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ESPGHAN goes Africa Course
Cape Town 29 September-6 October 2015
Failure To Thrive
Jan Taminiau
Failure To Thrive FTT
• Subnormal growth
• Subnormal weight gain or weight faltering
• Weight faltering is not a disease, but rather a description of a relatively common growth pattern Most commonly caused by under nutrition relative to a child’s specific energy requirement
Stunting related to low income
Perspective?
Failure To Thrive Increased in Africa along with population
Africa is slow to decline
Lancet series; 382: 427-478 August 3-9, 2013
RE Black and ZA Bhutta
Failure to thrive FTT
• Child under nutrition
– Stunting
– Wasting
• Gastro Intestinal contribution possible?
– Loss of nutritional calories due gastrointestinal disease
– Waste of calories causes unexplained weight loss or growth inhibition
– More malnourished observed relative to expected from intake
Failure To Thrive
Subnormal growth Subnormal weight gain or weight faltering Gradual or moment of acquiring disease
Inadequate intake
• Sufficient food offered • Micronutrients do not restore growth or malnutrition
– iron, zinc, vitamin A
• Ongoing stunting, malnutrition despite extra food
• Gastrointestinal cause possible? • Was more growth or weight gain expected from food
supply? • Not sure, increase food supply temporarily
Failure To Thrive
GASTROINTESTINAL CAUSES
• Inadequate intake
• Excessive losses
• Anorexia
• Defective digestion and absorption
Inadequate ingestion due to dysphagia
• Neuromuscular incöordination • Oesophageal atresia (repaired) • Oesophagitis (stricture) • Achalasia • Eosinophilic Esophagitis
• History of feeding
– Regurgitated food is acid or not – Aspiration – Dysphagia
Failure To Thrive
GASTROINTESTINAL CAUSES
• Inadequate intake
• Excessive losses
• Anorexia
• Defective digestion and absorption
Excessive nutrient losses
• Substantial nutrient loss caused by vomiting
– Gastro-esophageal reflux
– Eosinophilic esophagitis
– Pyloric stenosis
– Incomplete bowel obstruction
– History of feeding, estimate of vomit volume
Pyloric hypertrophy Clinical visible peristalsis after meal
Excessive vomiting
Excessive peristalsis
Failure To Thrive
GASTROINTESTINAL CAUSES
• Inadequate intake
• Excessive losses
• Anorexia
• Defective digestion and absorption
Energy requirements Normal healthy child
Total energy
requirements
Metabo-
lisable
energy
require-
ments
Resting energy
expenditure
Physical activity
Growth
Energy excretion
Energy requirements for children Anorexia due to inflammation = catabolism
Total energy
requirements
Metabo-
lisable
energy
require-
ments
Resting energy
expenditure depressed by anorexia
Physical activity
Growth
Energy excretion
Energy expenditure as waste
due to inflammation
Failure To Thrive GASTROINTESTINAL CAUSES
• Inadequate intake due to chronic inflammation with energy wastage lost for beneficial purposes (catabolism)
• Anorexia
– Symptoms due to inflammatory lesions
• Abdominal pain
• Discomfort
• Nausea
• Risk for organ damage
– Depressed resting energy expenditure
Examples of gastrointestinal inflammatory anorexia with failure to thrive
• Gastritis – Severe Helicobacter pylori gastritis – CMV gastritis
• Enteric infection – Intestinal tuberculosis – Parasitic inflammation – Acute gastroenteritis (with/without diarrhea)
• Inflammatory lesions in small intestine – Crohn’s Disease – Celiac disease (also malabsorption) – Tropical sprue (also malabsorption)
• Gastric or intestinal motility disorders
• Congenital urinary tract anomalies and infections along with GI
disorders
Examples of inflammatory anorexia
• Anorexia might be caused by inflammatory pain or discomfort after meals
• Abdominal pain
• Nausea
• Diarrhea not necessary
• No obvious malabsorption
• Weight loss and/or stunting
• Consider infectious gastritis
• Consider intestinal infections like tbc, parasites
• Consider intestinal inflammation without infection
10 year old Turkish boy with abdominal pain and
a swollen knee joint with fluctuating effusion in the knee
Miliary TB on chest X-Ray PCR intestinal biopsy, skin
test might be negative
Height SDS/Z-score in Crohn in children at presentation N= 120 at Sick Children Boston USA
One year therapy in Paediatric CD Normal growth velocity is 4-6 cm/year
Severity of gastrointestinal symptoms
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Quiescent Mild
He
igh
t ve
loc
ity c
m/y
r
Gut 1994
Moderate Severe
8
9
10
14
54
23 9
Energy requirements for children Increased energy intake to improve growth
Treat inflammation to resume growth
Total energy
requirements
Metabo-
lisable
energy
require-
ments
Resting energy
expenditure depressed to anorexia
Physical activity
Growth
Energy excretion
Energy expenditure as waste
due to inflammation
Improve growth
Failure To Thrive
GASTROINTESTINAL CAUSES
• Inadequate intake
• Excessive losses
• Anorexia
• Defective digestion and absorption
Congenital and Acquired malabsorptionDefective Digestion and Absorption
Pancreatic Insufficiency Cystic Fibrosis Shwachman also bone marrow dysplasia Secondary due to villous atrophy Secondary due to tropical pancreatitis Intestinal Mucosal Disorders Celiac Disease Tropical sprue Short Gut Syndrome A-β-lipoproteinemia Bile Secretion Disorders Bile Duct Abnormalities Bile acid synthesis disorders Biliary dysfunction, liver abcesses Fasciola, Ascariasis, Salmonella Bacterial Overgrowth
Fatty acids induce Cholecystokinin and hydrogen ions Secretin release from the mucosa into the circulation and stimulate exocrine pancreatic secretion
In villus atrophy release of CCK and Secretin by
mucosal cells is diminished
CCK Secretin
Duodenum
Cystic Fibrosis: Chloride secretions in ducts are diminished with obstruction
Fat Malabsorption
Nutritional status
Malnutrition
Growth failure
Cystic Fibrosis
Failure to thrive
Chronic lung disease
Chronic liver disease
Black Carribean boy 12 years old hepatitis enlarged liver
Stunted growth Fatty stools
Diagnosis is Cystic Fibrosis
15 year old boy with chronic hepatitis History renewed:
Coughing Fatty stools
Diagnosis is Cystic Fibrosis
Diagnosis on sweat chloride Lick their forhead
Collect sweat and test chloride Cl < 30 mmol/L
Cystic fibrosis carrier frequencies in populations of African origin Frequency of the 3120+1G→A mutation in healthy black Africans
• Chiefdom Carrier frequency No of subjects No of carriers
• Southern Africa 728 8 1 in 91 • Nguni 157 0 0 • Zulu 57 0 0 • Xhosa 52 0 0 • Ndebele 23 0 0 • Swazi 25 0 0 • Sotho/Tswana 372 6 1 in 62 • Pedi/Northern Sotho 152 2 1 in 76 • Southern Sotho 100 4 1 in 25 • Tswana 120 0 0 • Tsonga 76 1 1 in 76 • Tsonga 53 1 1 in 53 • Shangaan 23 0 0 • Venda 45 1 1 in 45 • Random blacks 78 0 0
• Central Africa 315 1 1 in 315 • Central African Republic 218 0 0 • Pygmies 83 0 0 • Ubangian speakers 135 0 0 • Zambia 97 1 1 in 97 • West Africa 109 0 0 in 109 • Total 1152 9 1 in 128
30 CF Mutations tested for (SA)
Common names are given in brackets Together these mutations account for 91% and 74% of mutations in the local
Caucasian 60% -mixed ancestry population 30%-Blacks 10%
• p.Glu60X (E60X)
• p.Gly85Glu (G85E)
• p.Leu88IlefsX22 (394delTT)
• p.Tyr122X (Y122X)
• c.489+1G>T (621+1G>T)
• c.579+1G>T (711+1G>T)
• p.Phe316LeufsX12 (1078delT)
• p.Arg334Trp (R334W)
• p.Arg347Pro (R347P)
• p.Ala455Glu (A455E)
• p.Ile507del (ΔI507)
• p.Phe508del (ΔF508)
• c.1585-1G>A (1717-1G>A)
• p.Gly542X (G542X)
• p.Gly551Asp (G551D)
• p.Arg553X (R553X)
• c.1680-886A>G (1811+1.6kbA>G)
• p.Lys684SerfsX38 (2183AA>G)
• p.Trp846X (W846X)
• c.2657+5G>A (2789+5G>A)
• c.2988+1G>A (3120+1G>A)
• c.3140-26A>G (3272-26A>G)
• p.Tyr1092X (Y1092X(C>A)
• p.Arg1162X (R1162X)
• p.Lys1177SerfsX15 (3659delC)
• c.3718-2477C>T (3849+10kbC>T)
• p.Ser1251Asn (S1251N)
• p.Trp1282X (W1282X)
• p.Asn1303Lys (N1303K)
A-β-lipoproteinemia Fat cannot be transported out of enterocyte
Acanthocytes
Acrodermatits enteropathica Failure to thrive
Zinc
intestinal transport disorder
Symptoms at
weaning breast feeding
Therapy Oral Zinc
Small intestinal mucosal diseases that cause chronic diarrhea with malabsorption
Villous atrophy
• Tropical sprue
• Environmental enteropathy
• Drug associated enteropathy
• Ischaemic enteropathy
• Immunodeficiency sprue
• Whipple's disease
• HIV enteropathy
• Coeliac disease
• Collagenous sprue
• Infectious enteritis
• Tuberculosis
• Giardiasis (especially in immunodeficiency (IgA deficiency))
• Bacterial overgrowth
Tropical sprue
Consistent findings:
• Glossitis (sprue like tongue)
• Macrocytic anaemia
• Folate deficiency
• Partial intestinal villus atrophy
• Anorexia
• Nutrient malabsorption
• Improvement on folate therapy
• Folate deficiency causes villus atrophy!
Hypersegmentation Neutrophils
Folate deficiency
Tropical sprue or enteropathy
Small bowel biopsy
Normal small bowel biopsy
Tropical Sprue
• Compatible clinical presentation: Chronic diarrhea, malabsorption related, distended abdomen, anorexia, flatulence
• Demonstration of malabsorption of two unrelated substances abnormal small intestinal mucosal histology, which may be patchy
• Exclusion of other specific causes for MAS (except small-intestinal bacterial overgrowth [SIBO])
• Persistent response to treatment with antibiotics such as tetracycline and folic acid
Tropical sprue
• Reported from:
• Nigeria
• Zimbabwe
• South Africa
• Liberia
• Zambia
• Egypt
Total Sucrase of all enterocytes measured by Sucrose digestion reflects small intestinal surface area
Sucrose breath test to estimate small intestinal villous integrity and function
13CO2 recovered in breath after oral load of sucrose
cPDR90% = cumulative percentage dose recovery of sucrose at 90 minutes
Ritchie et al., Pediatrics 2009
Childhood Stunting
Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing Humphrey JH Lancet 2009
Tropical Sprue in 2014: the New Face of an Old Disease Uday C. Ghoshal
Age-related association of small intestinal mucosal enteropathy with nutritional status in rural Gambian children
David I. Campbell 2002
Inadequate intake under sufficient supply
Anorexia due to intestinal inflammation
Intestinal malabsorption
Environmental enteropathy is an acquired disorder with
– Reduced intestinal absorptive capacity
– Altered barrier integrity
– Mucosal inflammation
– Relation to increased rate of infections, nutritional deficits and stunting is unclear
– Responds to antibiotics and folic acid supplementation
Does it make sense to know villus atrophy Endoscopy?
• All can be treated
• Celiac disease Gluten free diet
• Tropical sprue Folate, antibiotics
• Giardiasis Metronidazole
• Tuberculosis Treatment
• Bacterial overgrowth Antibiotics
• Secondary pancreatic Pancreatic enzymes
insufficiency
Nutrient malabsorption
By Organ related malabsorption • Small intestinal disease
– Protein-Fat-Carbohydrate malabsorption • Pancreatic disease
– Protein-Fat-Carbohydrate malabsorption • Biliary disease
– Fat malabsorption
• Signs: – Fatty stools Fat – Foul smelling stools Protein – Acidic smell of stools Carbohydrates
• Symptoms:
– Failure to thrive despite offering sufficient food intake for some days
Carbohydrate malabsorption • Lactase deficiency • Sucrase iso-maltase deficiency • Glucose galactose malabsorption
• Some calorie loss, but SCFA’s compensate • Minor brush border abnormalities • Does usually not cause FTT
• Signs:
– Diarrhea increases with sugars offered – Acidic smell of stools
• Tests:
– Carbohydrate breath test • Sucrose • Lactose • Glucose
– Stools for sugars
How to detect Pancreatic, biliary related digestion or small intestinal
malabsorption problems
Stool examination Parasites Culture Watery: Sugar malabsorption
pH, reducing substances Fatty stools: Fat malabsorption
Microscopy with Sudan staining Feces collection for fat (one to three days) With and without antibiotics With and without pancreatic supplements
Foul smelling: Protein malabsorption Fecal nitrogen Small bowel biopsy Plasma: Zinc, albumin, elastase, lipase IgA-Tissue transglutaminase (IgA-TTG) Blood: Acanthocytes Hyper segmentation leucocytes Sweat: Chloride
Triglycerides in stool Sudan red staining (unstained also visible)
Fatty acid crystals in stools
Diagrammatic representation of the detection of reducing substances in
stool (Ames Clinitest tablet, Fehling reaction)
Or when not available:
Boil feces sample in flame will liberate glucose from lactose, sucrose and
maltose
Add glucose stick?
Investigation indication condition being sought
Developing World approach
• Is this child not fitting into only malnutrition
• Any persistent weight faltering
• Moment of change of growth, weight
• Relative worse for degree of malnutrition
• Extra food offered
• Symptoms of dysphagia, vomiting, abnormal anorexia, abnormal diarrhea
• Challenge with food
– Symptoms diarrhea, fatty stools, abnormal smelly stools
– Signs erythema, edema, rickets, anemia, respiratory symptoms not fitting
• Any clue for specific disease
Microvillus
inclusion
Sub Saharan Africa Any of these diseases?