eric edgerton, ara, inc. pm model performance workshop chapel hill, nc february 10, 2004 search:...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Eric Edgerton, ARA, Inc. PM Model Performance Workshop Chapel Hill, NC February 10, 2004 SEARCH: Overview of Data for Model Performance Evaluation Photo](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022062407/56649f515503460f94c74a97/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Eric Edgerton, ARA, Inc.
PM Model Performance Workshop
Chapel Hill, NC
February 10, 2004
SEARCH: Overview of Data for Model
Performance Evaluation
Photo
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SEARCH: Southeastern Aerosol Research and Characterization Study
Oak Grove (OAK)
Centreville (CTR)
Pensacola (PNS)
Yorkville (YRK)
Jefferson Street (JST)
North Birmingham (BHM)
Gulfport (GFP)
Outlying Landing Field #8 (OLF)
rural urban suburban
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SEARCH Objectives
Develop a Particulate Matter Climatology for 8 Sites Understand Composition and its Variability
– Year to Year, Season to Season (1999-2005)– Rural vs. Urban– Coastal vs. Inland
Test, Improve, and Deploy Measurement Methods for Pollutant Gases and Continuous PM Components
Estimate Source Contributions Understand Formation Processes
Provide Comprehensive Data Set for Use in SIP Development Collaborate with States and Others
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SEARCH Measurements - Continuous
Category Observables
Temporal
Resolution
Trace Gases O3, NO, NO2, HNO3, NHx, NOy, CO, SO2, CO2
1 min.
Fine Particles Mass, BC, Bscat SO42-,NO3,
NH4+
TC
1 min. or
60 min. (TC)
Surface
Met.
T, RH, BP, WS, WD
SR, precip.
1 min.
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SEARCH Measurements - Discrete
Category Analytes
Frequency(2000-2005)
PM2.5 Mass Daily
PM2.5 SO42-,NO3
-, NH4+
OC, EC, Trace Elem.
1/3
PMcoarse Mass 1/3
PMcoarse SO42-,NO3
-, NH4+
Trace Elem.
1/6
PMcoarse OC, EC 1/6 (2 sites)
Trace Gas NH3 (started 10/1/03) 1/3
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Need to Benchmark Continuous Data with Filter Data
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Example of SEARCH Continuous PM Data Validation Process – Raw Scatter
SO4 vs PCM1 Teflon
y = 0.59x + 0.31
R2 = 0.78
0123456789
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PCM1 TEFLON SO4
CO
NTI
NU
OU
S S
O4
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Example of SEARCH Continuous PM Data Validation Process – Raw Ratio Cont./Flt.
Ratio of C-SO4/PCM1 SO4
00.20.40.60.8
11.21.41.6
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Example of SEARCH Continuous PM Data Validation Process – Adjusted Scatter
SO4 vs PCM1 Teflon
y = 1.05x - 0.25
R2 = 0.87
0123456789
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PCM1 TEFLON SO4
CO
NTI
NU
OU
S S
O4
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Example of SEARCH Continuous PM Data Validation Process – Adjusted Time Series
C-SO4 and PCM1 Tef SO4 Time-Series
0
5
10
15
20Ja
n-02
Feb-
02
Mar
-02
Apr
-02
May
-02
Jun-
02
Jul-0
2
Aug
-02
Sep
-02
Oct
-02
Nov
-02
Dec
-02
Mas
s, u
g/m
3
PCM1 Tef SO4 C-SO4
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Time Series of Hourly SO42-
JST – August 2002
0
5
10
15
20
25
8/23
/02
0:00
8/23
/02
12:0
0
8/24
/02
0:00
8/24
/02
12:0
0
8/25
/02
0:00
8/25
/02
12:0
0
8/26
/02
0:00
8/26
/02
12:0
0
8/27
/02
0:00
8/27
/02
12:0
0
8/28
/02
0:00
8/28
/02
12:0
0
8/29
/02
0:00
8/29
/02
12:0
0
8/30
/02
0:00
8/30
/02
12:0
0
8/31
/02
0:00
8/31
/02
12:0
0
9/1/
02 0
:00
9/1/
02 1
2:00
9/2/
02 0
:00
9/2/
02 1
2:00
9/3/
02 0
:00
9/3/
02 1
2:00
9/4/
02 0
:00
9/4/
02 1
2:00
9/5/
02 0
:00
9/5/
02 1
2:00
9/6/
02 0
:00
9/6/
02 1
2:00
9/7/
02 0
:00
9/7/
02 1
2:00
9/8/
02 0
:00
ARA SO4 PILS SO4
SO
4 (u
g/m
3)
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Time Series of Hourly NO3-
JST – August 2002
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
8/23
/02
0:00
8/23
/02
12:0
0
8/24
/02
0:00
8/24
/02
12:0
0
8/25
/02
0:00
8/25
/02
12:0
0
8/26
/02
0:00
8/26
/02
12:0
0
8/27
/02
0:00
8/27
/02
12:0
0
8/28
/02
0:00
8/28
/02
12:0
0
8/29
/02
0:00
8/29
/02
12:0
0
8/30
/02
0:00
8/30
/02
12:0
0
8/31
/02
0:00
8/31
/02
12:0
0
9/1/
02 0
:00
9/1/
02 1
2:00
9/2/
02 0
:00
9/2/
02 1
2:00
9/3/
02 0
:00
9/3/
02 1
2:00
9/4/
02 0
:00
9/4/
02 1
2:00
9/5/
02 0
:00
9/5/
02 1
2:00
9/6/
02 0
:00
9/6/
02 1
2:00
9/7/
02 0
:00
9/7/
02 1
2:00
9/8/
02 0
:00
ARA NO3 PILS NO3
NO
3 (u
g/m
3)
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Continuous vs. Filter Data24-Hr Averages (JST)
MAE = median abs. error; MAPE = median abs. % error
FilterMean Mean %E MAE MAPE
SO4 (30) 5.59 5.26 -5.8 0.51 9.9
NH4 (19) 1.89 1.70 -10.2 0.29 12.6
NO3 (23) 0.45 0.33 -26.8 0.15 27.7
FilterMean Mean %E MAE MAPE
SO4 (36) 5.82 6.10 4.8 0.43 8.5
NH4 (32) 2.15 2.10 -2.1 0.20 9.6
NO3 (35) 0.45 0.54 22.0 0.13 34.5
PILS
ARA
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Filter-based and Continuous PMcoarse JST: March-April 2003
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
PMc
Filter PMc TEOM PMc TEOM = 0.909*filter + 0.35
R2 = 0.952
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
filter PMc
TEO
M P
Mc
1:1 line
(units are µg/m3)
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Filter-based and Continuous PMcoarse JST: October 2003
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
10/1/2003 10/4/2003 10/7/2003 10/10/2003 10/13/2003 10/16/2003 10/19/2003 10/22/2003 10/25/2003 10/28/2003
PMc
Filter PMc TEOM PMcTEOM = 0.954*filter + 0.23
R2 = 0.959
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
filter PMc
TEO
M P
Mc
1:1 line
(units are µg/m3)
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Diurnal CO, NOy, O3 Profiles at Jefferson StreetJanuary 2002 (left), August 2002 (right)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
CO
(ppb
) .
0
20
40
60
80
100
NO
y, O
3 (p
pb)
.
CO O3 NOy
0
200
400
600
800
1000
CO
(ppb
) .
0
20
40
60
80
100
NO
y, O
3 (p
pb)
.
CO O3 NOy
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Diurnal PM2.5 Profiles at Jefferson StreetJanuary 2002 (left), August 2002 (right)
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
Con
c. (u
g/m
3)
. OM
BC
SO4
NH4
NO3
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
Con
c. (u
g/m
3)
. OM
BC
SO4
NH4
NO3
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SO2 Oxidation Rates
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151
86
44
25
55
150
57/53
CFPPs in Vicinity of Yorkville(distances in km)
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SO2 and NOy 8/20/02 Event
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
8/20/2002 0:00 8/20/2002 4:00 8/20/2002 8:00 8/20/2002 12:00 8/20/2002 16:00 8/20/2002 20:00
NOy SO2
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SO2 vs. NOy 8/20/02 Event
SO2 = 4.69*NOy - 19.7R
2
= 0.991
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 5 10 15 20 25
NOy (ppb)
SO
2 (
pp
b)
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3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
SO2/
NOx
Ratio
(Mol
ar)
3-hour average = 4.86
Trajectory and CEM data point to Plant Bowen
Plant Bowen CEM Data
Bowen
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SO2 and SO4 8/20/02 Event
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
8/20/2002 0:00 8/20/2002 4:00 8/20/2002 8:00 8/20/2002 12:00 8/20/2002 16:00 8/20/2002 20:00
SO
2 (p
pb)
0
1
2
3
4
5
SO
4 (p
pb)
SO2 SO4 ZERO
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SO4 vs. SO2, 8/20/02 Event
SO4 = 0.074*SO2 + 1.09
R2 = 0.982
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
SO2 (ppb)
SO
4 (
pp
b)
Estimated transit time of 2.8 hours yields conversion rate of 2.5%/hour
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Mean SO2 conversion rate by season and time of day
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00
Co
nve
rsio
n R
ate
(%)
Fall-Winter Spring-Summer
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00
Time Midpoint
Co
nve
rsio
n R
ate
(%)
Fall-Winter Spring-Summer
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00
Co
nve
rsio
n R
ate
(%)
Fall-Winter Spring-Summer
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00
Time Midpoint
Co
nve
rsio
n R
ate
(%)
Fall-Winter Spring-Summer
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Urban vs. Biomass (ER)CO
NOy(ppb/ppm)
PM2.5(ug/m3/ppm)
TC(ug/m3/ppm)
Urban 137 (12) 38 (9) 11(2)
Biomass 23 (13) 220 (60) 69 (19)
U/B 6.0 0.17 0.16
Urban data from Jefferson Street, Atlanta, GA SEARCH Site
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FUEL NOy (as NO) SO2 PM2.5 TC* BC*
Savannah/Grassland 60 5.4 83 57 3.1
Trop. Forest 15 5.5 88 64 6.4
non-Trop. Forest 28 9 121 78 5.2
Biofuels 27 3.5 92 51 7.6
Ag. Residues 27 4.3 42 36 7.5
This Study (Fires) 28+/-14 5.0 +/-2/7 195 +/- 54 63 +/- 14 15 +/- 6.1
This Study (Urban)# 147 +/-10 n.d. 33 +/- 8 9.6 +/- 2.1 n.d.
Andreae and Merlet. Global Geochem Cyclec 15(4):955-966. 2001. (A&M)* A&M TC and BC based on TSP# Based on Jefferson Street, Atlanta, GA SEARCH data
ER (g/kg CO)
Comparison of ERs with Literature Values
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Ammonia First Look (4th Quarter 2003)
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SEARCH NH3 Measurements
Oak Grove
Centreville
Pensacola
Yorkville
Jefferson St.
N.Birmingham
Gulfport
OLF
rural urban suburban 24-hour denuder(1/3 day) all sitesStarting 10/1/03
Continuous at Yorkville (9/15/03)and Oak Grove(7/1/04)
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SEARCH NH3 and %NHy 4th Quarter 2003
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
BHM CTR JST YRK GFP OAK PNS OLF
NH
3 (
pp
b)
0
16
32
48
64
80
% T
RN
NH3
% TRNurban-industrial
urban-res./ind.
rural-forested
rural-forested
rural-agricultural
urban-residential
urban-residential
suburban
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0
5
10
15
20
25
01-Nov-03 04-Nov-03 07-Nov-03 10-Nov-03 13-Nov-03 16-Nov-03 19-Nov-03 22-Nov-03 25-Nov-03 28-Nov-03
Co
nc.
(p
pb
)
NH3 NH4
Hourly NH3 and particulate-NH4+
Yorkville, GA – November 2003
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0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342
WD
Mea
n N
H3
(ppb
)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Cou
nt
NH3 n
Continuous NH3 vs. Wind DirectionYorkville, GA – November 2003
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The Smoking Chicken
2 km1 km
Poultry operations within several km of Yorkville(crosshair) line up with NH3 spikes.
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Continuous NH4+ and NO3
- vs. Wind DirectionYorkville, GA - November 2003
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342
Co
nc
. (u
g/m
3)
.
NO3 NH4
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Continuous NH4+ and NO3
-
Oak Grove 11/11/03
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
11/11/03 0:00 11/11/03 6:00 11/11/03 12:00 11/11/03 18:00
Co
nc.
(u
g/m
3)
.
NO3 NH4
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FUEL NOy (as NO) SO2 PM2.5 TC* BC*
Savannah/Grassland 60 5.4 83 57 3.1
Trop. Forest 15 5.5 88 64 6.4
non-Trop. Forest 28 9 121 78 5.2
Biofuels 27 3.5 92 51 7.6
Ag. Residues 27 4.3 42 36 7.5
This Study (Fires) 28+/-14 5.0 +/-2/7 195 +/- 54 63 +/- 14 15 +/- 6.1
This Study (Urban)# 147 +/-10 n.d. 33 +/- 8 9.6 +/- 2.1 n.d.
Andreae and Merlet. Global Geochem Cyclec 15(4):955-966. 2001. (A&M)* A&M TC and BC based on TSP# Based on Jefferson Street, Atlanta, GA SEARCH data
ER (g/kg CO)
Comparison of ERs with Literature Values
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http://www.firedetect.ssd.nesdis.noaa.gov/index.htm
HMS Fire and Smoke Summary for 2345 10/21/03
Emissions from Biomass Burning
Oak Grove
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0
90
180
270
360
10/21/03 0:00 10/21/03 4:00 10/21/03 8:00 10/21/03 12:00 10/21/03 16:00 10/21/03 20:00
WD
R (
de
g.)
0.0E+00
2.5E-05
5.0E-05
7.5E-05
1.0E-04
Bs
p (
m**
-1)
WDR Bsp
Bsp
(m
-1)
WD and Bsp for Oak Grove – 10/21/03
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FUEL NOy (as NO) SO2 PM2.5 TC* BC*
Savannah/Grassland 60 5.4 83 57 3.1
Trop. Forest 15 5.5 88 64 6.4
non-Trop. Forest 28 9 121 78 5.2
Biofuels 27 3.5 92 51 7.6
Ag. Residues 27 4.3 42 36 7.5
This Study (Fires) 28+/-14 5.0 +/-2/7 195 +/- 54 63 +/- 14 15 +/- 6.1
This Study (Urban)# 147 +/-10 n.d. 33 +/- 8 9.6 +/- 2.1 n.d.
Andreae and Merlet. Global Geochem Cyclec 15(4):955-966. 2001. (A&M)* A&M TC and BC based on TSP# Based on Jefferson Street, Atlanta, GA SEARCH data
ER (g/kg CO)
Comparison of ERs with Literature Values
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Ammonium Sulfate
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0
3
6
9
12
15
8/16/010:00
8/16/012:00
8/16/014:00
8/16/016:00
8/16/018:00
8/16/0110:00
8/16/0112:00
8/16/0114:00
8/16/0116:00
8/16/0118:00
8/16/0120:00
8/16/0122:00
SO
4, N
O3,
NH
4 (u
g/m
3)
0
10
20
30
40
50
PM
2.5
(ug
/m3)
SO4 NO3 NH4 PM2.5
Continuous PM at Jefferson StreetAugust 16, 2001
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0
3
6
9
12
15
8/16/010:00
8/16/012:00
8/16/014:00
8/16/016:00
8/16/018:00
8/16/0110:00
8/16/0112:00
8/16/0114:00
8/16/0116:00
8/16/0118:00
8/16/0120:00
8/16/0122:00
SO
4, N
H4
(ug
/m3)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Mo
lar
Rat
io
SO4 NH4 Ratio
Ammonium sulfate
Ammonium bisulfate
Sulfuric acid
SO4, xsNH4 and Molar Ratio
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0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
8/16/01 0:00 8/16/01 4:00 8/16/01 8:00 8/16/01 12:00 8/16/01 16:00 8/16/01 20:00
SO
4 (
ug
/m3
)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
ad
jRa
tio
SO4 adjRatio
Background adjusted Molar Ratio
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Sources of Carbon
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CO2 = 46.4*CO + 365
R2 = 0.79
NOy = 0.142*CO - 7.05
R2 = 0.91
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
CO (ppb)
CO
(p
pm
), N
Oy
(p
pb
)
CO2 NOy
Emission Ratios for CO2 and NOyJST 11/16-17/01
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PM2.5 = 0.0156*CO + 49.363
R2 = 0.79
TC = 0.0093*CO + 12.5
R2 = 0.66
BC = 0.0025*CO + 0.89
R2 = 0.75
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
CO (ppb)
Co
nc
. ug
/m3
PM2.5 BC TC
Emission Ratios for PM2.5, TC and BCJST 11/16-17/01
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Summary of Observed (ER)CO JST, Atlanta
NOy PM2.5 TC BCppb/ppm ug/m3-ppm ug/m3-ppm ug/m3-ppm
n 18 18 18 18
Mean 0.138 0.152 0.088 0.026
s.d. 0.009 0.022 0.015 0.005
CV (%) 6.5 14.5 17.0 19.2
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Simplified Carbon Source Matrixand Applicable Tools
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Sources of Primary OC in PM2.5
(F)(F/M ?)
(F)
(F)(M)(M)
(M)(Secondary F/M?)
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Primary Carbon Speciation SitesSEARCH & EPA-STN
STN-UrbanSTN-RuralSTN-SuburbanSEARCH-UrbanSEARCH RuralSEARCH-Suburban
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Carbon-14 and OC Data Atlanta, GA (JST)
0
4
8
12
16
20
7/1/
2001
7/4/
2001
7/7/
2001
7/10
/200
1
7/13
/200
1
7/16
/200
1
7/19
/200
1
7/22
/200
1
7/25
/200
1
7/28
/200
1
7/31
/200
1
8/21
/200
1
11/1
3/20
01
11/1
7/20
01
11/1
8/20
01
12/4
/200
1
12/5
/200
1
12/1
7/20
01
12/2
0/20
01
12/2
6/20
01
12/2
9/20
01
1/4/
2002
1/7/
2002
1/10
/200
2
1/13
/200
2
1/16
/200
2
1/19
/200
2
OC
(u
g/m
3)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
F M
od
ern
OC F Modern
0.590.62
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OC Source MatrixAtlanta, GA – January
* 2000 Data: Zheng et al., ES&T, 2002.
Primary*
Secondary
Total#
Modern
64
<5
61 +/-5
Fossil
36
<5
39 +/-5
# from 14Cdata
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OC Source MatrixAtlanta, GA – July 2001
* Zheng et al. Source Apportionment of Fine Particles at Atlanta, GA, AAAR 2002
Primary*
Secondary
Total#
Modern
<5
>50
59 +/-5
Fossil
40*
<5
41 +/-5
# from 14C data
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Five-year Trends
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Annual Average Speciated PM2.5
-5
0
5
10
15
20
251
99
92
00
02
00
12
00
22
00
3
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
JST YRK BHM CTR PNS OLF GFP OAK
ug
/m3
Other
Major Metal Oxides
Organic Matter
Elemental Carbon
Ammonium
Nitrate
Sulfate
PM2.5
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PMcoarse at Jefferson Street, GA(Inorganic Species Account for < 50% of Mass)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 5-Year mean
PM
coar
se (
ug
/m3)
.
Other
cNH4
cSO4
cNO3
cMMO
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Plant (Carbon) Material in PMcoarse SampleCentreville, AL
3700x3700x
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PMcoarse Speciation with OC and ECOM= OC*1.4, or OC*1.7, or OC*2.0
cMMO37%
OM1.433%
Other19%
cEC3%
cNH41%
cSO43%
cNO34%
cMMO38%
Other12%
cEC3%
cNH41%
cSO43%
cNO34%
OM1.739%
cMMO38%
Other5%
cEC3%
cNH41%
cSO43%
cNO34%
OM2.046%
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Continuous NOy, PM2.5, TEOM PMcoarse
JST: January 21, 2004
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00 20:00
NO
y, p
pb
.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
PM
2.5,
TE
OM
PM
c, u
g/m
3
.
NOy PM2.5 TEOM PMc
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FRM versus Best Estimate: Composition Recipes
• FRM Equivalent– Include Field Blank (0.3 µg/m3)– Use components from Teflon filter (PCM1)
and front Quartz filter (PCM3)• Best Estimate
– Blank correct all components– Add volatile NO3– Add volatile NH4 (equiv. to NO3)– Add estimated volatile OC (backup Quartz)
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SEARCH FRM Equivalent and Best Estimate PM2.5 Composition (percent) Jefferson Street, Atlanta, GA 1999-2002
Average FRM Equivalent mass = 17.7 ug/m3 Average Best Estimate mass = 19.0 ug/m3
1.7%
27.3%
1.1%
9.6%
9.1%
33.7%
2.7%
14.7%
25.3%
5.6%
10.5%
8.5%
34.3%
2.5%
13.4%
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Use Of SEARCH “Best Estimate” Fractions For DV Calculations
• Future-year PM2.5 design values are calculated using a combination of observed data and PM modeling results
• For this analysis, RRFs were calculated based on 1996 and 2010 IAQR modeling results from REMSAD
• To examine the uncertainties associated with the use of speciation measurements we calculated the 2010 DVs using
– FRM base values and fractions– FRM base values and “best estimate” fractions
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Use of SEARCH “Best Estimate” Fractions For DV Calculations• FDVs calculated for all 8 SEARCH sites, with and without
assumption that 50% of “other” is PBW associated with nitrates and sulfates
• Over the four combinations, 2010 FDVs differ by as much as 0.5 gm-3
• For example:
11.9
12.3
14.5
16.4
11.8
12.0
14.4
16.1
12.012.113.6Pensacola
12.212.513.8Yorkville
14.614.717.1Atlanta
16.316.618.5Birmingham
FRM BEOBS FRMPBW BEPBW
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Use of SEARCH “Best Estimate” Fractions For DV Calculations
• Considering the best estimate fraction for each species separately, the largest differences come from nitrate
• For the Birmingham site:
FRM BESulfate only 16.6 16.2
Nitrate only 16.6 17.4
Organics only 16.6 16.6
Black carbon only 16.6 16.5
Other inorganics only 16.6 16.5
Unattributed mass only 16.6 16.0
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Summary• SEARCH network will provide comprehensive PM/trace gas data
through 2005• Filter data needed to characterize continuous PM technologies
– Data adjustments– Data uncertainty
• Carbon speciation work underway (primary vs.secondary, Modern vs. Fossil)
• NH3 measurements begun in the SE– Primary species: high and variable near sources, expect lower
and less variable near sinks• Combination of continuous PM and Gas measurements shows
promise– SO4 neutralization variability– Contributions from biomass burning– gas/particle conversion
• Differences between FRM Equivalent and Best Estimate are Significant and Need to be Understood– Model Evaluation– FDVs