essential oils

VOLATILE OILSVOLATILE OILS

04/08/2304/08/23 11Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu

Kakrani & Purvi KakraniKakrani & Purvi Kakrani

VOLATILE OILSVOLATILE OILS

All All officialofficial volatile oils are volatile oils are of of vegetable originvegetable origin. .

Normally Normally pre-existpre-exist in the in the plant – stored in a plant – stored in a special secretory tissuespecial secretory tissue (e.g. Citrus peel (e.g. Citrus peel oil cellsoil cells or or oil ductsoil ducts in in umbelliferous fruits).umbelliferous fruits).

EXCEPTION:EXCEPTION: Oil of bitter Oil of bitter almond – formed by almond – formed by hydrolysis of the hydrolysis of the glycosides.glycosides.



USES OF VOLATILE OILSUSES OF VOLATILE OILS TherapeuticallyTherapeutically (Oil of (Oil of

Eucalyptus)Eucalyptus) FlavouringFlavouring (Oil of Lemon) (Oil of Lemon) PerfumeryPerfumery (Oil of Rose) (Oil of Rose) Starting materialsStarting materials to to

synthesize other compounds synthesize other compounds (Oil of Turpentine)(Oil of Turpentine)

Anti-septicAnti-septic – due to high – due to high phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also as a preservative (oils interfere as a preservative (oils interfere with bacterial respiration)with bacterial respiration)

Anti-spasmodicAnti-spasmodic (Ginger, (Ginger, Lemon balm, Rosemary, Lemon balm, Rosemary, Peppermint, Chamomile, Peppermint, Chamomile, Fennel, Caraway)Fennel, Caraway)

AromatherapyAromatherapy04/08/2304/08/23 33Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu


DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILSDEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS

Volatile oils are products which are generally complex in Volatile oils are products which are generally complex in composition, consisting of the volatile principles composition, consisting of the volatile principles contained in plants, and are more or less modified contained in plants, and are more or less modified during the preparation process.during the preparation process.

Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oilsOnly 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oilsi.i. Steam distillationSteam distillationii.ii. ExpressionExpression

4 Main types of volatile oils4 Main types of volatile oilsi.i. ConcretesConcretesii.ii. PomadesPomadesiii.iii. ResinoidsResinoidsiv.iv. AbsolutesAbsolutes04/08/2304/08/23 44

Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu Kakrani & Purvi KakraniKakrani & Purvi Kakrani

CONCRETESCONCRETESPrepared from raw materials of Prepared from raw materials of

vegetable originvegetable origin (bark, (bark, flowers, leafs, roots etc.)flowers, leafs, roots etc.)

Extracted by HC type solventsExtracted by HC type solvents, , rather than distillation or rather than distillation or expression – Becomes expression – Becomes necessary when the necessary when the essential oil is adversely essential oil is adversely affected by hot water or affected by hot water or steamsteam (e.g. jasmine). (e.g. jasmine).

Produces a more Produces a more true-to-nature true-to-nature fragrance.fragrance.



CONCRETESCONCRETESConcretes contain about Concretes contain about

50 % wax and 50 % 50 % wax and 50 % essential oilessential oil (jasmine).(jasmine).

Ylang ylang (concrete Ylang ylang (concrete volatile) contains 80 volatile) contains 80 % essential oil and 20 % essential oil and 20 % wax.% wax.

Advantages of Advantages of concretes: they are concretes: they are more stable and more stable and concentratedconcentrated than than pure essential oils.pure essential oils.



POMADESPOMADES

True pomades are (volatile True pomades are (volatile oil) products of a process oil) products of a process known as enfleurage (hot known as enfleurage (hot or cold).or cold).

Enfleurage is used for Enfleurage is used for obtaining aromatic obtaining aromatic materials from flowers materials from flowers containing volatile oils to containing volatile oils to produce perfume long produce perfume long after they were cut.after they were cut.



ENFLEURAGE: METHODENFLEURAGE: METHODA glass plate is covered with a thin A glass plate is covered with a thin

coating of especially prepared coating of especially prepared and odourless fat (called a and odourless fat (called a chassis).chassis).

The freshly cut flowers are The freshly cut flowers are individually laid on to the fat individually laid on to the fat which in time becomes which in time becomes saturated with their essential saturated with their essential oils. The flowers are renewed oils. The flowers are renewed with fresh material.with fresh material.

Eventually the fragrance-saturated Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known as pomade, may be fat, known as pomade, may be treated with alcohol to extract treated with alcohol to extract the oil from the fat.the oil from the fat.



RESINOIDSRESINOIDS

Prepared from natural Prepared from natural resinous material (dried resinous material (dried material) by extraction material) by extraction with a non-aqueous with a non-aqueous solvent, e.g. Petroleum solvent, e.g. Petroleum ether or hexane.ether or hexane.

E.g. Balsams – Peru E.g. Balsams – Peru balsam or benzoin; balsam or benzoin; resins (resins (amberamber or mastic); or mastic); Oleoresin (copaiba Oleoresin (copaiba balsam and balsam and turpentineturpentine); ); Oleogum resins Oleogum resins (frankincense and (frankincense and myrrhmyrrh))



RESINOIDSRESINOIDS

Can be viscous liquids, Can be viscous liquids, semi-solid or solid.semi-solid or solid.

Usually homogeneous Usually homogeneous mass of non-mass of non-crystalline character.crystalline character.

Uses: in perfumery as Uses: in perfumery as fixatives to prolong fixatives to prolong the effect of a the effect of a fragrance.fragrance.



ABSOLUTESABSOLUTESObtained from a concrete, Obtained from a concrete,

pomade, or a resinoid by pomade, or a resinoid by alcoholic extraction.alcoholic extraction.

The extraction process may The extraction process may be repeated.be repeated.

The ethanol solution is The ethanol solution is cooled & filtered to cooled & filtered to eliminate waxes.eliminate waxes.

The ethanol is then The ethanol is then removed by distillation.removed by distillation.

They are usually highly They are usually highly concentrated viscous concentrated viscous liquids.liquids.04/08/2304/08/23 1111


Fx OF VOLATILE OILSFx OF VOLATILE OILS

In most cases, the biological In most cases, the biological function of the terpenoids function of the terpenoids of essential oils remains of essential oils remains obscure – it is thought obscure – it is thought that they play an that they play an ecological role – ecological role – protection from predators protection from predators & attraction of pollinators.& attraction of pollinators.



LOCALIZATIONLOCALIZATION

Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils are Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils are generally associated with the presence of generally associated with the presence of specialized histological structures, often located specialized histological structures, often located on or near the surface of the plant:on or near the surface of the plant:

- Oil cells of Zingiberaceae- Oil cells of Zingiberaceae- Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae- Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae- Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae- Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae

- Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae - Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae (Compositeae)(Compositeae)



VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITIONVOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION Mixtures of HC’s and oxygenated Mixtures of HC’s and oxygenated

compounds derived from these HC’s.compounds derived from these HC’s. Oil of turpentine – mainly HC’sOil of turpentine – mainly HC’s Oil of Clove – mainly oxygenated Oil of Clove – mainly oxygenated

compoundscompounds EXCEPTION: Oils derived from EXCEPTION: Oils derived from

glycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil & glycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil & mustard oil).mustard oil).

Oxygenated compounds – responsible for Oxygenated compounds – responsible for the odour/smell of the oil. They are slightly the odour/smell of the oil. They are slightly water soluble – Rose water & Orange water soluble – Rose water & Orange Water; more alcohol soluble.Water; more alcohol soluble.

Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with terpenes.terpenes.

Some compounds are aromatic, but Some compounds are aromatic, but terpenoid in origin (e.g. Thymol – Thyme)terpenoid in origin (e.g. Thymol – Thyme)04/08/2304/08/23 1515


CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONCHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based on their biosynthetic originon their biosynthetic origin

i.i. Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate mevalonic acid pathway)mevalonic acid pathway)

ii.ii. Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic acid-phenylpropanoid route)acid-phenylpropanoid route)

iii.iii. Miscellaneous OriginMiscellaneous Origin



A. TERPENESA. TERPENES

Terpenes, or Terpenes, or terpenoids, are the terpenoids, are the largest group of largest group of secondary products secondary products (metabolites).(metabolites).

They are all formed They are all formed from acetyl CoA or from acetyl CoA or glycolytic glycolytic intermediates.intermediates.



CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENESCLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES

All terpenes are formed All terpenes are formed from 5-C elementsfrom 5-C elements

Isoprene is the basic Isoprene is the basic structural element.structural element.



CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENESCLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES

Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C atoms they Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C atoms they containcontain

10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units) – monoterpenes10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units) – monoterpenes15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called 15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called

sesquiterpenes.sesquiterpenes.20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.Larger terpenes (30 Larger terpenes (30

Carbons) are called triterpenes (triterpenoids), 40 Carbons) are called triterpenes (triterpenoids), 40 Carbons – called tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids. Carbons – called tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids.



TERPENOIDSTERPENOIDS

Terpenoids contain only the Terpenoids contain only the most volatile terpenes most volatile terpenes (i.e. molecular weight is (i.e. molecular weight is not too high) not too high) mono mono and sesquiterpenesand sesquiterpenes

May occur as oxygenated May occur as oxygenated derivatives, e.g. alcohols, derivatives, e.g. alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, oxides & esters.phenols, oxides & esters.



EXAMPLES OF TERPENESEXAMPLES OF TERPENES

i.i. LIMONENELIMONENE

ii.ii. MENTHOLMENTHOL

iii.iii. BORNEOLBORNEOL

iv.iv. SESQUITERPENESSESQUITERPENES



i. LIMONENEi. LIMONENE

Structural classification: Structural classification: Monocyclic terpeneMonocyclic terpene

Functional Functional Classification: Classification: Unsaturated HCUnsaturated HC

Occurrence: Citrus fruitOccurrence: Citrus fruit



ii. MENTHOLii. MENTHOL

Structural classification:Structural classification:

Monocyclic with Monocyclic with hydroxyl grouphydroxyl group

Functional Functional classification: Alcoholclassification: Alcohol

Occurrence: Occurrence: Peppermint Peppermint



iii. BORNEOLiii. BORNEOL

Functional Functional Classification: ////Classification: ////

Occurrence: Occurrence: CinnamonCinnamon



iv. SESQUITERPENESiv. SESQUITERPENES

(Contain 3 isoprene units)(Contain 3 isoprene units)

Acyclic – E.g. FarnesolAcyclic – E.g. Farnesol

Monocyclic – E.g. BisobololMonocyclic – E.g. Bisobolol

Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene (Chamomile)(Chamomile)



B. AROMATIC COMPOUNDSB. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Many are phenols are Many are phenols are phenol estersphenol esters

E.g. Vanillin E.g. Vanillin



PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILSPROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS Almost Almost entirely volatile without entirely volatile without

decomposition.decomposition. Density: Most are Density: Most are less than 1g/mlless than 1g/ml..

2 are heavier – Oil of 2 are heavier – Oil of CinnamonCinnamon and and CloveClove oil. oil.

SolubleSoluble in in etherether, , chloroformchloroform & & alcoholalcohol..

Slightly soluble in water:Slightly soluble in water: give it a give it a characteristic odour & taste.characteristic odour & taste.

Leaves a Leaves a temporary translucent temporary translucent stainstain on paper which disappears on paper which disappears as the oil volatilizes.as the oil volatilizes.

Most are Most are colourlesscolourless. . Oxidize on Oxidize on exposure to airexposure to air and resinify and resinify colour becomes colour becomes darkerdarker ( (odour odour changeschanges slightly). slightly).

All are All are characteristic odourscharacteristic odours.. Most are Most are optically activeoptically active..



PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILSOILS

Essential oils may be produced Essential oils may be produced i.i. By steamBy steam

- Simple steam distillation- Simple steam distillation- Saturated steam distillation- Saturated steam distillation- Hydrodiffusion- Hydrodiffusion

i.i. By expressionBy expressionii.ii. Other MethodsOther Methods

Concretes & Resinoids may be producedConcretes & Resinoids may be producedi.i. By solvent extractionBy solvent extractionii.ii. By methods using oils & fatsBy methods using oils & fatsiii.iii. By extraction by supercritical gassesBy extraction by supercritical gasses



ESSENTIAL OILS: ESSENTIAL OILS: i.STEAM DISTILLATIONi.STEAM DISTILLATION

a. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATIONa. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATIONPlant material is immersed directly in a still Plant material is immersed directly in a still

filled with water. This is then brought to filled with water. This is then brought to a boil.a boil.

Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on a Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on a cold surface.cold surface.

Essential oil separates based on difference Essential oil separates based on difference in density and immiscibility.in density and immiscibility.



bb. SATURATED STEAM. SATURATED STEAM

Plant does not come into contact with the water Plant does not come into contact with the water steam is injected through the plant material steam is injected through the plant material placed on perforated trays.placed on perforated trays.

It is possible to operate under moderate pressure.It is possible to operate under moderate pressure.

Advantages:Advantages: Limits the alteration of the Limits the alteration of the constituents of the oilconstituents of the oil

It shortens the duration of the treatmentIt shortens the duration of the treatmentIt conserves energyIt conserves energyIt can also be conducted on on-line in automated It can also be conducted on on-line in automated

set ups.set ups.04/08/2304/08/23 3030


c. HYDRODIFFUSIONc. HYDRODIFFUSION

Pulses of steam is sent through the plant Pulses of steam is sent through the plant material at very low pressure from (top to material at very low pressure from (top to bottom).bottom).

ADVANTAGE:ADVANTAGE: Normally produces a Normally produces a product of high quality.product of high quality.

Saves time and energy.Saves time and energy.



ii.ii. EXPRESSION EXPRESSION (E.G.OF (E.G.OF CITRUSCITRUS EPICARPS) EPICARPS)

The rind is lacerated, and the contents of the The rind is lacerated, and the contents of the ruptured secretory cavities are recovered.ruptured secretory cavities are recovered.

CLASSIC PROCESS: an abrasive action is CLASSIC PROCESS: an abrasive action is applied on the surface of the fruit in a flow of applied on the surface of the fruit in a flow of water. The solid waste is eliminated, and the water. The solid waste is eliminated, and the essential oil separated from the aqueous phase essential oil separated from the aqueous phase by centrifugation.by centrifugation.

OTHER machines break the cavities by OTHER machines break the cavities by depression, and collect the essential oil directly depression, and collect the essential oil directly prevents the degradation linked to the action prevents the degradation linked to the action of water.of water.



EXPRESSION OF EXPRESSION OF CITRUSCITRUS EPICARPS EPICARPS

Most facilities allow for the simultaneous or Most facilities allow for the simultaneous or sequential recovery of the fruit juice and of the sequential recovery of the fruit juice and of the essential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray of essential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray of water after the abrasion (scarification – puncture water after the abrasion (scarification – puncture by pins) before or during the expression of the by pins) before or during the expression of the fruit juice.fruit juice.

Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allows Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allows recycling, and markedly increases the final yield recycling, and markedly increases the final yield of essential oil.of essential oil.

Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the fruit Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the fruit juices (by vacuum de-oiling)juices (by vacuum de-oiling)



iii. OTHER METHODSiii. OTHER METHODS

- Steam distillation by microwaves under vacuum. Steam distillation by microwaves under vacuum. In this procedure, the plant is heated selectively In this procedure, the plant is heated selectively by microwave radiation in a chamber inside by microwave radiation in a chamber inside which the pressure is reduced sequentially.which the pressure is reduced sequentially.

- fresh plants require no added water.fresh plants require no added water.

- ADVANTAGE:ADVANTAGE: This method is fast, consumes This method is fast, consumes little energy and yields a product which is most little energy and yields a product which is most often of a higher quality than the traditional often of a higher quality than the traditional steam distillation product.steam distillation product.



PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES & RESINOIDS& RESINOIDS

i.i. SOLVENT EXTRACTIONSOLVENT EXTRACTIONExtraction is generally preceded by a Extraction is generally preceded by a

process of: bruising the fresh, wilted or process of: bruising the fresh, wilted or semi-desiccated organs, chopping semi-desiccated organs, chopping herbaceous drugs, pounding roots & herbaceous drugs, pounding roots & rhizomes or turning wood into chips or rhizomes or turning wood into chips or shavings.shavings.

The procedure is conducted in specialized The procedure is conducted in specialized facilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.facilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.



SOLVENT EXTRACTIONSOLVENT EXTRACTIONThe The solvent selectionsolvent selection is influenced by technical & is influenced by technical &

economical factorseconomical factors

- - SelectivitySelectivity (being a good solvent for the specific (being a good solvent for the specific constituents).constituents).- - StabilityStability (chemical inertness) (chemical inertness)

- - Boiling pointBoiling point should not be so high that the solvent should not be so high that the solvent can be completely eliminated; nor too low, to limit losses can be completely eliminated; nor too low, to limit losses & control cost& control cost- Handling - Handling safetysafety

Solvents most used are aliphatic HC’s – Solvents most used are aliphatic HC’s – petroleum ether, petroleum ether, hexane, propanehexane, propane & & liquid butaneliquid butane..

Although Although benzenebenzene is a good solvent, its toxicity is a good solvent, its toxicity increasingly limits is use.increasingly limits is use.



SOLVENT EXTRACTIONSOLVENT EXTRACTION

At the end of the procedure, the solvent contained At the end of the procedure, the solvent contained in the plant material is recovered by steam in the plant material is recovered by steam injection.injection.

Main Main disadvantagesdisadvantages of solvent extraction of solvent extraction - - Lack of selectivityLack of selectivity, many lipophilic substances , many lipophilic substances

may end up in the concretes & render further may end up in the concretes & render further purification necessary.purification necessary.

- The - The toxicity of solventstoxicity of solvents leads to the leads to the restrictive regulations regarding their userestrictive regulations regarding their use

- Residues- Residues in the final product. in the final product.



ii. METHODS USING OILS & ii. METHODS USING OILS & FATSFATS

These procedures take advantage of the liposolubility of the These procedures take advantage of the liposolubility of the fragrant components of plants in fats.fragrant components of plants in fats.

a. “Enfleurage”a. “Enfleurage” – the plant material is placed in contact – the plant material is placed in contact with the surface of the fat. Extraction is achieved by with the surface of the fat. Extraction is achieved by

- ColdCold diffusiondiffusion into the fat into the fat - DigestionDigestion – carried out with heat, by immersing the – carried out with heat, by immersing the

plant in melted fat (also known as hot enfleurage).plant in melted fat (also known as hot enfleurage).

The final product is known as a floral The final product is known as a floral pomadepomade..



METHODS USING OILS & FATSMETHODS USING OILS & FATS

b. PNEUMATIC METHOD:b. PNEUMATIC METHOD: similar in principle to similar in principle to the enfleurage process.the enfleurage process.

It involves the passage of a current of hot air It involves the passage of a current of hot air through the flowers.through the flowers.

The air, laden with suspended (extracted) volatile The air, laden with suspended (extracted) volatile oil, is then passed through a spray of melted fat oil, is then passed through a spray of melted fat in which the volatile oil is absorbed.in which the volatile oil is absorbed.



iii. EXTRACTION BY iii. EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSESSUPERCRITICAL GASSES

Beyond its critical point, a fluid can have the density of a Beyond its critical point, a fluid can have the density of a liquid & the viscosity of a gas liquid & the viscosity of a gas therefore diffuses well therefore diffuses well through solids, resulting in a good solvent.through solids, resulting in a good solvent.

CO2 is the main gas usedCO2 is the main gas usedAdvantages of CO2Advantages of CO2

- It is a natural product- It is a natural product- chemically inert, non-flammable- chemically inert, non-flammable- non-toxic- non-toxic- easy to completely eliminate- easy to completely eliminate- selective- selective- readily available- readily available- Inexpensive- Inexpensive



EXTRACTION BY EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSESSUPERCRITICAL GASSES

DISADVANTAGE:DISADVANTAGE: Technical constraints Technical constraints- High cost of initial investment- High cost of initial investment

ADVANTAGES:ADVANTAGES:- obtain extracts which are very close in - obtain extracts which are very close in composition to the natural product.composition to the natural product.- It is possible to adjust the selectivity & - It is possible to adjust the selectivity & viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature & viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature & pressurepressure- All result in the increase of popularity of this - All result in the increase of popularity of this type of methodtype of method



EXTRACTION BY EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSESSUPERCRITICAL GASSES

USESUSESInitially developed to decaffeinate coffees, prepare Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees, prepare

hops extracts or to remove nicotine from hops extracts or to remove nicotine from tobacco, the method is now used totobacco, the method is now used to- Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery)- Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery)- Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)- Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)- Plant oils- Plant oils- To produce specified types of a certain - To produce specified types of a certain product, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.product, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.



TREATMENTS OF THE OILSTREATMENTS OF THE OILS

Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize, Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize, neutralize or rectify the oils obtained.neutralize or rectify the oils obtained.

i.i. Steam jet under vacuumSteam jet under vacuumAllows for the elimination of smelly or irritating Allows for the elimination of smelly or irritating

products, and to obtain a final product of products, and to obtain a final product of desired “profile”.desired “profile”.

ii.ii. Chromatrographic techniquesChromatrographic techniquesThis permits a good separation of the essential oil This permits a good separation of the essential oil

from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.



VARIABILITY FACTORS OF VARIABILITY FACTORS OF ESSENTIAL OILSESSENTIAL OILS

i.i. Occurrence of Chemotypes Occurrence of Chemotypes

ii.ii. Influence of the vegetative cycleInfluence of the vegetative cycle

iii.iii. Influence of environmental factorsInfluence of environmental factors

iv.iv. Influence of preparation methodInfluence of preparation method



i. CHEMOTYPESi. CHEMOTYPES

Chemical breeds Chemical breeds commonly occur in commonly occur in plants containing plants containing volatile oils, e.g. volatile oils, e.g. Thyme (Thyme (Thymus Thymus vulgarisvulgaris) – has 7 ) – has 7 different chemotypes, different chemotypes, each with slightly each with slightly different types & different types & amounts of volatile amounts of volatile oils.oils.



ii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLEii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLE

Proportions of the different Proportions of the different constituents of a volatile constituents of a volatile oil may vary greatly oil may vary greatly throughout its throughout its development. Wide development. Wide ranges are commonly ranges are commonly found in fennel, carrot found in fennel, carrot and coriander (linalool is and coriander (linalool is higher in ripe fruit than higher in ripe fruit than unripe fruit). unripe fruit). MenthaMentha (peppermint) is also (peppermint) is also greatly affected by the greatly affected by the vegetative cycle.vegetative cycle.



iii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORSiii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Temperature, humidity, Temperature, humidity, duration of daylight duration of daylight (radiation), and wind (radiation), and wind patterns all have a direct patterns all have a direct influence on volatile oil influence on volatile oil content, especially in those content, especially in those herbs that have superficial herbs that have superficial histological storage histological storage structures (e.g. glandular structures (e.g. glandular trichomes). When the trichomes). When the localization is deeper, the oil localization is deeper, the oil quality is more constant.quality is more constant.



ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORSENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

e.g. Peppermint: long days e.g. Peppermint: long days & temperate nights & temperate nights higher yields of oil & higher yields of oil & menthofuran. Cold nights menthofuran. Cold nights lead to an increase in lead to an increase in menthol.menthol.

Laurus nobilisLaurus nobilis (Bay) [volatile (Bay) [volatile oil] is greater in the oil] is greater in the southern hemisphere southern hemisphere than the northern.than the northern.

Citrus: higher temperatures Citrus: higher temperatures = higher oil content.= higher oil content.



ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORSENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Cultivation practices Cultivation practices also play an important also play an important factor to the yield & factor to the yield & quality of the final quality of the final product.product.

Fertilization and the Fertilization and the amounts of N, P and amounts of N, P and K have been studied K have been studied for various species.for various species.

The watering regiment The watering regiment also plays an also plays an important role.important role.



PREPARATION METHODPREPARATION METHODBecause of the volatile nature of the Because of the volatile nature of the

constituents of essential oils, the constituents of essential oils, the composition of the product composition of the product obtained by steam distillation is obtained by steam distillation is often different from the often different from the constituents originally found in the constituents originally found in the secretory organs of the plant.secretory organs of the plant.

During steam distillation, the water, During steam distillation, the water, acidity and tempereature may acidity and tempereature may induce hydrolysis of the esters. induce hydrolysis of the esters. Rearrangements, isomerizations, Rearrangements, isomerizations, racemiazations, oxidations and racemiazations, oxidations and other reactions also occur, all of other reactions also occur, all of which change the composition.which change the composition.



GINGER: GINGER: Zingiber officinaleZingiber officinale Definition:Definition: Ginger is the Ginger is the

peeled or unpeeled peeled or unpeeled rhizome of rhizome of Zingiber Zingiber officinaleofficinale (Zingiberaceae). (Zingiberaceae).

Common Names:Common Names: Jamaican ginger, GingerJamaican ginger, Ginger



Zingiber officinalisZingiber officinalis - Ginger - GingerGEOGRAPHICAL SOURCESGEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

• JamaicaJamaica• ChinaChina• India AfricaIndia Africa

HISTORYHISTORY

Cultivated in India from the Cultivated in India from the earliest times. Used by earliest times. Used by Greeks and Romans and Greeks and Romans and was a common article of was a common article of commerce in the European commerce in the European Middle Ages.Middle Ages.



CULTIVATION & PREPARATIONCULTIVATION & PREPARATION Grows well in subtropical Grows well in subtropical

temperatures with high temperatures with high rainfall.rainfall.

Grown by vegetative means.Grown by vegetative means. Mulching or is necessary as Mulching or is necessary as

the plant rapidly exhausts the plant rapidly exhausts minerals from the soil. minerals from the soil.

When the stems wither, the When the stems wither, the rhizomes are ready for rhizomes are ready for collection.collection.

Dried.Dried.



MACROSCOPICAL FEATURESMACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Scraped/peeled herb has little Scraped/peeled herb has little

resemblance to the fresh herb resemblance to the fresh herb (loss in weight & shrinkage). (loss in weight & shrinkage).

Occurs in branched pieces Occurs in branched pieces “hands” or “races”.“hands” or “races”.

BudsBuds No corkNo cork Aromatic odour & pungent Aromatic odour & pungent

taste.taste. Unscraped rhizome: Unscraped rhizome:

resembles scraped herb – resembles scraped herb – Covered with cork (brownish Covered with cork (brownish

layers)layers)04/08/2304/08/23 5454


MICROSCOPICAL FEATURESMICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

Cork cells – high starch Cork cells – high starch contentcontent

Cork cells are absent in Cork cells are absent in the scraped drug.the scraped drug.

Outer zone of flattened Outer zone of flattened parenchyma & inner parenchyma & inner zone of normal zone of normal parenchyma.parenchyma.

Oil cells scattered in the Oil cells scattered in the cortex.cortex.



Zingiber officinaleZingiber officinale - CONSTITUENTS - CONSTITUENTS Volatile oils (1 – 2%)Volatile oils (1 – 2%)

CampheneCamphene CineoleCineole CitralCitral BorneolBorneol

Gingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatoryGingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatory Shogaols – increases bile secretionShogaols – increases bile secretion

Sesquiterpene HC’sSesquiterpene HC’s Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)

ResinsResins Starch Starch MucilageMucilage



Zingiber officinaleZingiber officinale VARIETIESVARIETIES

Chinese Ginger – slicedChinese Ginger – sliced African ginger – darker (cortex is African ginger – darker (cortex is

grey – black in colour); lacks the grey – black in colour); lacks the odour but more pungent than odour but more pungent than Jamaican herb.Jamaican herb.

ALLIED DRUGSALLIED DRUGS Japanese ginger – Japanese ginger – Z. miogaZ. mioga Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes

preserved by boiling in syrup. preserved by boiling in syrup.

ADULTERANTSADULTERANTS Spent gingerSpent ginger Vegetable adulterants (detected with Vegetable adulterants (detected with

microscopical examination).microscopical examination).04/08/2304/08/23 5757Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu


USES & ACTIONSUSES & ACTIONSACTIONSACTIONS CarminativeCarminative StimulantStimulant Anti-emeticAnti-emetic Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungalAnti-bacterial & Anti-fungal Sesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcerSesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcer Gingerol – pungent component – Gingerol – pungent component –

Anti-inflammatoryAnti-inflammatory Shogaols– increases bile secretion Shogaols– increases bile secretion

& enhanced GIT activity& enhanced GIT activity

USESUSES Motion SicknessMotion Sickness Morning SicknessMorning Sickness



CARDAMOM FRUIT & OILCARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL

DEFINITION:DEFINITION: Cardamom Cardamom consists of the dried, nearly consists of the dried, nearly dried ripe fruits of dried ripe fruits of Elettaria Elettaria cardamomumcardamomum var var minisculaminiscula (Zingiberaceae).(Zingiberaceae).

PARTS USED:PARTS USED: Seeds (should Seeds (should be kept in the fruit until ready be kept in the fruit until ready to be used – Prevents loss of to be used – Prevents loss of volatile oils).volatile oils).

(3(3RDRD most expensive spice). most expensive spice).



Elettaria cardamomum Elettaria cardamomum GEOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHICAL

SOURCESSOURCES Sri LankaSri Lanka IndiaIndia GuatemalaGuatemala

HISTORYHISTORY Traditional Indian Traditional Indian

ceremoniesceremonies



PRODUCTION, COLLECTION & PRODUCTION, COLLECTION & PREPARATIONPREPARATION

Mainly obtained from Mainly obtained from cultivated plants cultivated plants (propagated by seedlings (propagated by seedlings or vegetatively or vegetatively [problematic due to virus [problematic due to virus infection]). infection]).

Capsules on the same Capsules on the same plant ripen at different plant ripen at different times – important to times – important to collect them before they collect them before they split.split.



COLLECTION & PREPARATIONCOLLECTION & PREPARATION Fruits are dried slowly Fruits are dried slowly

(outdoors or indoors).(outdoors or indoors). Too rapid drying – capsules Too rapid drying – capsules

split & shed seedssplit & shed seeds Calyx at the apex of the stalk Calyx at the apex of the stalk

and the stalk at the base may and the stalk at the base may be removed.be removed.

Fruits are graded with a sift Fruits are graded with a sift into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’, into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’, ‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.

If they have been sulphur – If they have been sulphur – bleached (improved colour), bleached (improved colour), it will be aired outdoors it will be aired outdoors before packed for transport.before packed for transport.



MACROSCOPICAL FEATURESMACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing

from the rhizome.from the rhizome. Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long. Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains. Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk. Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains

x2 row of seeds.x2 row of seeds. Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad.Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad. Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds) Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds) paler in paler in

unripe seeds.unripe seeds. Strong, pleasant, aromatic odourStrong, pleasant, aromatic odour Pungent tastePungent taste




Oil cellsOil cells Predominant Predominant

Parenchyma Parenchyma (yellow colour)(yellow colour)

Cells containing Cells containing silicasilica

Starch grainsStarch grains



VARIETIES & ADULTERANTSVARIETIES & ADULTERANTS

ADULTERATIONADULTERATION Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp

(powdered).(powdered).

ALLIED HERBSALLIED HERBS Official variety – Official variety – E. cardamomumE. cardamomum var var minisculaminiscula Other: Other: E. cardamomumE. cardamomum var var majormajor (more elongated & (more elongated &

sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps) Amomum aromaticumAmomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom) (Bengal cardamom) AmomumAmomum subulatumsubulatum (Nepal cardamom) (Nepal cardamom) AmomumAmomum cardamomumcardamomum (Java cardamom) (Java cardamom)



CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTSCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil Abundant starch (up to 50%)Abundant starch (up to 50%) Fixed oil (1 – 10%)Fixed oil (1 – 10%) Calcium oxalateCalcium oxalate



ElettariaElettaria: ACTIONS & USES: ACTIONS & USES Flavouring agent Flavouring agent

(curries & biscuits)(curries & biscuits)

Liqueur manufactureLiqueur manufacture

Small amount is used Small amount is used for pharmaceutical for pharmaceutical manufacture manufacture (Compound Tincture of (Compound Tincture of Cardamom).Cardamom).



CINNAMON: CINNAMON: Cinnamomum Cinnamomum zeylanicumzeylanicum

DEFINITION:DEFINITION: Cinnamon Cinnamon is the dried bark of is the dried bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicumCinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae).(Lauraceae).

GEOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCESSOURCESCultivated in Sri Lanka, Cultivated in Sri Lanka, South India, Seychelles, South India, Seychelles, Madagascar, Martinique, Madagascar, Martinique, Cayenne, Jamaica & Cayenne, Jamaica & Brazil.Brazil.



CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & PREPARATIONPREPARATION

Grown from seedGrown from seedCut down when 2-3 years Cut down when 2-3 years

old.old.After 5-6 shoots grow from After 5-6 shoots grow from

the stump (18 months), the stump (18 months), shoots are harvested, shoots are harvested, trimmed and fermented.trimmed and fermented.

Bark is removed.Bark is removed.Peeled bark is then Peeled bark is then

stretched over a suitable stretched over a suitable stick stick

Outer cortex is removed.Outer cortex is removed.



PREPARATION OF PREPARATION OF CinnamomumCinnamomum

Individually scraped Individually scraped barks are placed barks are placed inside each other.inside each other.

Compound quills are Compound quills are dried on wooden dried on wooden frames in the open air frames in the open air without exposure to without exposure to direct sunlight.direct sunlight.

Sorted into grades.Sorted into grades.



MACROSCOPICAL FEATURESMACROSCOPICAL FEATURESNormally received in shorter lengths Normally received in shorter lengths

known as ‘cigar lengths’.known as ‘cigar lengths’.Consists of a single or double Consists of a single or double

compound quill about 6-10 mm compound quill about 6-10 mm diameter of varying length.diameter of varying length.

Thickness of the quill varies according Thickness of the quill varies according to grade (good quality: Not > to grade (good quality: Not > 0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm. 0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm.

External surface: is yellow-brown, External surface: is yellow-brown, shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres) shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres) and occasional scars & holes and occasional scars & holes (leave/twig positions).(leave/twig positions).

Inner surface: darker, longitudinally Inner surface: darker, longitudinally striated.striated.

Odour: fragrant Odour: fragrant Taste: Warm, sweet & aromaticTaste: Warm, sweet & aromatic04/08/2304/08/23 7272


MICROSCOPICAL FEATURESMICROSCOPICAL FEATURES Transverse: absence of epidermis & corkTransverse: absence of epidermis & cork Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls)Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls) Secondary phloem is composed of phloem Secondary phloem is composed of phloem

parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells, parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells, phloem fibres & medullary rays.phloem fibres & medullary rays.

Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins. Secretion cells: volatile oils and mucilageSecretion cells: volatile oils and mucilage Calcium oxalatesCalcium oxalates



CinnamomumCinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS - CONSTITUENTS

• Volatile oils (at least Volatile oils (at least 1.2 %)1.2 %)

• PhlobaphenesPhlobaphenes• MucilageMucilage• Calcium OxalateCalcium Oxalate• StarchStarch



CINNAMON OIL – CINNAMON OIL – ADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBSADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBSAdulterantsAdulterants• Cinnamon Leaf OilCinnamon Leaf Oil• Oil of CassiaOil of Cassia

Allied HerbsAllied Herbs• Cayenne Cinnamon – Cayenne Cinnamon – C. zeylanicumC. zeylanicum grown in grown in

Brazil – not used in BritainBrazil – not used in Britain• C. loureiriiC. loureirii – from Vietnam – Closely resembles – from Vietnam – Closely resembles

C. cassiaC. cassia



Cinnamomum zeylanicumCinnamomum zeylanicum - USES - USES

Flavouring agentFlavouring agent

Mild astringentMild astringent

Oil: Oil: CarminativeCarminative

GermicideGermicide



LEMON PEEL LEMON PEEL

Definition:Definition: Dried lemon Dried lemon ((Limonis CortexLimonis Cortex) peel is ) peel is obtained from the fruit of obtained from the fruit of Citrus limonCitrus limon (Rutaceae). (Rutaceae).

Botanical Description:Botanical Description:

Small tree, growing to 3-5 m Small tree, growing to 3-5 m in height.in height.

Geographical SourcesGeographical Sources

Mediterranean RegionsMediterranean Regions



Limonis CortexLimonis Cortex – – COLLECTION & PREPARATIONCOLLECTION & PREPARATION

Lemons are collected in Lemons are collected in January, August & January, August & November, before the November, before the green colour changes to green colour changes to yellow.yellow.

The smaller fruit, which The smaller fruit, which would not be sold on the would not be sold on the produce market, are used produce market, are used in the preparation of oil of in the preparation of oil of lemon - the peel is lemon - the peel is removed with a sharp removed with a sharp knife in the form of a knife in the form of a spiral band.spiral band.



Limonis CortexLimonis Cortex – – CHARACTERISTICSCHARACTERISTICS

Dried lemon peel occurs Dried lemon peel occurs in spiral bands (2 cm in spiral bands (2 cm wide; 2-3 mm thick).wide; 2-3 mm thick).

The The outerouter surface is surface is rough & yellow; the rough & yellow; the innerinner surface is pulpy surface is pulpy & white (anatomically & white (anatomically similar to that of an similar to that of an orange peel).orange peel).

OdourOdour: Strong & : Strong & characteristiccharacteristic

TasteTaste: aromatic & bitter: aromatic & bitter04/08/2304/08/23 7979


Limonis CortexLimonis Cortex – – CONSTITUENTS & USESCONSTITUENTS & USES

CONSTITUENTSCONSTITUENTS

Should contain at least Should contain at least 2.5% volatile oil2.5% volatile oil

Vitamin CVitamin C

Hesperidin (Flavonoid)Hesperidin (Flavonoid)

MucilageMucilage

Calcium OxalateCalcium Oxalate

USESUSES

Flavouring purposesFlavouring purposes



LEMON OILS - LEMON OILS - Oleum limonisOleum limonisDefinition:Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of

the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limonCitrus limon (Rutaceae).(Rutaceae).

BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without the use of heat, from the fresh peel.the use of heat, from the fresh peel.

Much oil is derived via Much oil is derived via steam distillationsteam distillation, but this process yields , but this process yields oil of oil of inferior qualityinferior quality..

Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical purposes.purposes.

Geographical Sources:Geographical Sources: Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.04/08/2304/08/23 8181


Preparation of Lemon OilsPreparation of Lemon Oils

ii. Hand Methods. Hand Methods

No longer applicable to No longer applicable to pharmaceutical oilspharmaceutical oils



Production of Lemon OilsProduction of Lemon Oilsii.ii. Machine ProcessesMachine ProcessesQuality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture, Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture,

rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing action rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing action of the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method is of the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method is due to the fact that there is no contact between the oil & the due to the fact that there is no contact between the oil & the inner white part of the skin.inner white part of the skin.

The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older ones and give a higher yeildones and give a higher yeild

iii.iii. Distilled OilsDistilled OilsAlthough not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation, Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation,

mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.



Oleum limonisOleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS - CONSTITUENTS

Terpenes – mainly limoneneTerpenes – mainly limonene

SesquiterpenesSesquiterpenes

Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)

EstersEsters

Lemon oil has a tendency to Lemon oil has a tendency to resinifyresinify and and should be protected from the action of air should be protected from the action of air & light as much as possible. & light as much as possible.



Oleum limonisOleum limonis – – ADULTATION & USES ADULTATION & USES

ADULTERATIONADULTERATION

Oil of turpentineOil of turpentine

Terpenes from ‘terpeneless Terpenes from ‘terpeneless oil of lemon’oil of lemon’

Distilled oil of lemonDistilled oil of lemon

Oil of lemon-grassOil of lemon-grass

USESUSES

PerfumeryPerfumery

FlavouringFlavouring04/08/2304/08/23 8585


TERPENELESS LEMON OILTERPENELESS LEMON OIL

Definition:Definition: Oil prepared by Oil prepared by concentrating lemon oil in concentrating lemon oil in vacuum until most of the vacuum until most of the terpenes have been terpenes have been removed, or by solvent removed, or by solvent partition. The partition. The concentrate is a concentrate is a terpeneless oil, which has terpeneless oil, which has a citral content of 40-50 a citral content of 40-50 %.%.

It is equal in flavouring to It is equal in flavouring to 10-15 times its volume of 10-15 times its volume of lemon oillemon oil



BUCHU – BUCHU – Agathosma betulinaAgathosma betulina



Agathosma betulinaAgathosma betulina – – CONSTITUENS & USESCONSTITUENS & USES

CONSTITUENTSCONSTITUENTSVolatile oilsVolatile oils• PulegonePulegone• Menthone & isomenthoneMenthone & isomenthone• limonenelimoneneDiosminDiosminMucilageMucilageResinResinCalcium oxalatesCalcium oxalatesBuchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic actionBuchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic action

USES/ACTIONSUSES/ACTIONSDiureticDiureticUrinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’sUrinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’s04/08/2304/08/23 8888


NUTMEG & NUTMEG OILNUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL

Definition:Definition: Nutmeg is the Nutmeg is the dried kernel of the seed dried kernel of the seed of of Myristica fragransMyristica fragrans (Myristicaceae).(Myristicaceae).

Geographical SourcesGeographical SourcesIndigenous to the Molucca Indigenous to the Molucca

Islands (Spice Islands)Islands (Spice Islands)Cultivated in Indonesia, Cultivated in Indonesia,

Malaysia & the West Malaysia & the West Indies.Indies.



NUTMEG – NUTMEG – Myristica fragransMyristica fragrans

HISTORYHISTORY

First Introduced to the First Introduced to the Europeans by the Arabs.Europeans by the Arabs.

Portuguese lost control of Portuguese lost control of the spice trade to the the spice trade to the Dutch, who maintained Dutch, who maintained complete monopoly by complete monopoly by destroying all trees in the destroying all trees in the neighbouring islands & neighbouring islands & preventing the export of preventing the export of living seeds.living seeds.



CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & PREPARATIONPREPARATION

Trees can be grown from fresh seed Trees can be grown from fresh seed gown in the shell. The seeds gown in the shell. The seeds germinate after about 5 weeks. germinate after about 5 weeks. When the plants are 6 months When the plants are 6 months old, they are transplanted to the old, they are transplanted to the fields.fields.

Nutmegs are dried in the shells Nutmegs are dried in the shells (process differs according to local (process differs according to local conditions). Normally they are conditions). Normally they are dried in the sun & covered at dried in the sun & covered at night & rainy weather. They can night & rainy weather. They can also be dried in the oven or over also be dried in the oven or over low flames.low flames.

When completely dried, the kernel When completely dried, the kernel rattles in the testa, which is then rattles in the testa, which is then cracked & the nutmeg extracted. cracked & the nutmeg extracted. 04/08/2304/08/23 9191


MACROSCOPICAL MACROSCOPICAL FEATURESFEATURES

Nutmeg trees are Nutmeg trees are evergreen, growing up to evergreen, growing up to 20 m in height. 20 m in height.

Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm long & 2 cm broad.long & 2 cm broad.

If not heavily limed, the If not heavily limed, the surface is a brown or grey surface is a brown or grey brown in colour.brown in colour.

Odour: Strong & aromaticOdour: Strong & aromatic

Taste: Pungent and slightly Taste: Pungent and slightly bitter.bitter.




Potassium acid tartrate Potassium acid tartrate crystalscrystals

Parenchym with thin Parenchym with thin brown walls brown walls

Oval oil cellsOval oil cells

Feathery crystals of fatFeathery crystals of fat

Few tannin cells Few tannin cells (containing tannin & (containing tannin & starch)starch)



NUTMEG – ALLIED HERBSNUTMEG – ALLIED HERBS

Papua nutmegs – Papua nutmegs – from from M. argentea M. argentea (New Guinea) – little (New Guinea) – little odour & a odour & a disagreeable taste.disagreeable taste.

Bombay nutmegs – Bombay nutmegs – M. malabaricaM. malabarica (India) (India) – lack the – lack the characteristic odour of characteristic odour of the genuine herb.the genuine herb.



NUTMEG OILNUTMEG OILNutmeg oil is distilled from the Nutmeg oil is distilled from the

kernels of kernels of Myristica fragransMyristica fragrans..

CONSTITUENTSCONSTITUENTSPinenePineneSabineneSabineneCampheneCampheneDipenteneDipenteneSafroleSafroleEugenol & eugenol derivativesEugenol & eugenol derivativesMyristicin – a benzene: toxic to Myristicin – a benzene: toxic to

humans (large does of nutmeg humans (large does of nutmeg or nutmeg oil may cause or nutmeg oil may cause convulsions).convulsions).



MACEMACECommon mace or Banda Common mace or Banda

mace consists of the mace consists of the dried arillus or arillode of dried arillus or arillode of M. fragransM. fragrans..

Description: bright red Description: bright red colour & lacks in aroma. colour & lacks in aroma.



MACE – CONSTITUENTS & USESMACE – CONSTITUENTS & USES

CONSTITUENTS CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oils (similar to that Volatile oils (similar to that of nutmeg) – of nutmeg) – eugenoleugenol derivatives are the main derivatives are the main active constituents – active constituents – responsible for the anti-responsible for the anti-bacterial effects.bacterial effects.

Also has 2 anti-microbial Also has 2 anti-microbial resorcinolsresorcinols (Malabaricone (Malabaricone B and C)B and C)

Nutmegs, maces & their Nutmegs, maces & their oils, are all used foroils, are all used for

• CarminativesCarminatives• FlavouringFlavouring• Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea

of nutmeg – Ayurveda).of nutmeg – Ayurveda).



CLOVECLOVE

DEFINITION:DEFINITION: Cloves are Cloves are the dried flower buds of the dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticumSyzygium aromaticum ((Eugenia caryophyllusEugenia caryophyllus), ), (Myrtaceaea).(Myrtaceaea).

Geographical SourcesGeographical Sources

Molucca or Clove Islands, Molucca or Clove Islands, Zanzibar, Pemba, Zanzibar, Pemba, Madagascar, Indonesia & Madagascar, Indonesia & Brazil.Brazil.



HISTORY OF CLOVEHISTORY OF CLOVECloves were used in China as Cloves were used in China as

early as 266 BC, and by the early as 266 BC, and by the 44thth century, they were known century, they were known in Europe, although very in Europe, although very expensive. expensive.

Same as with nutmeg, the Same as with nutmeg, the Dutch also destroyed all trees Dutch also destroyed all trees from surrounding native from surrounding native islands to secure a islands to secure a monopoly, and cultivated monopoly, and cultivated them only in a small group of them only in a small group of islands. islands.

In 1770, the French managed to In 1770, the French managed to introduce clove trees to introduce clove trees to Mauritius, and started Mauritius, and started cultivating them there, as well cultivating them there, as well as in Zanzibar, Penang and as in Zanzibar, Penang and Sumatra. Sumatra. 04/08/2304/08/23 9999


COLLECTION & PREPARATIONCOLLECTION & PREPARATIONThe flower buds are collected The flower buds are collected

when the lower part turns when the lower part turns green-crimson. The cloves green-crimson. The cloves are dried in the open air on are dried in the open air on mats & separated from their mats & separated from their peduncles (forming clove peduncles (forming clove stalks which are also sold stalks which are also sold commercially). commercially).

If left on the tree for too long, If left on the tree for too long, the buds open & the petals the buds open & the petals fall, leaving “brown cloves”. fall, leaving “brown cloves”. Later the fruits (“mother Later the fruits (“mother cloves”) are produced. cloves”) are produced.




Cloves are 10-17.5 mm Cloves are 10-17.5 mm long. long.

The head consists of 4 The head consists of 4 slightly projecting calyx slightly projecting calyx teeth, 4 membranous teeth, 4 membranous petals and numerous petals and numerous incurved stamens around incurved stamens around a large style. a large style.

Odour: Spicy & PungentOdour: Spicy & Pungent

Taste: AromaticTaste: Aromatic




Heavy cuticularized epidermis Heavy cuticularized epidermis

Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)

Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)

Stomata (epidermis of sepals)Stomata (epidermis of sepals)

Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)

Lignified sclereidsLignified sclereids



CONSTITUENTSCONSTITUENTS

14-21% Volatile oils14-21% Volatile oils• Mainly Mainly eugenoleugenol & & isoeugenolisoeugenol• SitosterolSitosterol• StigmasterolStigmasterol• CampesterolCampesterol

TanninsTanninsTriterpene acids & estersTriterpene acids & estersGlycosidesGlycosides



USES OF CLOVEUSES OF CLOVE

Stimulant aromaticStimulant aromatic

SpiceSpice

For the preparation of For the preparation of volatile oilvolatile oil

Sesquiterpenes: Sesquiterpenes: potential anti-potential anti-carcinogenic carcinogenic compoundscompounds



CLOVE OILCLOVE OILOil distilled in Europe and Oil distilled in Europe and

the US normally does the US normally does not need purification, not need purification, while oil distilled in while oil distilled in other areas (e.g. other areas (e.g. Madagascar) does. Madagascar) does. After purification the oil After purification the oil is sold with varying is sold with varying eugenol contents. eugenol contents.

Oil of cloves is yellow or Oil of cloves is yellow or colourless, is slightly colourless, is slightly heavier than water. heavier than water.



CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTSCLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenolVolatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol

Sesquiterpenes (Sesquiterpenes (αα and and ββ caryophyllenes) caryophyllenes)

Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils – Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils – should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight container, & should be protected from light & container, & should be protected from light & heat.heat.



CLOVE OIL - USESCLOVE OIL - USES

Anti-septicAnti-septic

AromaticAromatic

StimulantStimulant

Flavouring AgentFlavouring Agent



EUCALYPTUS LEAFEUCALYPTUS LEAF

DEFINTION:DEFINTION: Eucalyptus Eucalyptus leaf consists of the whole leaf consists of the whole or cut dried leaves of the or cut dried leaves of the older branches of older branches of Eucalyptus globulusEucalyptus globulus, , (Myrtaceae). (Myrtaceae).

GEOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCESSOURCES

Portugal, SA, Spain, China, Portugal, SA, Spain, China, Brazil, Australia, India & Brazil, Australia, India & Paraguay.Paraguay.



EucalyptusEucalyptus - DESCRIPTION - DESCRIPTION

MACROSCOPICALMACROSCOPICAL• Older dried leaves are Older dried leaves are

grey-brown & have lateral grey-brown & have lateral veins. Secretory oil cells veins. Secretory oil cells are visible in leaves held are visible in leaves held to the light.to the light.

MICROSCOPICMICROSCOPIC• Epidermal cells have a Epidermal cells have a

thick cuticle. thick cuticle. • Anisocytic stomataAnisocytic stomata• Mesophyll has Mesophyll has

schizogenous oil glandsschizogenous oil glands• Calcium oxalate crystals: Calcium oxalate crystals:

Prisms & Cluster crystalsPrisms & Cluster crystals04/08/2304/08/23 110110


Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTSEucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS

Volatile Oil (at least 2 Volatile Oil (at least 2 %)%)

sesquiterpene - Anti-sesquiterpene - Anti-bacterial action bacterial action against oral against oral pathogens.pathogens.



EUCALYPTUS OILEUCALYPTUS OIL

Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leaves Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leaves of various species of of various species of EucalyptusEucalyptus and rectified. and rectified. They are produced in the same countries which They are produced in the same countries which produce the dry herb.produce the dry herb.

Only a certain amount of species produce oil Only a certain amount of species produce oil suitable for medicinal use – the main criteria is a suitable for medicinal use – the main criteria is a high cineolehigh cineole content and content and lowlow amounts of amounts of phellandrene and aldehydes.phellandrene and aldehydes.

Suitable oils are obtained from Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea, E. E. polybractea, E. smithii, smithii, E. globulusE. globulus and and E. australianaE. australiana. .



CHARACTERISTICS & CHARACTERISTICS & CONSTITUENTSCONSTITUENTS

CHARACTERISTICSCHARACTERISTICSColourless or pale yellow Colourless or pale yellow

liquidliquidAromatic & camphoraceous Aromatic & camphoraceous

in odour.in odour.Pungent & camphoraceous Pungent & camphoraceous

in taste, which is followed in taste, which is followed by a sensation of cold. by a sensation of cold.

CONSTITUENTSCONSTITUENTS At least 70 volatile oils At least 70 volatile oils

(mainly cineole).(mainly cineole).



EUCALYPTUS OIL - USESEUCALYPTUS OIL - USES

Alleviating the symptoms of Alleviating the symptoms of nasopharyngeal nasopharyngeal infectionsinfections

Treating coughsTreating coughs

Decongestant.Decongestant.

Official preparationsOfficial preparations

Mixtures, inhalations, Mixtures, inhalations, lozenges and pastilles; lozenges and pastilles; also applied externally as also applied externally as ointments and liniments. ointments and liniments.



FENNELFENNEL

DEFINITION:DEFINITION: Fennel Fennel consists of the dried ripe consists of the dried ripe fruits of fruits of Foeniculum Foeniculum vulgarevulgare (Umbelliferae). (Umbelliferae).


Europe, India, China & Europe, India, China & Egypt. Mediterranean Egypt. Mediterranean origin. origin.



ACTIVE CONSTITUENTSACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

1-4 % Volatile oil1-4 % Volatile oil• trans-anetholetrans-anethole• AntetholeAntethole• EstragoleEstragole• FenchoneFenchone

FlavonoidsFlavonoids

CoumarinsCoumarins

GlycosidesGlycosides



ACTIONS & USESACTIONS & USES

ACTIONSACTIONS• CarminativeCarminative• ExpectorantExpectorant• AromaticAromatic

- All due to anethole (and - All due to anethole (and fenchone)fenchone)

USESUSESFlatulenceFlatulenceDyspepsiaDyspepsiaChronic coughs & catarrhChronic coughs & catarrh



Foeniculum vulgareFoeniculum vulgare



Foeniculum vulgareFoeniculum vulgare – USES – USES

Culinary purposesCulinary purposes

Used in medicine as a Used in medicine as a flavouringflavouring

CarminativeCarminative



CARAWAY & CARAWAY OILCARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL

DEFINITION:DEFINITION: Caraway Caraway consists of the dried, ripe consists of the dried, ripe fruits of fruits of Caram carviCaram carvi (Umbelliferae).(Umbelliferae).


Wild & Cultivated in Central Wild & Cultivated in Central & Northern Europe, & Northern Europe, Holland, Denmark, Holland, Denmark, Germany, Russia, Germany, Russia, Finland, Poland, Finland, Poland, Hungary, Britain, Egypt, Hungary, Britain, Egypt, Morocco, Australia & Morocco, Australia & ChinaChina04/08/2304/08/23 120120



A biennial herb growing up A biennial herb growing up to 1 m in height. to 1 m in height.

Herb: Normally consists of Herb: Normally consists of mericarps separated from mericarps separated from the pedicels. Fruits are the pedicels. Fruits are slightly curved, brown & slightly curved, brown & glabrous. glabrous.

Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm widewide

Often the stigma & style are Often the stigma & style are still attached. still attached.

Characteristic aromatic Characteristic aromatic odour & tasteodour & taste04/08/2304/08/23 121121



Pitted sclerenchymaPitted sclerenchyma

secretory canalssecretory canals

Dark, red-brown cells Dark, red-brown cells containing a pale containing a pale yellow or colourless yellow or colourless oleoresinoleoresin

Thick cellulose wallsThick cellulose walls

Calcium oxalate crystalsCalcium oxalate crystals




1-7 % Volatile oils1-7 % Volatile oils• CarvoneCarvone• LimoneneLimonene• CarveoleCarveole8-20 % Fixed oils8-20 % Fixed oilsProteinsProteinsCalcium oxalatesCalcium oxalatesColouring matterColouring matterResinResin



CORIANDER & CORIANDER OILCORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL

DEFINITION:DEFINITION: Coriander is Coriander is the dried, nearly ripe fruit the dried, nearly ripe fruit of of Coriandrum sativumCoriandrum sativum (Umbelliferae). (Umbelliferae).


Indigenous to Italy. Also Indigenous to Italy. Also cultivated in Holland, cultivated in Holland, Central & Eastern Central & Eastern Europe, Mediterranean Europe, Mediterranean (Morocco, Malta & (Morocco, Malta & Egypt), China, India & Egypt), China, India & Bagladesh. Bagladesh.



MACROSCOPICAL FEATURESMACROSCOPICAL FEATURESAnnual herb growing 0.7 m Annual herb growing 0.7 m

in height with white or in height with white or pink flowers. pink flowers.

Drug:Drug: Normally consists of Normally consists of whole cremocarps – whole cremocarps – straw yellow & 2-4 mm in straw yellow & 2-4 mm in diameter when ripe.diameter when ripe.

Considerable variation Considerable variation occurs (e.g. Indian variety occurs (e.g. Indian variety > oval).> oval).

Apex has 2 styles.Apex has 2 styles.Fruits have an aromatic Fruits have an aromatic

odour & spicy taste.odour & spicy taste.Unripe plant:Unripe plant: unpleasant unpleasant

mousy odour mousy odour same same odour oil has when made odour oil has when made from unripe fruit.from unripe fruit.




Outer pericarp: stomata Outer pericarp: stomata & calcium oxalte & calcium oxalte prisms.prisms.

Thick sclerenchymaThick sclerenchyma

Testa:= brown flattened Testa:= brown flattened cellscells

Endosperm is curved & Endosperm is curved & consists of consists of parenchymous cells parenchymous cells containing fixed oils.containing fixed oils.




1.8 % Volatile oils1.8 % Volatile oils• Linalool/coriandrolLinalool/coriandrol• PinenePinene• TerpineneTerpinene• LimoneneLimonene• CymeneCymene• Non-linalool alchols & estersNon-linalool alchols & estersFlavonoidsFlavonoidsCoumarinsCoumarinsPhenolic acidsPhenolic acidsHigh fat content (16-28%)High fat content (16-28%)Protein (11-17%)Protein (11-17%)



Coriandrum sativumCoriandrum sativum - USES - USES

Domestic purposes Domestic purposes (cooking - curries)(cooking - curries)

Pharmaceutically: Pharmaceutically: flavouring agent & flavouring agent & CarminativeCarminative



PEPPERMINT PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT OIL& PEPPERMINT OIL

DEFINITIONDEFINITION: : Peppermint is the Peppermint is the dried leaves of dried leaves of Mentha piperitaMentha piperita (Labiate). It should (Labiate). It should contain at least 1.2 % contain at least 1.2 % volatile oil.volatile oil.

GEOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES:SOURCES:

Europe & AmericaEurope & America04/08/2304/08/23 129129



All mints have a square All mints have a square stem & creeping rhizome.stem & creeping rhizome.

Black mint, which is the Black mint, which is the most commonly cultivated most commonly cultivated variety in England, has variety in England, has purple stems and dark purple stems and dark green petiolate leaves green petiolate leaves tinged with purple. Leaf tinged with purple. Leaf blades are 3-9 cm long blades are 3-9 cm long with a grooved petiolate with a grooved petiolate up to 1 cm long. up to 1 cm long.

Pinnate venation. Pinnate venation. Glandular trichomes: bright Glandular trichomes: bright

yellow points (hand lens)yellow points (hand lens)Small purple flowers appear Small purple flowers appear

in late summer.in late summer.04/08/2304/08/23 130130


MICROSCOPIC FEATURESMICROSCOPIC FEATURES

Diacytic stomataDiacytic stomata

Multicellular clothing Multicellular clothing trichomestrichomes

2 types of glandular 2 types of glandular trichomes (one with a trichomes (one with a unicellar head; with a unicellar head; with a multicellular head).multicellular head).

Calcium oxalate is Calcium oxalate is absent.absent.



Oleum MenthaeOleum Menthae

Oil of peppermint is Oil of peppermint is obtained from obtained from Mentha Mentha piperitapiperita via steam via steam distillation using the distillation using the flowering tops.flowering tops.

Oil should contain at Oil should contain at least 44 % menthol, least 44 % menthol, 15-32 & menthone 15-32 & menthone and 4.5-10 % menthyl and 4.5-10 % menthyl acetate.acetate.



Oleum MenthaeOleum Menthae - CONSTITUENTS - CONSTITUENTS

MentholMentholMenthone & isomenthoneMenthone & isomenthoneMenthyl acetateMenthyl acetateLimoneneLimoneneCineoleCineoleMenthofuranMenthofuranPulegonePulegoneCineoleCineole

OIL COMPOSITION:OIL COMPOSITION: greatly greatly influenced by genetic influenced by genetic factors & seasonal variation.factors & seasonal variation.



PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT OIL USESOIL USES

OIL:OIL: anti-bacterial, anti-bacterial, cooling, carminativecooling, carminative

HERB:HERB: Carminative Carminative



LESSON TAKE-AWAYLESSON TAKE-AWAY

Definitions of Volatile Definitions of Volatile OilsOils

Methods of Methods of Production of Volatile Production of Volatile OilsOils

Herbs containing Herbs containing Volatile OilsVolatile Oils



essential oils

Documents

bhanu kakrani purvi

harish kakrani

kakrani purvi kakrani

volatile oil products

oil ducts

essential oil jasmine

bitter almond oil mustard

official oils