain proportion of their energy from renewable sources.

Legislation regarding emissions from power stations will favor the use of, for example ,low sulphur coal, as opposed to coal with a high sulphur content.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE CHANGES IN USAGE OF ENERGY.

Technological development – e.g. nuclear electricity has only been available since 1954. oil and natural gas can now be extracted from much deeper waters than in the past. Renewable energy technology is advancing steadily.

Changes in demand – at one time in all of Britain trains were powered by coal and most people also used coal for heating in their homes. Before natural gas was discovered in the North sea, Britain’s gas was produced from coal.

Increasing national wealth- as average incomes increase, living standards improve which involves the increasing use of energy and the use of a greater variety of energy sources.

Changes in price- the relative price of the different types of energy can influence demand. Electricity production in the UK has been switching from coal to gas over the past 20 years mainly because power stations are cheaper to run on natural gas.

Environmental factors/public opinion – public opinion can influence decisions made by governments. People today are much better informed about environmental impacts of energy sources than they were in the past.

Energy policy- is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address issues of energy development including energy production, distribution and consumption. The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation and other public policy techniques.

Level of development

Capital

Environmental concerns

Kyoto targets

Energy policy

Brazil is the 10th largest world consumer. Its an important oil and gas producer in S. America and the world's second largest ethanol fuel producer.

t the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s, Brazil's energy sector underwent market liberalization.

Current government policies concentrate mainly on the improvement of energy efficiency, in both residential and industrial sectors, as well as increasing renewable energy.

Brazil is the world's 12th largest oil producer. As of today, more than 50 oil companies are engaged in oil exploration.

In 2006, Brazil had 11.2 billion barrels (1.78×109 m3) the second-largest proven oil reserves in South America after Venezuela.

Natural gas

At the end of 2005, the proven reserves of Brazil's natural gas were 306 x 109 m³, with possible reserves expected to be 15 times higher. Until recently natural gas was produced as a by-product of the oil industry.

Brazil has total coal reserves of about 30 billion tonnes, but the deposits vary by the quality and quantity. The proved recoverable reserves are around 10 billion tonnes. In 2004 Brazil produced 5.4 million tonnes of coal, while coal consumption reached 21.9 million tonnes. Almost all of Brazil’s coal output is steam coal, of which about 85% is fired in power station.

Oil shale

Brazil has the world's second largest known oil shale resources and has second largest shale oil production after Estonia.

Brazil has the 6th largest uranium reserves in the world. Proven reserves are 162,000 tonnes.

In 2004, Brazil had 86.5 GW of installed generating capacity and it produced 387 Twh of electricity. As of today 66% of distribution and 28% of power generation is owned by private companies.

During the electricity crisis in 2001, the government launched a program to build 55 gas-fired power stations with a total capacity of 22 GW, but only 19 power stations were built, with a total capacity of 4 GW.

Brazil is the third largest hydroelectricity producer in the world after China and Canada. In 2007 hydropower accounted for 83% of Brazilian electricity production. The gross theoretical capability exceeds 3,000 TWh per annum, of which 800 TWh per annum is economically exploitable. In 2004, Brazil produced 321TWh of hydropower

Due the Brazil's dependence on hydroelectric power and lack of investments in transmission, the reserves were being used for several years, which led to the dams having a low level of water. Then after another bad year of rain, in June 2001, the government was forced to ration electricity usage, this ended in late 2001.

Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra.

he total installed photovoltaic power capacity in Brazil is estimated to be between 12 and 15 MWp, of which 50% is for telecommunications systems and 50% for rural energy systems. It is less than 0.01% of the energy in Brazil.

Brazil has one of the highest solar incidence in the world.

Brazil's gross wind resource potential is estimated to be about 140 GW, of which 30 GW could be effectively transformed into wind power projects. Currently it generates about 54 GWh per annum.

Due to its ethanol fuel production, Brazil has sometimes been described as a bio-energy superpower.Ethanol fuel is produced from sugar cane. Brazil has the largest sugar cane crop in the world, and is the largest exporter of ethanol in the world.

Brazil has successfully transitioned from importing almost 80 percent of its total oil consumption in the 1970s to becoming virtually energy independent and a leader in renewable energy. Nearly half of Brazil’s energy comes from renewable sources compared to an average of less than 20 percent for the rest of the world.

Brazil is fortunate to have a great variety of energy sources available for energy production. However, Brazilian energy has been relatively “cleaner” while being produced at internationally-competitive prices. This cautious energy planning pursued by the Brazilian government has ensured that the country:

Supplies energy at relatively low costs

Diversifies energy sources

Diminishes the risk of energy shortages

Reduces the market power of some large suppliers

Controls environmental and social impacts, while maximizing positive effects

Oil spill off the coast of Rio de Janeiro

Starting from 8 November 2011 Chevron had spill of crude oil off the southeastern coast of Brazil. 416,400 liters oil leaked in two weeks from undersea rock well in the Frade oil project 370km off the Brazilian coast. Prosecutors in Brazil demand $10.6bn in the legal suit. Chevron's activities are suspended until the cause of an oil spill is clear.

One of the main difference between renewable and non- renewable sources is their impact on the environment.

Renewable sources of energy on the whole are cleaner and less harmful to the atmosphere. However , they can have environmental consequences in terms of deforestation and the release of carbon dioxide . In LDCs clearing trees for fuel often damages an areas ecological balance and leads to desertification.

They release harmful pollutants- Non – renewable sources release harmful pollutants, such as carbon and sulphur compounds, into the atmosphere when they are burnt.

Transporting fuels from point of production to point of consumption has environmental impacts -e.g. movement of crude oil by tanker or pipeline. There is the danger of an oil spill contaminating the environment and transport by tanker uses fuel, which releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Disaster was on 24 March 1989. Occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska when Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound’s Bligh Reef at 12:04 a.m

50 million tonnes of crude oil was being carried

By April 2nd the oil had covered an area of 2600km^2.

Effects:

Oil extended 1700km from the boat

35000 sea birds died

3000 sea otters killed

Local economy badly affected as depended on fishing industry

Salmon hatcheries destroyed

Land animals like Caribou poisoned by eating contaminated plants

Oil on beaches

Bald eagles and wading birds died as food chain affected

Seals, shrimps and shellfish suffocated.

Exxon worked until the end of that year at an eventual cost of 600 million dollars, before pulling out and leaving 60% of the spilled oil still in Prince William sound or along 1700 km of coastline.

There was use of a dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture. A private company applied dispersant on March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant was discontinued.

ne trial explosion was also conducted during the early stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by another explosion.[clarification needed] The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 liters of removable residue.

Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis.[

3 GORGES DAM CHINA.

The Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric dam that spans the Yangtze River by the town of Sandouping, located in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, China.

The amount of electricity generated is 22500MW.

Main purpose .

To prevent flooding downstream. Floods were regular and unpredictable.

Generate HEP.

Provide water to urban areas and for irrigation.

Improvement of river transport system.

POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Power generation is managed by China’s Yangtze power, a listed subsidiary of China Three Gorges Corporation.

The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest capacity hydroelectric power station with 34 generators: 32 main generators, each with a capacity of 700 MW, and two plant power generators, each with capacity of 50 MW, making a total capacity of 22,500 MW. The expected annual electricity generation was over 100GWh.

The Three Gorges Dam reached its design-maximum reservoir water level of 175 m (574 ft) for the first time on October 26, 2010, in which the intended annual power-generation capacity of 84.7 GWh was realized .In 2012, the dam's 32 generating units generated a record 98.1 GWh of electricity, which accounts for 14% of China's total hydro generation

The dam was expected to provide 10% of China’s power. However, electricity demand has increased more quickly than previously projected. Even fully operational, on average, it supports only about 1.7% of electricity demand in China in the year 2011,when electricity demand reached 4692.8GWh(55 times the annual power generated)

BENEFITS

Control flooding downstream of the dam.

2. Provides water to urban areas and for agriculture-irrigation. (The reservoir can store up to 5 trillion gallons of water.

3. The HEP generated will provide 15% of China’s electricity demand. a. This will decrease China’s dependency on coal and

therefore reduce greenhouse gas emission.

4. Thousands of construction jobs were created during the building of the dam.

5. China will be able to bring 10,000 ton ocean going vessels all the way inland, 2000km up to the city of Chongqing.

6. The dam will become a tourist attraction –It will attract a lot of people to the area. Many tertiary sector/service jobs will be created.

7. The electricity generated will help the economic development of cities such as Chongqing, population=3 million

1.3 million people were forced into resettlement during the construction, with up to 4 million anticipated to be relocated in the next 15 years due to environmental damage and pollution from the project.

Much of the land used for resettlement is over 800m above sea level, where the climate is colder and the soil can barely support farming

Areas downstream will be deprived of fertile sediment.

It will divert money from other developments. It is currently one of the most expensive projects in the world, costing more than $26 billion, over their budget.

The untreated human and industrial waste will not be washed away downstream, but will stay and pollute the river instead.

Several large towns upstream, such as Fuling(population=80,000) and Wanxian(population=140,000) will be flooded.

One of the most immediate environmental effects of the Three Gorges Dam has been an increase in landslide activity. This results primarily from erosion caused by the drastic increases and decreases in reservoir water levels, which, when at their peak, create a body of water almost as long as Britain (Watts 2010). Furthermore, landslides in the surrounding areas have been much worse than had been predicted and dozens of people have already died as a result.

Another major issue with the Dam is the ways in which it is affecting biodiversity in the area. Animal and plant life has been greatly threatened due to flooding in some habitats and water diversion in others. Furthermore, fragmentation of habitat may lead to heavy losses of biological diversity.

Whether one agrees that this means a loss of spiritual and cultural wealth, it undoubtedly means a loss in resources that might otherwise have been tapped. Examples might include medical plants, among others.

It should be no surprise that the river system downstream has also been affected. Decreases in freshwater flow has meant that more saltwater is creeping up the Yangtze, endangering fish populations already threatened by overfishing.

Lastly and frighteningly, the Dam may have been tied to major earthquakes, including the one in May of 2008 which killed 87,000 people. By placing tremendous pressure and fluctuation (by rapidly raising and dropping water volume) on the underlying geological plates, TGD arguably increases seismic activity.

The most important effect that the construction of the Three Gorges Dam has had on Chinese society has been the displacement of millions of people from the Yangtze river region. In order to establish the reservoir, hundreds (possible thousands) of towns and villages were evacuated and later submerged.

Those forced to relocate were promised compensation for the value of their homes and land. In many cases this deal has been fulfilled without a problem. In what is likely the overwhelming majority of cases, however, relocated citizens have either been given far too little in compensation or their dues have been slimmed through corruption and embezzlement.

This has meant problems for many as the cities and towns they have had to move to are more expensive, driving many people deeper into poverty.

Those who were displaced were made poorer due to landlessness, joblessness, marginalization, and food insecurity.

Those who stayed .or who returned due to poor living conditions elsewhere (of which there are many) face different types of challenges. Flooding the reservoir has forced those farmers still in the region to migrate northwards up the mountain slopes, adding to erosion through over utilization of top soil

Natives to the Three Gorges region are not the only adversely affected Chinese citizens. Those who live far downstream are affected by pollution (Associated Press 2011). And people all across central and eastern China, including those in China's largest city, Shanghai, are feeling the effects of drought thought to be tied to TGD. City dwellers are further affected by the social pressures of accommodating hordes of migrant workers. Outside of the TGD scheme, another 22 million people have been relocated to make way for hydroelectric projects in China as of 2007 and as many as another 4 million may eventually have to be displaced as a result of surrounding effects of the TGD .

At the heart of the issue is the idea that relocation leads to societal stress. As one author poignantly put it, "demolition and forced relocation are the biggest flashpoints for social unrest in China...With an estimated more than 180,000 protests per year in China, that's certainly not lost on a government that now spends more on domestic security than its military budget“.

In the Future... Potential disasters will only exacerbate societal unrest. Sitting atop two major fault lines, the Jiuwanxi and the Zigui-Badong, TGD seems ripe for disaster. Indeed, putting such a massive dam in a heavily populated area - which is also home to delicate ecosystems - criss-crossed by fault lines is a recipe for disaster.

Ultimately, this controversial dam is made all the more worrisome by the degree to which Chinese officials have downplayed and ignored potentially catastrophic concerns. As hydrological expert Dr. Philip B. Williams points out, officials who were responsible for the safety analysis of TGD have underestimated potential earthquake ground accelerations; they have underplayed the risks of spillway factors as well as risks of major landslides; and they have ignored risks of dam failure downstream and downrange . They have also left much to be desired in their analyses of structural stability and seismic activity.

Environmental degradation- is any change or disturbance to the environment apparent to be harmful or undesirable causing a decrease of quality. This can happen naturally e.g. erosion, landslides, forest fires , floods or man made pollution .

Pollution is the contamination of the earth/atmosphere by people disposing of wastes.

Pollution is a dominant factor of environmental degradation of land ,air and water and impacts significantly on human health. There is a considerable global variations in death from urban air pollution. According to the WHO ,diseases caused by air pollution kill 650000 Chinese every year.

Land pollution –includes rubbish dumps, spoil heaps and contaminated land.

Water pollution- by the discharge of waste water from industries, domestic sewage, acid drainage, toxic salts from mines, pesticides, pesticide fertilisers, farm effluents and thermal change.

Air pollution- the release of chemical particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, CFCs.

Land pollution.

Derelict land – land which has been so damaged by industrial or other development that its incapable of beneficial use without treatment. e.g. worked out mineral excavations, abandoned industrial installations, contaminated land- leakages or dumping of waste on site.

Air pollution

Emission from industries and manufacturing activities- manufacturing company’s chimney erected into the air.

Burning of fossil fuels release carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide which increase acid rains and eutrophication.

.

All life and virtually every human activity need water.

It’s the world’s most essential resource and a pivotal element in poverty reduction. But for 80 countries, with 40 % of the world’s population, lack of water is a constant threat. And the situation is getting worse.

The world’s fresh water resources are linked to human health.

25000 people die everyday because of poor water.4500 are children under 5.

1700 million people lack clean water (12oo lack proper sanitation)

1.5 million people die of diarrhoea each year.

200 million people suffer from schistosomiasis each year.

Water scarcity is a major world environmental problem, threatening to put world food supplies in jeopardy, limit economic and social development, and create serious conflicts between neighboring drainage basin countries.

The UN estimates that two-thirds of world population will be affected by ‘severe water stress’ by 2025. the situation will be particularly severe in Africa, The Middle East and South Asia. The UN notes that already a number of the world’s rivers e.g. Colorado in the US, are running dry and that ground water is also drained faster than it can be replenished.

The Colorado river

in the US of A

running dry.

Every year 111000 km3 of precipitation falls onto the earths surface. This would be more than adequate for the global population's needs, but cannot be captured and the rest is very unevenly distributed.

The total precipitation that is absorbed by soil and plants, then released back into the air is known as green water

The water that collects in rivers, lakes, wetlands and ground water is known as blue water.

Green water is unavailable for human use but blue water is before its evaporated or reaches the sea.

Total blue water withdrawals are estimated at 3390 km3 , with 74 per cent for agriculture, mostly irrigation. About 20 % of this total comes from ground water.

Although agriculture is a dominant water user, industrial and domestic uses are growing at a faster rate. Demand for industrial use has expand particularly rapidly.

Overgrazing by

livestock can lead to

land degradation

Degradation of rural environments

Rural environments have been degraded due to

Population growth

Increasing pressures on land

Urban activities through processes such as climate change- by huge urban industries and untreated waste water in major rivers, which can contaminate estuaries and coastal fishing areas, and pollute drinking water supplies of rural communities downstream.

Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils.

Policy failure –inappropriate policies which include pricing, subsidy and tax policies which have encouraged the excessive use of inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, and the overexploitation of land. They may also include policies that favor farming systems which are inappropriate both to the circumstances of the farming community and to available resources.

Rural inequalities – rural people often know best to conserve their environment, but they may need to overexploit resources in order to survive. Meanwhile commercial exploitation by large landowners and companies often causes environmental degradation in pursuit of higher profits.

Resource imbalance- almost all of the future growth in world’s population will be in LEDCs, and the biggest increase will be in the poorest countries of all, those least equipped to meet their own needs or invest in the future.

Unsustainable technologies- new technologies have boosted agricultural production worldwide, but some have had harmful side effects which must be reversed and contained, such as resistance of insects to pesticides, land degradation through wind or water erosion, nutrient depletion or poor irrigation management and the loss of biological diversity.

Trade relations- as the value of raw materials exported by LEDCs has fallen, their governments have sought to boos income by expansion of crop production and timber sales that have damaged the environment.

Terms . Reclamation – process of creating new land from oceans, river

beds or lakes. Land reform – changing of laws, regulations and customs

regarding land ownership. Soil conservation – is a set of management strategies for

prevention of soil being eroded or becoming chemically altered by over use, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.

Environmentally sensitive areas – is a type of designation for an agricultural area which needs special protection because of its landscape, wildlife or historical value.

Waste disposal- proper disposition of discarded or discharged material in accordance with the local environmental guidelines.

The short-term benefits of clearing rainforest areas .

land for agriculture, houses and roads

jobs for local workers in road building, logging, agriculture, mining and construction

the generation of income (often in valuable foreign currency) for the LEDC when wood, minerals, and other resources are sold

scientific investigation into rainforest plants may provide new food sources and medicines

These benefits, however, come at a cost. Clearing rainforest threatens the survival of many plant and animal species and can lead to serious environmental degradation. Widespread deforestation damages the whole biosphere (the balance of living and non-living things) with serious long-term consequences.

Problems of human intervention

Commercial logging activity

New roads divide up parts of the rainforest and can cut off connections between different biotic and abiotic systems. For example, a road can stop monkeys such as the golden lion tamarin from travelling to gather food and, in turn, distribute seeds to re-sow plants in the forest.

Land clearance for farming, transportation and mining can lead to deforestation. Hardwood trees take many years to grow so can be difficult to replace.

Fertile soils that make farming possible are quickly washed away when the forest is cleared. If soil ends up in rivers, this can lead to flooding.

Loss of animal habitat occurs when trees are cut down. Hence, deforestation can result in endangering animals and plant life, or even causing them to become extinct.

Profits from large-scale farming and selling resources often go back to MEDCs or large companies and don't benefit the rainforest communities.

The market forces of globalization are invading the Amazon, hastening the demise of the forest. In the past three decades, hundreds of people have died in land wars; countless others endure fear and uncertainty, their lives threatened by those who profit from the theft of timber and land.

During the past 40 years, close to 20 percent of the Amazon rain forest has been cut down

Uncontrolled and unchecked exploitation can cause irreversible damage such as loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, flooding and climate change. So, sustainable use of the forest is essential. Sustainable development will meet the needs of Brazil's population without compromising the needs of future generations.

Possible strategies include:

Agro-forestry - growing trees and crops at the same time. This lets farmers take advantage of shelter from the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion and the crops benefit from the nutrients from the dead organic matter.

Selective logging - trees are only felled when they reach a particular height. This allows young trees a guaranteed life span and the forest will regain full maturity after around 30-50 years.

.

Education - ensuring those involved in exploitation and management of the forest understand the consequences behind their actions.

Afforestation - the opposite of deforestation. If trees are cut down, they are replaced to maintain the canopy.

Forest reserves - areas protected from exploitation.

Monitoring - use of satellite technology and photography to check that any activities taking place are legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.

Brazil’s environmental protection agency has only a handful of inspectors to monitor thousands of square miles of territory. Former headquarters was torched by an angry mob in 2004 after IBAMA agents and police broke a ring of timber traffickers, shutting down illegal sawmills and issuing millions of dollars in fines to loggers in the nearby town of Alta Floresta.

To aid in policing the sprawling Amazon hinterland, government agents are turning to satellite technology and remote sensing to alert them to the work of the land thieves, Yet even when officials spot illegal clearing, they are usually hamstrung by a lack of manpower or equipment. And when the police do react, the resources they manage to scrape together can be modest.

Vanoir Tibaldi, 42, a commander , has spent 15 years working for IBAMA on the front lines in northern Mato Grosso. When he was asked about the satellite imaging system that is supposed to give field agents the data they need to catch land thieves red-handed, Tibaldi replied, "We don't even have Internet in our office—it's a joke."

Terms. Urbanisation – is the increase in proportion of people living in

an urban area. Urban decay – when part of a city fall into disrepair due to

deindustrialization , depopulation, high unemployment. Zone of assimilation of a CBD – is a region where buildings are

being absorbed into CBD use. Usually such a zone is marked by increasingly higher land prices as well as rates and shows the direction of growth of a CBD.

Zone of discard- an area once part of the CBD but now in decline and characterized by low status shops, warehouses and vacant property.

Inner city – part of an urban area surrounding the CBD. Informal settlements- areas where groups of housing units have

been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal claim.

Cities in the U.S.A have spread upwards and outwards more than anywhere else in the world. However, it’s the outward and upward spread of cities that has the greatest effect on people and landscape. Cities have sprawled over vast areas because:

The U.S.A is an extremely large country and until recently land was perceived as being in plentiful supply.

Planning regulations have been weak compared with Europe, giving land speculators and property developers a much freer hand.

High average income meant that people could afford large houses.

A high level of personal mobility allied to massive investment in the transport infrastructure allow people to commute long distance to work.

By the early part of 20th century some neighboring urban areas had emerged to form conurbations. In the north eastern U.S in particular the conurbations came closer together as urban sprawl continued . Here the intervening countryside was much reduced and its character changed. Cross roads by freeways, the density of rural settlement was high.

In 1970 America’s suburbs housed 25% more families than its central cities; by late 1990s they contained 75% more. Development ,associated central cities with poverty and crime.

The demise of the inner cities had resulted in such urban sprawl that the environmental group the sierra club termed it as ‘the dark side of the American dream’ in a report published in Sept. 1998. it highlighted.

Traffic congestion, with each 1% increase in new lane-miles generating a 0.9% increase in traffic within 5 years.

Commuting journeys that ‘ steal time from family and work’ with petrol that’s about half as much in Europe.

Lost farmland and recreational space. In the 1980s the loss of prime farmland equaled the combined area of the states of Connecticut and Rhode island.

More taxation to pay for the full range of suburban infrastructure.

The under-utilisation of inner-city infrastructure leading to dereliction and closure.

As suburbs expand, tax bases in inner-city shrink, lower corporate profits, higher unemployment and reduced property values.

Between 1970 and 1990 in the twin cities of Minneapolis-St. Paul, 162 schools were closed in the inner areas while 78 new were constructed in the outer suburbs.

what can be done to limit urban sprawl.

In parts of Maryland and Michigan communities are being encouraged to buy farmland or environmentally sensitive land to prevent its development.

In Washington and Oregon ‘urban growth boundaries’ and green belts have been established.

Some cities like Portland and Oregon are looking inwards rather than outwards for new sites for development. Almost every city has a considerable number of brown field sites- disused warehouses and industrial sites, and other abandoned land – which can be redeveloped.

Another idea is to offer tax inducements to communities that for go development rights

Population growth- in many LEDCs, population growth continues at a high rate, putting increasing pressure on already fragile environments.

High rates of rural urban migration -they lead to rapidly deteriorating environmental conditions in large urban areas

Environmental hazards, often made worse by climatic change, present an increasing challenge in some world regions. In many regions natural hazards have increased in scale and unpredictability.

Poor management at both central and local government levels- result in problems that can least be partially rectified, not addressed

Poor knowledge about the environmental impact of human actions.

Many degraded environments require substantial investment to bring about realistic solutions. Such finance is beyond the means of many poor countries. However, there may be a choice between low cost and high cost schemes.

Civil war has put back development by decades in some countries. Land mines which have yet to be cleared have put large areas off limits in some countries.

The Lake District National Park was created in 1951. Covering 880 square miles, it is the UK's largest national park and receives 12 million visitors a year.

The park is managed by the National Parks Authority (NPA), which attempts to balance the conflicting priorities of different park users. For example:

The protection of the park's environment, wildlife and natural features - things that can be harmed by excessive tourism. This is not only the Authority's job, but is also powerfully lobbied for by conservation and wildlife groups.

Tourists who come to enjoy the park need roads, parking, accommodation, shops and restaurants which are not necessarily going to be good for the countryside.

Local businesses may want to encourage more and more visitors.

Farmers, who may be concerned about damage to fences and livestock by walkers and their dogs.

Local residents, who may be worried about congestion, littering, noise pollution and the erosion of footpaths.

If these different interests are not carefully balanced, the result could be damage to the environment, local people becoming upset or even hostile, and tourists being put off visiting the park.

Measures that have been adopted to help maintain the Lake District for future generations:

The National Trust and other conservation groups have undertaken footpath maintenance. Some paths have been rebuilt or access restricted to reduce the effects on paths and vegetation.

Public transport has been improved and subsidised, for example the Langdale Rambler bus service. Visitors are encouraged to use the buses instead of bringing their cars into the national park.

Restricted parking zones have been set up in some villages, for example in Elterwater. The car park on the edge of the village has been expanded and parking on grass verges and near houses has been restricted.

Raising awareness of conservation issues for visitors with posters and leaflets at tourist information and visitor centers.

A 10mph speed limit was introduced on Windermere in March 2005. The lake had become congested with powerboats and water skiers and noise from the speedboats was spoiling the lake for other users such as swimmers and canoeists. There was also concern that the wake from powerboats has caused shore erosion and that boats had contributed to pollution and the disappearance of reed beds in the lake. Conservationists welcomed the new speed limit, but speedboat owners, water-skiers, and boat companies around the lake objected to the change. Businesses have been affected and boat users have had to find alternative lakes.

Urban regeneration- the improvement of old houses and addition of amenities in an attempt to bring new life to old inner city areas.

Urban redevelopment- the total clearance of parts of old inner city areas and starting afresh with new houses, especially high rise flats.

Its located in

east and

southeast

London.

CASE STUDY:LONDON DOCKLANDS

The London Docklands Development Corporation

During the 19th century, London's port was one of the busiest in the world, but by the end of the 1950s it was in significant decline with many of the docks derelict and abandoned. In response to the resulting social, economic and environmental problems the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up in 1981.

Why did the London Docks go into decline?1. An increase in ship size meant they found it difficult to come down the river as far as the Isle of Dogs where the river wasn't as deep. (the position of the docks moved further downstream to Tilbury);2. Containerization meant few dockers were needed with large cranes used to lift containers from ships;3. The decline of portside industries and manufacturing

What were the problems in 1981 in the Isle of Dogs?* population had declined* employment was in decline (loss of jobs from decline of docklands* access to the rest of London was poor with narrow roads which were heavily congested, and a lack of public transport (a single bus route and no rail or underground service)* 95%+ of housing was rented and including high density terraced houses and large estates dominated by high rise blocks* Shopping facilities were limited* Lack of open space and recreation facilities

Who was involved in helping with the regeneration process?Whilst the LDDC was responsible for the planning and redevelopment of the Docklands areas, other organisation have also been involved in the redevelopment process, these included:- National Government - they created an Isle of Dogs Enterprise Zone in April 1982 - offering incentives such as grants, reduced rates etc. to encourage private investment;- Property Developers - responsible for building large office blocks (e.g. Canary Wharf)- Local Housing Association - obtained home improvement grants- Conservation Groups- Newham Council

network of pedestrian and cycle routes through the area with access to the river and dock edge through waterside walkways- creation of pedestrian bridges- creation of new open spaces (150ha)- Water based Ecology Park and London's first bird sanctuary at East India Dock Basin - planting of 200,000 trees;- the area has now received many awards for architecture, conservation and landscaping

Unemployment had fallen from 14% to 7.4 with a doubling in employment and numbers of businesses;- transport revolution - opening of the Docklands Light Railway in 1987 - now carrying 35,000 passengers a week;

- £7.7 billion in private sector investment- major new roads including link to the M11- Building of the City Airport in the former Royal Docks (500,000+ passengers a year)- attraction of financial and high-tech firms,- TV studios and newspapers such as The Guardian now have offices in the prestigious Canary Wharf business complex.

Social Changes- £10 million spent on improvement council and housing association homes- a total of 22,000 new homes built (mainly private ownership with approx 19% for rent)- conversion and gentrification of old warehouses to new homes- New shopping centre built - including 4,600sq meters Asda Superstore and refurbishment of shopping parades -also included transformation of old dockland buildings into shopping outlets (e.g. Tobacco Dock)

- Large new shopping centre at Canary Wharf with over 30 shops- many restaurants, pubs and cafes built- Docklands Sailing and Water sports Centre- £100 million spent on health, education, job training etc.

How successful was the London Docklands Redevelopment?

Successes:- more trade for local shopkeepers- cheaper rents here for large companies yet still the benefit of only being 10 minutes from central London- a wide range of economic, environmental and social benefits (see above) - including 22,000 news housing units and 1000s of new jobs.- greatly improved accessibility in and out of docklands- addressed the once failing land, housing and commercial property markets in the area.

Criticisms:- there were criticisms that despite the improvements many of these didn't benefit the original 'east enders’- many locals were unable to afford the high costs of the new expensive houses / flats (still a lack of low-cost housing in the area)- despite an increase in jobs with new businesses coming in, most required skills that the old dockers did not have;- reduction in community spirit that the old Docklands had - with the 'yuppie' newcomers not mixing with the east enders

Was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. 172 governments participated, with 116 sending their heads of state or government.

The issues addressed included:

systematic scrutiny of patterns of production —particularly the production of toxic components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals

alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are linked to global climate change

new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke

the growing scarcity of water

An important achievement was an agreement on the Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol.

Another agreement was to "not carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples that would cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate"

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,

Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the treaty to reduce their emissions. Under the Protocol, emissions of developing countries are allowed to grow in accordance with their development needs.

The treaty recognizes that developed countries have contributed the most to the anthropogenic build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (around 77% of emissions between 1750 and 2004), and that carbon dioxide emissions per person in developing countries (2.9 tonnes in 2010) are, on average, lower than emissions per person in developed countries (10.4 tonnes in 2010).

International emissions trading allows developed countries to trade their emission commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

CASE STUDY: Cardiff bay regeneration.

Cardiff is located in south west UK. It’s the capital city of Wales. The city grew due to the production of coal and iron. It became the coal capital of the world in the 1840s.

DECLINE.

Docks were the main driver of economic growth particularly through trade in coal. Fall in demand for coal and subsequent decline of industry(East Moors steel work) had a massive impact.

Effects of the Great Depression in the 1930s, which rendered much of the workforce in the South Wales valleys redundant.

From 1910 onwards capacity issues meant that the more modern and less tidal Barry Docks took over as the largest volume export point of coal.

REGENERATION.

The regeneration of Cardiff Bay began in 1985 when South Glamorgan Council, supported by Cardiff City Council, decided to build its new county headquarters at Atlantic Wharf alongside the Bute East Dock.

Two years later the regeneration was extended from just under 100 acres to 2,700 acres (one sixth of Cardiff's total area) by the formation of the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation

Economic regeneration.

By 1998, £880 million of private investment and £500 million of public funds had been attracted by the corporation.

Around 11,500 jobs have been established in the area, out of a long-term target of 30,000.

Construction of office complexes in the bay were

by the Associated British Ports who are major land holders.

Social.

More than 2,000 homes have been built, representing one third of the targeted 6,000 households which will add 20,000 people to the total population.

Community Development based neighbourhood schemes have funded the involvement of local people enabling them to spend a day in the Bay through free boat and barrage tours, refreshments and transport.

A £700 million International Sports Village combining sports, leisure, entertainment facilities with high quality waterfront residences, hotels, bars and retail outlets.

Atlantic Wharf Leisure Village, St David's Hotel, Wales' first five-star hotel and a huge array of restaurants, cafes and bars which attracts 1.5 million visitors each year.

Environmental.

Cardiff Bay Barrage - £220 million development creating a permanent fresh water lake and Europe’s largest city centre waterfront with more than 13km of frontage for hotels, leisure facilities, businesses and new residential areas.

1100 hectares of derelict land regenerated

Political.

Developing a Civic Role – Cardiff Council located its new headquarters in the heart of the Bay, leading the way by establishing a major public sector employment opportunity in the centre of a previously disadvantaged area.

RESULTS.

The regeneration has had a significant impact on the Bay and the City. It has placed Cardiff on the International map, enhancing the image and economic well being of Cardiff and Wales as a whole. It has won numerous awards including Globe Forum Sustainable City Award.

There was a net increase of 29000 jobs with another 14,000 since 2000-06.

Target investment was £1.2 billion and since 2003 has secured over £1.6 billion investment.

The city centre has been linked with the Waterfront through transport and communications infrastructure.

An objective of 6000 new homes currently stands at 9,150 including 500 affordable homes equivalent to an investment of £32 million.

2,400 jobs have been created through tourism and visitor numbers have significantly with a total spend of £149 million.

Notable key achievements include improvement of cultural attractions through creative sector investments such as the renovation of iconic Norwegian Church.

FAILURES;

Area has been developed in a way that was not entirely consistent with what was originally expected. The short comings are evident in terms of addressing issues relating to economic deprivation in neighbouring areas, community integration and some aspects of the transport links.

It has also failed to properly engage local residents in the more deprived communities which are home to many of Cardiff ’s ethnic minority population and newly arrived migrant workers.

Some difficulties providing public transport to link Cardiff Bay with the city centre of particular concern for international visitors.