euro pa universal is 1 manual

Installing and uninstalling the game.

The installation program of Europa Universalis

starts automatically when the CD is inserted in

your CD player. If your CD-ROM unit does

not have the auto run function activated, you

may start the installation by double clicking

setup.exe, which you will find in the root direc-

tory of the CD.

As soon as the installation program has start-

ed, you may install Europa Universalis and, if

necessary, DirectX 7.0, which is included on

the CD. When the actual installation has be-

gun, just follow the instructions on the screen.

If Europa Universalis is already installed on

your computer just press Play in the installation

program to start. You may also start the pro-

gram from a suitable button in the Program

menu under the Start menu. You may uninstall

Europa Universalis at any time by using either

the Installation program or using the Add and

Remove program of the Control Panel.

Software requirements:

Windows 95/98/2000/NT

(NT requires service package no. 4).

DirectX 7.0

Hardware minimum requirements:

Pentium 200 Mhz, with 64 Mb RAM

2Mn Video RAM

Recommended hardware:

Pentium II, 300 Mhz, 128 Mb RAM

2Mn Video RAM

Requirements for network games:

Bandwidth of at least 512 kb/s

TCP/IP protocol installed

Commands for the user interface

General

• "Shift" + "F12" opens the chat function of

the network game.

• "F11" saves a screenshot as a bitmap picture

on your hard disk.

• "Pause/Break" pauses the game/Restarts

the game in progress.

• "Ctrl" + "+" increases game speed (not avail-

able in network games).

• "Ctrl" + "–" decreases game speed (not

available in network games).

• "+" increases map size.

• "–" decreases map size.

• "ESC" and "ENTER" often functions as

Yes/No in dialogue windows.

• "F12" opens the console. Press "F12" again

to close.

• "Home" centers the map on your capital.

• "F1" lets you view missions or victory points.

• E/P/N are quick commands for easy

switching of map views.

• "F10" opens the start menu for saving and

loading games, including settings.

Commands for Armies and Navies

• "PageUp/PageDown" for fast jumps be-

tween your various units.

• "Ctrl" + "[number]" associates the chosen

unit with that number.

• "[Number]" chooses the numbered unit,

press the number again, and the map will

center on the chosen unit.

• "s" divides the chosen unit into two equal

parts.

• "a" quick command during siege.

• "u" to unload armies from a chosen fleet, if

you have troops onboard.

• "g" forms selected units into a single unit.

1

Europa Universalis

EUManual DVD 21/6/01 11.55 Sida 1

2

Europa Universalis


A) Introduction

A Simulated Europe

This game tries to simulate the interaction be-

tween the European countries during the peri-

od between 1492 and 1792 as realistically as

possible. This means that Europe is divided in-

to provinces, which in turn make up the vari-

ous countries. The provinces have populations

that produce goods, pay taxes, engage in trade,

and are recruited as soldiers and sailors. Each

population has a religion that incorporates

their view of the world and moral position. If

the monarch and the government act counter

to morally acceptable behavior, there is a risk of

rebellion. The monarch and the government

(actually the player) are responsible for the

country and represent the country to the rest

of the world. In this way all of the European

nations are part of the same quarreling family,

where some co-operate and others fight.

As time goes by the European nations

change, both in political, economic, and mili-

tary strength. Depending on how well your

country is able to manage its resources, defend

its provinces, and invest in technology, nations

will rise or fall in power and status. Historically

the Ottoman Empire peaked during the 16th

century, after which its power slowly waned,

until it was finally regarded as the "Sick Man of

Europe" in 1792. Sweden began the period as

a backwards place on the outer fringes, and

then gained status as a great power during the

17th century, only to lose that status at the be-

ginning of the 18th, to slowly sink into a sec-

ond-rate power during the latter half of the

18th century.

What is Europa Universalis?

Europa Universalis is a game where you can

choose a European nation and play its ups and

downs over 300 years. The game provides what

you could philosophically call a "God perspec-

tive;" that is, you lead the country through 300

years, having the opportunity to be at many

places at the same time in order to make deci-

sions.

This is an extensive and advanced game, but

do take it easy. By playing the learning scenario

and reading all the tips included in the game,

and reading the "The Learning Scenario"

chapter in this manual, you will soon be able to

play the game. In order to master the more

subtle parts of the game, you need to play a lot

of games and read the rest of the manual.

The game does not pretend to be historically

accurate. This means that it does not follow the

historical textbooks, because if it had, you

would not be able to act differently from the

actual governments. Instead you should view

the game as an "alternate history," that is, the

historic individuals, the nations, and the re-

sources are provided, but you have a chance to

act differently. In your game the Thirty Years

War perhaps will never break out, or maybe

France will conquer America, or Poland-

Lithuania will never cease to exist as a nation.

You lead a country and have a great number

of choices regarding war and peace, politics,

economics, and religion, but at the same time

your resources are limited because of the size

and traditions of your nation. You are simply

"The Grey Eminence" behind all of the

monarchs of your country during the period of

the game.

The game contains a number of different

scenarios, including the Grand Campaign. The

various scenarios usually cover shorter time pe-

riods, while the Grand Campaign will let you

take your country from 1492 until 1792.

When choosing a scenario or the Grand Cam-

paign, you always have the choice of when the

game should end.

Why is the Clock Ticking?

In a game like this, which is about historical

change, it is not possible to be in every place at

the same time. Time in the game is running

forward like a clock in reality, providing a real

sense of the flow of time, because an English

king, for example, did not know how the bat-

3

Europa Universalis


tles against the French in North America

turned out until months later. Even war in gen-

eral was an activity with uncertain results; since

you are the one who is moving and controlling

all of your troops, you are forced to give priori-

ty to some while the clock is ticking away. It al-

so simulates the difficulties of running a large

empire in contrast to a small, land-locked

country. As a player of Spain, for example, it

could be difficult to wage a successful war in

Northern Italy, at the same time that you are

colonizing a new province in Mexico, and

making improvements to the infrastructure in

the Philippines.

What you should know and remember is that

you may pause the game at any time. The clock

stops and the game stands still. In this "pause

mode" you can order troops around (although

they will not start moving until the game re-

sumes), build army units and fleets, deal with

diplomatic offers, make changes in your bud-

get, etc. You may also change the speed of the

"clock" at any time, i.e. change the speed of

the game, as you perceive it. In the beginning it

is advisable that you keep game time at a rela-

tively slow speed, when you are feeling your

way around the various parts of the game.

What Is the Goal of the Game?

The goal of the game may actually vary from

player to player. The basics for the game are to

receive as many victory points as possible. It is

meaningless, at this moment, to discuss in any

greater detail exactly what provides victory

points throughout the game, as we have not

yet discussed that area of the game. Instead we

will direct you to the list of victory points at the

end of the game. If you play using the "stan-

dard" victory conditions, the player with the

highest total points becomes the winner, but

please note that at the end of the game you will

see how many victory points your country has

received, and its relative position. This means

that you can play a country you find difficult to

play just to try to get a better result from game

to game, which is also a way of "winning." An-

other approach is to play Denmark, for exam-

ple, and try to get more victory points than its

perennial enemy Sweden.

You can also choose a couple of other victory

conditions other than the "standard" ones.

The first choice is "Power Struggle," which

means that the country that is first to reach a

predetermined number of victory points is the

winner. Power Struggle is a good choice if you

4

Europa Universalis


want to play a quick game. The second choice

is "Conquest," which means that the country

conquering a predetermined number of

provinces is the winner. You set the number

when you determine victory conditions. Con-

quest is the number one choice if you wish to

decide the outcome of the game on the battle-

fields. The third choice is "Mission," which

means that each country will receive a specific

difficult mission, and the player that succeeds

first is the winner. Various missions may in-

clude: Russia must conquer all orthodox

provinces in the Balkans, or Spain must "con-

quer England." Mission is the choice for play-

ers who would like to try something random,

yet challenging.

Europa Universalis is about a number of

ways of changing history, and changing history

becomes a goal in itself in the game, besides

winning. How you do it is up to you.

The Game – An Overview

When you start playing you will have a map in

front of you. This is the "game board" of the

game; in the same way you have a game board

in front of you when you play Monopoly or

chess. You lead a country, or more exactly, you

are a country, and all of the provinces within

the borders of your country belong to you.

Provinces outside your country belong to oth-

er countries. You also have access to army units

(symbolized by little soldiers) and fleets (sym-

bolized by small warships), which you can

move around on the map (just like in chess and

Monopoly). By clicking a province you get ac-

cess to information about it in the "informa-

tion window" on the left side of the screen.

Here you are able to construct army units and

fleets, invest in infrastructure, and many other

things. Exactly what you are able to do and

how to do it will be discussed in greater detail

later on.

How Do I Play?

Naturally, leading a country during 300 years is

not an easy task. To win the game you need to

collect as many victory points as possible. Start-

ing the game by waging as many wars as possi-

ble may get your country a large number of vic-

tory points, but may also lead to quick ruin. It

is usually better to collect victory points at a

relatively normal pace during all of your 300

years, rather than gaining points quickly during

just 100.

The primary problem facing your country is

pure survival. The Prussian diplomat who was

5

Europa Universalis


involved in the third partitioning of Poland supposedly

said: "A nation not able to defend itself has no right to ex-

ist." In game terms your neighbors will try to take advan-

tage of your weaknesses, but will also shy away from your

strength. In order to survive you must upgrade your de-

fenses, and have enough army units and well-armed

fleets, but you must also pay attention to the develop-

ment of your nation.

The secondary problem facing your country is devel-

opment over time. If your country lags behind in eco-

nomic or military development this will show up in losses

on the battlefields. When you consider economic devel-

opment over time, it helps to think about this simple

metaphor. In very simple terms it is like putting money in

the bank. If you deposit 100 dollars at 10% interest, you

will have 110 dollars one year later, and 121 dollars two

years later. You should be aware of the dynamic nature of

economic development.

The third problem facing your country is discovering

the unknown world beyond the boundaries of Europe.

The discovery of new areas, and establishment of trading

posts or colonies, is quite costly at the beginning, but will

provide a lot of revenue later. The heart of the matter is

balancing your country’s priorities and making your re-

sources meet your needs. A colonial empire also needs to

be defended, which means you should give the whole

idea some thought before you start putting things in mo-

tion. You may have to consider matters for the next ten or

twenty years ahead if you do not want to lose all you

gained due to poor planning.

How Is the Map Designed?

The game is played on a world map. You can’t see every-

thing on the map at the same time, but only the provinces

and sea zones familiar to you country. In order to find out

more you need to explore the unknown parts of the map,

which are called Terra Incognita. This map, which we will

call the normal map, shows each province with its name,

its type of terrain, whether it contains cities, colonies, or

trading posts. It will also show land boundaries between

countries. In the sea zones you will see what the weather

is like, and whether it is winter or summer in the

provinces. Note that a fog stopping you from discovering

any army units in the provinces, or fleets in the sea zones

covers parts of the map. Areas not covered by the fog in-

clude your own country, the countries of your allies,

countries in which your monarch has entered royal mar-

6

Europa Universalis


riages, and finally countries with which you are

currently at war. In these countries nothing is

hidden.

[screenshot of the "normal" map also showing

the fog of war]

You may also click on the button labeled the

"Political map" in order to view it. Here you

will find all of your foreign relations, and by

clicking a province in another country you are

shown the foreign relations of that country.

Note that this is the map you will be using

when you wish to perform diplomatic actions.

You may also click on the button labeled "Eco-

nomic map," which shows the goods produced

in each province. There is also a "Trade map,"

showing the trade centers of the world, and

which provinces they control. The last map is

the "Colonial map," which you use when es-

tablishing trading posts or colonies. Note that

each map has a separate click able button,

which lets you view each one separately.

Geography and Weather

The game contains five different types of ter-

rain: open terrain, forest, mountains, desert,

and swamp. There is also one geographical ob-

stacle: rivers. The terrain types affect the move-

ment of army units, battles, and army unit attri-

tion. Some provinces also suffer the effects of

winter, which in turn affect the various terrain

types.

Sea zones are also affected by the weather.

Certain sea zones may be ridden by storms, or

be covered by ice during parts of the year. Note

also that attrition is lower in sea zones next to

coastal provinces, compared with the open sea.

7

Europa Universalis


B) Learning Scenario

General

The screen you see is divided into two fields, or

"windows." The larger window to the right is

the world map, of which you only see a very in-

significant part. You will see more and more of

it as you discover the unknown areas. The

white and unknown parts of the map are called

"Terra Incognita," which is simply "The Un-

known World" in Latin—the language of

knowledge and science during this age.

You will also see one province—Ulster,

which happens to be your only province, con-

taining your capital. If you left click on Ulster

on the map, you will open a picture of your

capital in the other window. For the sake of

simplicity we call that window the Information

window.

The Info window will be described in full a

little later. Below the Info window you will find

the picture of a historical map, or more correct-

ly, an empty map. This is a world map in a

smaller format, which will aid you later in the

game when your knowledge of the world has

increased. Note the appearance of "tips"

whenever a scenario is started. These tips pro-

vide quick and abbreviated information about

the most important functions of the game. We

recommend that you read these. You may also

access the "tips" by clicking the menu button

at the bottom of the Information window, and

then choosing "Tips."

The Top Line above the Map Window

On the top line above the Map window, you

will find a border with three symbols and a

date—the game clock—followed by another

three symbols. The first three show how many

Merchants, Colonists, and Diplomats you have

available. If you place the pointer above any of

the symbols you get information about how of-

ten you receive new ones, and what generates

them. The clock is shadowed whenever you

pause the game, and white when time is run-

ning. If you think that the "progress of time" is

too fast or too slow, you may change it by click-

ing the menu button at the lower left of the In-

formation window, choosing Alternative, and

then following the instructions. The three sym-

bols to the right of the clock show the Stability

level of your country, the Manpower in thou-

sands of soldiers, and the contents of your trea-

sury expressed in Ducats, which was one of the

most common currencies during the historical

epoch. You will receive more background infor-

mation if you point at the symbols.

The Top Line above the InformationWindow

The embellished line above the Information

window contains five coats of arms. If you left

click any of these, specialized information will

be shown in the Information window. The

shields will provide the following information

(from left to right): naval information, land

army information, general information about

the country and its monarch, the state budget,

and the Financial Summary. The military infor-

mation shows your level of technology, your

upkeep costs, and your chances of changing the

wages and costs of your soldiers and sailors. The

economic information will show the income

and expenditures of your country, including

how they are allocated. You may also choose

how to allocate your research investments in or-

der to develop your technology levels.

The Information Window—a Province

When you left click on your only province, you

will see the city of the province of Ulster in the

Information window. By clicking on buildings

and objects in the Information window, you

get additional information about the objects.

The buildings are the places where the various

officials of your province work. The officials

may be appointed to more qualified tasks by

clicking the buildings, which will give you

more advantages in the game. You may also

build fleets and recruit army units.

The church is a very important building. It

will be upgraded automatically when the popu-

lation of the province increases. If you left click

the church you will find general information

8

Europa Universalis


about the state of your province. If you click on

the text lines that appear when you click on the

church, you will get additional information.

You may also click on the symbols to get addi-

tional information about the economy and re-

ligion. In addition to the buildings of the

province you also see another shield. The

shield shows the most important products of

the province, including provincial revenue

from trade and taxes. When you appoint offi-

cials, for example, you will find that these rev-

enues increase.

Army Units and Battles

Your first task is to recruit an army and fight a

battle. Note that there is a "Read more"-but-

ton in each "Mission window." We recom-

mend strongly that you read this additional in-

formation, as it provides both historical infor-

mation and information about how the game

works. Please note also that by clicking any-

thing under construction, you will find out

when the construction is due to be finished.

Choosing Army Units

Besides left clicking a unit, you may also keep

the left mouse button pressed and "circling"

the unit. You know that a unit is selected when

a green circle surrounds it, and you see an elon-

gated rectangle at the base of the unit. The

morale of the unit is indicated by the colors

red, yellow, or green. A newly recruited unit al-

ways starts at the lowest possible morale. It will

then increase month by month to the maxi-

mum level allowed by your technology level.

The Information window provides additional

information about the chosen unit, such as unit

commander, strength, and attrition. You may

also split the unit into two parts, merge units

by first choosing all units in a province, and al-

so reorganize – or customize – your units. Fi-

nally, you may opt to disband the unit.

Movement of Troops

When you have clicked the area you want to

move your army unit into, the troops will start

marching. You also see a green arrow showing

the direction of the march. If you wish to do

something else for a moment, such as take care

of your province, you will see the green arrow if

you choose the unit again. As you may have no-

ticed, it will take a relatively long time to move

your troops to the new area. The movement of

troops takes a varying amount of time depend-

ing on the composition of the unit and the

state of the province to which you are moving

the unit. The province you moved your unit to

was undiscovered, giving you the maximum

transportation time. In game time it takes at

least three months to move an army unit into

an undiscovered area. Note that you can reset

the speed of the game if you think the pace is

too slow at the beginning.

Discovered and Undiscovered Terrain

Discovered terrain is any terrain which is fully

disclosed on the map, while undiscovered ter-

rain is only partly visible. The undiscovered ter-

rain is partly covered by white, just like in old

maps, where any unknown terrain was repre-

sented in this fashion. Ulster was the only dis-

covered terrain when you started the scenario.

Now you have discovered some more. You

must discover any terrain that is only partly vis-

ible before you may conquer it. Normally you

need a Conquistador, or land military technol-

ogy level of 11 in order to discover provinces.

Undiscovered sea zones usually require an Ex-

plorer or Naval technology level of 21. We have

made an exception from this rule in the learn-

ing scenario to let you discover provinces at an

earlier stage.

Occupied and Non-Occupied Terrain

"A nation always has an army, either its own or

somebody else’s," is a classical saying. This is

also correct in principle for this game. If you

see a province on the map containing a soldier,

it is an army unit occupying the province. If the

province looks empty you may left click the

province. If it belongs to somebody else you

will see the level of fortification. Fortifications

always have garrisons. Extremely few provinces

belonging to European nations completely

9

Europa Universalis


lack fortifications, but there may be colonies

without them, or quite undeveloped provinces

at the very fringes of Europe. Fortifications are

not very common in the New World, but in-

stead have loose confederations of tribes and

clans. This mean that somebody occupies al-

most every territory.

Strictly speaking, sea zones are not occupied.

Instead the struggle concerns the shipping

lanes. Anyone who is able to stop others from

using the shipping lanes therefore exerts a cer-

tain influence.

Colonization and EconomyThe importance of a good economy cannot be

overrated. The economic wealth of your coun-

try determines how much of your resources

you can invest into various activities, from re-

search to war. What then, are the cornerstones

of your economy? Most of your income will

come from production and taxes, which are

generated by your population. The population

lives in the provinces, which provides two main

paths that enable you to broaden your eco-

nomic base: war and colonization.

To Colonize a Province

When you click the colonization button (the

button that resembles a small, light blue ship),

the map changes to show which provinces you

can colonize (dark green) and which you can-

not colonize (bone white). This is called the

Colonial map. When you choose a province to

colonize, information will appear in the Infor-

mation window; that is where you choose

where to send your colonists. Your colonists

may also be used as merchants, which will be

described later.

From HMS Mayflower to Cities

Colonies can be upgraded, and for each

colonist it is upgraded one level. A colony may

have up to six levels, where each level repre-

sents 100 inhabitants. When a colony reaches

700 inhabitants it is turned into a normal

province with a city. From then on you are able

to recruit troops and build fortifications in the

province.

Note that the economy of the province devel-

ops over time as the population grows. From the

moment you have established your colony, it ex-

10

Europa Universalis


periences a monthly increase in population. It is

positive if the country has a high level of stabili-

ty, and negative if stability is low. This means that

a first level colony may develop into a province

with a city without you having to send more

colonists. Population growth will not be very

high, which means that such a development will

take a long time. A first level colony rarely pro-

duces any revenue, while a sixth level colony is

more or less a small province. Each colonist

brings along 100 people.

The colonist, the leader of the expedition

consisting of 100 people, always starts out

from your capital, and is portrayed as a horse

and carriage and as a small sailing ship. The fur-

ther away from your capital, the longer it takes

to complete the actual colonization. When you

establish a colony it may happen that the

colony receives the state religion of your coun-

try, and that may be interpreted as the presence

of a number of priests among the colonists. It is

an advantage if the religion of the province is

the same as the state religion, as differences

may result in rebellions during times of unrest.

The Financial Summary

Here you get an overview of the economic

state of your country. Remember that the en-

tire economy is affected by the stability of your

country; low stability results in low revenues

and technology levels, while a high stability rat-

ing will optimize both revenues and develop-

ment. You will also find that income will in-

crease when you upgrade buildings and receive

higher technology levels in the areas of infras-

tructure and trade.

Be careful with inflation. Inflation increases

proportionally with the amount of money you

choose to receive each month (by minting

coins), and by taking loans from the citizens of

your country or from other countries. The

normal state, where inflation does not increase,

is when you do not take out a monthly income;

that is, by increasing the amount of coins in

your country. At that point you only have your

annual income available. Note also that gold

mines will increase inflation. If you have gold

mines you can never completely avoid infla-

tion.

Your best cure against inflation is the Gover-

nor. By appointing mayors to governors you

lower the rate of inflation. Remember that in-

flation is relative—as long as the increases in

prices are lower than the increases in revenue, it

is not a bad thing, at least not in the short run.

The Budget Window

The state budget lets you decide on how to

manage your resources for development, in-

vestments in stability, and public consumption

in the form of appointments of officials, diplo-

macy, and the armed forces. This may be classi-

fied into three separate areas.

The first is research, which results in qualita-

tive advantages. Military units get a higher

morale, better firepower, and greater impact.

Merchants become more competitive and

make greater profits. Infrastructure provides a

higher degree of effectiveness in production.

11

Europa Universalis


The second area is stability, which affects ev-

ery area of your country. Stability affects the

economy, troop morale, the risk of rebellion in

your provinces, and whether your vengeful

neighbors will think it wise to attack or not. If

anything is more important than other factors,

it must be stability. It also affects the total size

of your state budget, which means that total in-

vestments in technology will be lower over

time if you go along with a lower stability,

rather than investing in maximum stability.

Your third concern is public consumption,

or actually the expenditure of liquid assets from

your treasury on a monthly basis. You spend

these ducats on more troops, more war ships,

more colonists, and more merchants.

Trade and Merchants

Historically you could say that the global econ-

omy did not exist until the discovery of Ameri-

ca. The easiest way of looking at the global

economy of that era is as a number of adjacent

local economies. These local economies were

connected to each other with sometimes weak,

and sometimes strong ties. The ties consisted

of course of the merchants, and the power con-

necting them was external trade. The greater

the number of local economies connected, the

more trade increased. When trade increased,

both demand and supply increased, giving rise

to global trade over time.

Each province in the game belongs to a cen-

ter of trade. Goods are exchanged at the center

of trade, prices are fixed, and profits and losses

are divided through the care of invisible hands.

Trade during the 1492–1792 period had much

stronger ties to the state and the monarch than

today. The merchants you send off into the

world probably belong to some public or semi-

public trading company.

Placing Merchants

You may only set out merchants at your centers

of trading. In order to get there you click either

on the Trade button, or on the small trading

company in the province on your map. In this

case it’s Ulster.

Deploying merchants costs money, includ-

ing their upkeep. It is more expensive to set out

and keep merchants abroad than in your own

country, and even more expensive the further

away from your own country you get. Each

merchant you have set out in the center of

trade provides a yearly income, depending on

the total trade value of each center of trade.

A center of trade covering a low number of

provinces, with commonly available goods

(such as fish, grain, and wool), has a lower trade

value and will provide lower revenues, than a

center of trade covering several provinces, trad-

ing with exotic goods such as ivory, slaves, and

spices. Your technological level will also affect

the profitability and competitiveness of your

merchants. When many countries appoint mer-

chants in the same center of trade a veritable

trade war may very well erupt.

The Economical Effects of Trade

The economical effects of trade should not be

underestimated. A raised level in trading tech-

nology with lots of provinces and trading

posts, the trade centers will turn into veritable

gold mines for anyone managing to maintain a

monopoly. Additionally the effects of being the

leading producer of certain goods will provide

unimaginable profit, when war, rebellion, and

catastrophes strike the European continent,

changing all prices. Note also the importance

of having a center of trade within your own

country. New colonies and trading posts will

almost exclusively end up under the authority

of your own center of trade. This will increase

both your immediate profits, and also the trade

value of your center of trade. It is also easier to

be competitive in your own center of trade, but

more about that later.

Fleets and Sea Transport

The fleet is a military unit consisting of a varying

number of ships in the same way that an army

unit consists of a varying number of troops.

There are three types of ship in the game: War-

ships, Galleys, and Transport Vessels. Warships

have a transport capacity of 1; galleys have a

12

Europa Universalis


transport capacity of 0.5, and transport vessels a

capacity of 2. What is transport capacity? Each

army unit has a weight; the transport capacity of

your fleet indicates how many troops you are

able to transport. Cavalry and artillery have

greater weight than infantry. The total weight of

each army unit and the transport capacity of the

fleet can be found in the Information window

whenever you have selected a unit. War ships are

more effective in battle, galleys are the least ex-

pensive, and transport vessels have the largest

transport capacity. Galleys should be kept in the

Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Black

Sea, as this ship type is useless on the open sea.

All fleet units suffer "attrition" when at sea.

When you choose a fleet unit you will find the

current attrition speed in the Information win-

dow. This is shown in connection with the

small skull. There is no attrition when a fleet is

in port, which means that you need to send

your fleets into port at regular intervals in or-

der to maintain the ships. If a fleet transporting

army units is sent to port the army units will be

unloaded automatically in that province.

Merging, splitting, reorganizing, and dissolv-

ing fleets is done in exactly the same way as

army units are merged, etc.

Loading of Army Units

First you need to order your fleet into a sea

zone, and then order an army unit in an adja-

cent province to load onto the fleet. You can-

not load the fleet unless it is in port.

When the troops are loaded you will find a

new button in the information window when

you choose the fleet. Click this button when

you want to unload the army unit in another

adjacent province.

Unloading an Army Unit from a Fleet

Choose the fleet and click the unloading but-

ton. You will now see the army unit on the

map. Now click the province where you wish to

unload your army unit. The troops will now

start marching to the province.

Trading posts

A colony is a province providing some produce

and a small amount of trade. Trading posts do

not provide any produce to speak of, but in-

stead provide a better trade value affecting the

center of trade to which it belongs. By estab-

lishing many trading posts, preferably in

provinces producing unusual goods, you

quickly increase the trading value of the center

13

Europa Universalis


of trade they belong to, and if you have a

monopoly or a large number of merchants

there, you will receive good revenues from

your invested funds. The trading posts may be

improved up to six levels. At the higher levels

the trading posts have a great trading value.

You build trading posts by sending out mer-

chants. Click the colonization button. As we

mentioned previously, you have some colonists

available—the number is shown in the line

above the map. These can be used either as

colonists or merchants. Historically the first

colonizations happened when the European

countries first established trading posts in an

area, and later on colonized it. Trading posts

are cheaper than colonies and are usually easier

to establish than colonies. It is also easier to

maintain a colony in a province where you al-

ready have a trading post, as compared with a

neutral and empty province.

How to Establish a Trading Post

Click the colonization button. Now you see

the map in its colonization view. Bone white

provinces are not available for colonization or

trading posts. They are either undiscovered, al-

ready fully developed provinces with more

than 5000 inhabitants, or belong to other

countries. Possible prospects are all of the

green colored provinces. If the province is dark

green, you already have a colony there, if the

color is medium green, you have a trading post,

and if the color is light green, you have neither.

Click the province where you wish to establish

a trading post, and then click the button "Send

merchant." You will now see a figure unpack-

ing pots from a chest as a sign of work in

progress. When placing the pointer above the

merchant you will see how long it will take un-

til the trading post is ready for business.

Neighboring Countries

Your neighbors are naturally of great interest to

you, whether they are your allies or your ene-

mies. Normally you know about your Euro-

pean neighbors and their provinces, but usual-

ly you know nothing about the non-European

countries. You must discover them. You are al-

so only able to send diplomats to a country if

you know about it, and diplomacy is one of

your most important tools for survival and ex-

pansion.

14

Europa Universalis


Diplomacy

Diplomacy can be used in many ways. The

diplomats you send out are your tools when

you want to achieve something. What is it you

want to achieve? You can offer royal marriages

or alliances, or take up such offers. You may de-

clare war or offer peace. You may try to ex-

change geographical knowledge, and you may

create better relations to other countries

through gifts and tokens of respect, or worsen

relations through insults and bans.

Royal marriages are a good thing. They im-

prove relations and make it difficult to carry

out declarations of war. The alliances you enter

are also important, as you will easily fall prey to

other alliances if you do not belong to any. It is

quite possible to defend yourself against anoth-

er power, but if three, or even four, other coun-

tries attack, you are in deep trouble.

In order to use diplomacy you click the

diplomacy button below the information win-

dow. This opens a diplomacy menu for your

country. You may look at another country on

the map at any time. By clicking the "coat of

arms" of that country you may review the

diplomatic situation of that country. You have

a number of choices in your diplomacy menu.

By clicking an option, that diplomatic mission

will be performed and you will have one diplo-

mat less. Note that if you make an offer of roy-

al marriage or an alliance the monarch will not

automatically accept the offer. The deciding

factor for such a decision is your previous rela-

tions. If you have attacked and occupied a

number of small and innocent countries your

surroundings will naturally treat you like an in-

ternational pariah.

War

War is one of the fastest and best ways of ex-

panding politically and economically. War also

has its share of disadvantages. Your research

will often suffer, as you probably need to invest

heavily in stability after each war. Wars almost

always destabilize your country. War also af-

fects the risk of rebellion in your provinces. A

land with multiple religions often risks a "great

mess" each time a war drags out in time.

To Prepare for War

Before you declare war you need to prepare.

This usually means that you expand your

armies and fleets in order to obtain local

supremacy. You should also compare your

15

Europa Universalis


strength to the strength of your potential ene-

mies. If you are well prepared you suffer less

risk of having to finance your war with war tax-

es and increased minting of coins. Note that at-

trition is higher for army units that are moved

during the winter months. Plan your war ac-

cordingly. It is also important to consider the

allies of your potential enemy, and trying to fig-

ure out how your own stability will be affected.

On the one hand you check to see if you have

any Casus Belli (Latin for "cause of war"),

which will decrease your loss of stability be-

cause of the declaration of war, and on the oth-

er hand by declaring war and then "regretting

the act." When you declare war you are in-

formed of the size of your loss of stability and

what caused it.

To Declare a War

War can be declared either from the diplomacy

menu, where you go to the country in question

and click the line "declare war," or by honoring

an alliance where one of your allies either has

declared war on another country, or has been

attacked.

To Win a War

In order to win a war you must be victorious in

battles and naval engagements and/or captur-

ing the provinces of the enemy. You capture a

province by moving an army unit into a

province, defeating any enemy units in the

province, and performing a successful siege or

assault. When your flag is waving above the

town, colony, or trading post of the province,

you control it and this will be counted to your

advantage during peace negotiations. Note

that the opposite is true for your opponent,

which means that you should try to avoid loss-

es in battle and try to hang on to your

provinces. Extended wars lead to exhaustion,

which often results in rebellion in your various

provinces.

Offers of Peace

In order to make an offer of peace you click a

province belonging to (or that has belonged

to) the enemy. Then click the diplomacy menu.

Here you click on the line saying "Offer of

Peace." Here you see the results of the war,

through the number of stars or tombstones in

the information window. If you see tomb-

stones you should consider offering a tribute

16

Europa Universalis


and/or provinces in order to gain peace. If you

find stars you may often demand a tribute

and/or provinces. Each star or tombstone rep-

resents a province or 250 ducats, which you ei-

ther may offer or demand. You may only offer

to give up provinces, which have belonged to

you, and are now controlled by the enemy, and

you may only demand provinces, which have

belonged to your enemy, and now are in your

control. If you demand provinces that be-

longed to your enemy at the start of the sce-

nario, that is, his or her core provinces, the en-

emy now has a Casus Belli (cause for going to

war) against your country.

C) Activities

Countries

Each player runs a country. Each country con-

sists of one or several provinces and possessions

(the difference will be explained later). Your

country has a border marked on the map, and if

you wish to view the political map, the

provinces of each country are marked with the

same color. Each country has a monarch and a

state religion. Most of the countries are located

in Europe, but there are a few non-European

countries spread out in the world that may be

included in the game. Certain countries have a

special political status - these countries may be

played. Each scenario defines the countries you

are allowed to play. The difference between

player countries and other countries is that a

player country may not be occupied as the re-

sult of a peace treaty or through diplomatic

means (see Peace Treaties and War Damages).

Provinces

The province is the smallest geographical unit

of the game. There are two types of political

status for the provinces. They either belong to

a country, or they are independent. Your coun-

try consists of provinces belonging to you. The

provinces are fully developed, as opposed to

possessions. This means they have cities, where

you may appoint officials, and where you may

build ships and raise army units. Possessions

are provinces that lack a city, but have either a

colony or a trading post. Any province that

does not belong to a country is an independent

province. These provinces only exist outside of

Europe, and are populated by natives, organiz-

ing their societies through clan and tribal sys-

tems. The independent provinces do not have

17

Europa Universalis


standing army units; instead native war bands

will meet you if you move an army unit into the

province. You may colonize or construct trad-

ing posts in independent provinces, thereby

gaining a certain level of control. Only coun-

tries may have a colony or a trading post in an

independent province. When a colony or a

trading post is established, the province is no

longer considered independent. A basic differ-

ence between a province with a city and a

province with a colony is that you can build

ships and raise army units in the former, includ-

ing appointing officials, and establishing facto-

ries. You may not do any of this in a province

with a colony.

A coastal province is a province with a port.

Note that in order to have a port the province

must either have a city or a colony. A province

with just a trading post may never have a port.

Having coastal provinces also affects the num-

ber of colonists and merchants your country

will receive each year. Also note that ships do

not suffer attrition when in port, because they

can be maintained. If you have a large country

with provinces on several continents, you will

do better if you have ports in as many places as

possible, in order to send your ships in to port

now and then, to avoid suffering attrition (See

Attrition). The provinces you start the game

with are your core provinces and your most im-

portant ones. Core provinces are marked on

the political map with small shields. The coun-

try a province belongs to is noted by the flag

waving above the city, the colony, or the trad-

ing post. During times of peace you may only

move your army units from and to provinces

belonging to your own country, or into inde-

pendent provinces. During times of war you

may also move army units into provinces be-

longing to allied countries and dependent

states, and into countries with which you are at

war. There is also one exception. The Emperor

of the Holy Roman Empire may freely move

his army units within the borders of the Empire

(see The Holy Roman Empire).

Note that a province may belong to one

country, but may be controlled by another.

This happens when two countries are at war

with each other, and one of the countries has

occupied a province belonging to the other

18

Europa Universalis


country. When peace has been declared, all

controlled provinces return to the original

owner, unless they have been surrendered as

part of the peace treaty. There are two excep-

tions. The first depends on whether you have

signed the Tordesilla Treaty or not (see The

Tordesilla Treaty), because you may then move

into and take control of the colonies or trading

posts of other countries, regardless of whether

you have been at war with these countries or

not. The other exception applies if rebels man-

age to seize one of your provinces. The

province still belongs to you, but the rebels

control it. If another country controls any of

your provinces, you will not receive any income

from these provinces. You will see that a

province is controlled by another country if the

flag of another country is flying above the city,

the colony or the trading posts. (Rebels fly a

red flag.) In order to take control of a province

you must capture the city, either by storm or

siege. Provinces with cities lacking fortifica-

tions, and provinces with colonies or trading

posts are automatically controlled when you

move an army unit into it. Also note that

provinces under your control will be counted

to your advantage during peace negotiations.

Sea Zones

The seas are vast open areas. During this period

the chances of controlling the seas was limited

by the quality of the ships and their crews, the

basic resources, and of course the weather. The

sea is therefore divided into sea zones. Each sea

zone is an area where fleets have a limited influ-

ence. Each fleet actually consists of a main part

and several smaller patrols. When the patrols

discovered enemy ships, the main part of the

fleet was assembled to deal with the enemy

fleet. This means that battles between fleets do

not occur automatically; this depends on the

quality of the fleets. The main problem was

finding the enemy and creating local superiori-

ty. If you did not succeed the engagement was

called off. Your territorial waters are the sea

zones off the coast from your coastal provinces.

Here you have several advantages, as you know

the waters, the weather, and you are close to

your bases for maintenance.

19

Europa Universalis


Cities and Capitals

Your capital is shown on the map. This is the

city belonging to the province where you find

your shield. The province with your capital

may not be surrendered during peace negotia-

tions other than by occupation (see Peace

Treaties and War Damages). The city shows a

graphic representation of the level of develop-

ment of your province. What you see in the in-

formation window is a picture of the city, as

you build ships, raise army units, upgrade

buildings, and build factories. The population

level of your city indicates the wealth of your

province. Normally the population of the city

will increase over time, but it may also drop be-

cause of war, rebellions, random events, and if

the city is situated in an area of adverse geo-

graphical conditions, for example in the

African tropics. When a colony has 700 inhabi-

tants it develops into a city. The city is still colo-

nial, and in order to become a real European

city with efficient production the province

must have at least 5000 inhabitants.

Trading posts and Colonies

When you have established a trading post or a

colony in a province you gain control of the

province. In other words, the province is now

yours. This means that no other country may

use the province for troop movements during

peace, and no other country may establish

trading posts or colonies in the province. You

may lose your province either through negative

population growth because of the geographic

conditions, which will make your population

drop to zero, or by ceding the province to an-

other country as part of a peace treaty. You may

also lose a trading post either because an enemy

army unit burned it to the ground during war

(see Trading Posts and Merchants), or by ced-

ing the province to another country as part of a

peace treaty.

Trading posts and colonies are called posses-

sions, and are different from provinces with

cities, partly because of population levels, and

partly because of the development levels. The

difference between a trading post and a colony

20

Europa Universalis


is that the trading post provides a low produc-

tion value and a high trading value, while the

colony provides a high production value and a

low trading value. In addition the colony has

population growth and may be developed into

a city, while a trading post does not have pop-

ulation growth, nor may it be developed into a

province with a city. You may still develop your

trading posts into colonies by sending colonists

to your trading posts.

Terra Incognita and Permanent TerraIncognita

Both "Terra Incognita" and "Permanent Terra

Incognita" are undiscovered areas. Terra

Incognita represents provinces and sea zones

not yet discovered by your country. When

these are discovered, either by moving army

units or ships through them, or by trading

maps with other countries, the areas cease to be

Terra Incognita and become part of the known

world, as your country knows it. Note that you

normally need a Conquistador, or you must

have reached Land Military level 11 in order to

discover provinces. For undiscovered sea zones

you need an Explorer or you must have

reached Naval Technology level 21.

Permanent Terra Incognita represents

undiscovered areas not consisting of provinces

or sea zones. Permanent Terra Incognita com-

prises the areas that were not explored at all at

this time. Historically, there were several areas

that were not discovered until after 1792 (such

as some parts of Siberia and Australia), or

which had been discovered earlier, but where

all knowledge about it had faded into legends

(such as the interior of Africa), and finally areas

which could not be explored using the tech-

nology of the times (such as certain Northern

sea routes).

21

Europa Universalis


Stability and the Wrath of

Your Subjects

What is Stability?

The political culture of Europe during the peri-

od was not an isolated phenomenon. How

each country should behave in regards to both

domestic and foreign policy had already been

formulated during the height of the Roman

Empire, and had later been developed during

the Middle Ages. The ideological starting-

point at the end of the 15th century was Chris-

tianity as a unit. Civilization was defined within

the framework of Christianity and consequent-

ly, what constituted civilized behavior between

countries. A similar starting-point existed in

the Moslem countries, where "country" was

not a properly recognized concept. Instead

they regarded all Moslems as part of the

Moslem Haram. Internally the division of soci-

ety was frozen, partly because of the division of

power between various groups during the late

Middle Ages, but also through domestic poli-

cy, which could be described as a struggle or

game between various groups in society. The

monarch naturally played a large part.

You should also be aware of the advantages

associated with breaches against "the interna-

tional rules." The princes of the Renaissance

were soon involved in a highly advanced game

of political struggle, where a European hege-

mony was the goal. In this aspect you should

consider the abstract concept of stability. If the

monarch broke the formal and informal rules,

both his foreign and domestic reputation fell,

including the status of his country. The re-

sponse to declarations of war was often your

own declarations of war, which caused a spiral

of injustice, war, and revenge that affected all

of Europe.

Stability is thus affected by both the interna-

tional status of your country, and by the rela-

tions between your monarch and his subjects.

The stability of your country may vary on a sev-

en-point scale from –3 to +3.

Things that Lower Stability

There are several reasons why stability may de-

teriorate, but the most important are definitely

declarations of war. Declarations of war were

not regarded lightly by anyone in Europe dur-

ing the period, perhaps with the exception of

the issuer. In other countries the monarchs and

the governments viewed any declaration of war

with concern, because it might upset the bal-

ance of power of the region. You could say that

society viewed the country as a person and the

declaration of war as a physical attack. You

could make this attack if you had good and

proper reasons (see Casus Belli), but uncalled

for wars were punished by force. As a result of a

declaration of war, you could lose prestige and

international honor. Add to this the quite neg-

ative reactions of the population, as war meant

levies, inflation, and raised taxes. A declaration

of war without Casus Belli lowers the stability

of your country by two steps (–2). A declara-

tion of war with a proper Casus Belli does not

affect your stability at all. Religion was some-

thing that united and divided countries during

the epoch. It was thought of as an un-Christian

and therefore it was immoral to declare war on

a country with the same religion, which meant

that the population and the priests reacted

quite negatively if any monarch chose that

route. A declaration of war against a country of

the same religion lowers your stability an addi-

tional step (–1). To declare war against an al-

lied country was seen as truly degenerate be-

havior, lowering your stability yet another step

(–1) if the country under attack has ties

through a royal marriage with yours. If you de-

clare war against your own vassal your stability

will drop another three steps (–3), while end-

ing your vassal ties without a declaration of war

lowers stability by three steps (–3). If you de-

clare war against a country with which you

have a peace treaty, your stability will drop by

another five steps (–5); in effect, this means

that you will become an international pariah.

Peace treaties remain in effect for five years.

Some other important factors that lowered

stability during the period were various politi-

22

Europa Universalis


cal acts of a dubious nature. Breaking your for-

eign promises immediately lowered the reputa-

tion of a country and its prestige. The principle

of "Pact Sund Servanda" (agreements are

binding) was a basic rule already in Roman law,

and had been incorporated in the diplomatic

life of the times. Annulling a royal marriage

could be a good thing for your country in

many ways, but the stability of your country is

lowered by one step (–1). You are seen as

flighty and insecure in your foreign relations,

which is cause for strong irritation among any

groups of society with strong connections with

the country in question. If you decide to sack a

vassal your stability is lowered by three steps

(–3). Especially the nobility will question your

foreign competence. A vassal has subjected

himself to your decisions, even though this is

mostly of a formal nature, which means that

dissolving the relationship is regarded as a sign

of your weakness. If you leave an alliance your

stability is lowered by one step (–1), which

means that many powerful men in the upper

levels of society probably have invested a lot of

prestige and friendship in the alliance that you

are leaving. The same thing occurs if you refuse

to honor an alliance; for example, if you do not

help a brother when a third country attacks

him. It will lower your stability by one step

(–1). Sharp foreign turns will create uncertain-

ty about your future direction in the political

game. If you refuse a country the chance to

trade at your trade centers you also lower sta-

bility by one step (–1). Your neighbors will feel

threatened, because what you did against one

country may be repeated against another.

Finally, there are five general causes for low-

ered stability. The first occurs if your country

goes bankrupt. Bankruptcy occurs if you have

taken out five loans from the national treasury

(loans from other countries are not counted),

and you are unable to repay them when they

are due, or when you have taken out five loans,

and your monthly costs are higher than your

monthly income. With bankruptcy the stability

of your country is lowered by one step (–1).

The population has lost confidence in the abil-

ity of the monarch and the government when it

comes to handling your finances. The same

thing applies when you are unable to repay a

loan from another country, as your stability is

lowered by one step (–1). Stability is also low-

ered if you decide to raise war taxes (see War

Taxes), which means that you further increase

the burdens of your country while lowering

stability by one step (–1). The fourth reason is

a change of state religion. Changing state reli-

gion normally means a huge transformation of

society, affecting every level of society. Some of

your subjects will celebrate, while others will

stage a revolution. Changing the state religion

lowers your stability by five steps (–5), except if

you change from the Catholic Church to

Counter Reformed Catholicism. (For a longer

description, see Religion.) Finally some ran-

dom events may lower the stability of your

country (see Random Events).

Please also note that all effects are cumula-

tive; that is, if you have a stability of 0, and de-

clare war against a country without a Casus

Belli, and in addition you have ties to that

country through royal marriage, and a peace

treaty, this will lower your stability by eight

steps (–2–1–5=–8). As mentioned earlier, you

may not have a stability of less than –3, but for

each additional step you will suffer an automat-

ic rebellion in each of your provinces. In this

case your stability will drop from 0 to –3, and

then you will have 5 rebellions in each of your

provinces.

Things that Increase Stability

You may increase the stability of your coun-

try by investing in stability in your state budget

(see Investing in Stability). This is handled as a

certain sum set aside for this purpose each

month, which you may view in the information

window. Note that the cost of increasing stabil-

ity is higher if you have a large country, as you

must appease more people. When the green

line has reached its end the stability of your

country is increased by one step (+1), and the

green line starts anew at the beginning. This is

to be interpreted as the monarch and the gov-

23

Europa Universalis


ernment making concessions to various groups

of society; for example, a temporary lowering

of taxes for the peasants, land grants for the no-

bility, trading rights for the townsmen, or

greater freedom for the serfs. You may also see

the cost as part of certain actions, like replacing

bailiffs, changing the laws, etc. Finally they

may cover the cost of raising the prestige of

your country; for example, by holding splendid

weddings, raising the magnificence of the

court, etc. You cannot raise stability above +3

by investments. The rate of increases will be

lower if you are at war, for each quarter you

have been at war, and for each province con-

trolled by the enemy (core provinces are

counted twice and the capital is counted as ten

normal provinces). All investments made when

your stability is at +3 will result in ducats for

your treasury. Note that certain random occur-

rences may raise stability (see Random Events).

When you are victorious at war, and have man-

aged to annex formerly independent countries

(see Annexation), your stability will increase by

one step (+1), as your victory will increase your

international prestige and make a big impres-

sion on your subjects.

What Is Affected by Stability?

To begin with, all population levels of your

cities and your colonies and all your monthly

and annual income are affected. During bad

times with spreading unrest the population of-

ten decreases. If your stability is low you are

probably at war with another country. Your

population is decreasing through levies, people

running off into the woods, and because of

24

Europa Universalis


plagues that were often a result of the wars. In

game terms you will be able to view the per-

centage of increase or decrease of your popula-

tion by clicking the church of a province. If

conditions are really bad, cities and colonies

may have a negative growth, which means that

they are being depopulated. Population levels

determine the production income of your

provinces, which means that stability will de-

termine the long-term development of your in-

come. The administrative system is also less ef-

fective when there is unrest. Bailiffs were not

obeyed, roads and communications deteriorat-

ed, and people evaded their taxes to a greater

extent, resulting in a higher cost of living with

lowered consumption and production. This

will mean that your tax income will increase

and decrease in proportion to your stability.

You see this as changes in your annual income

and also by checking up on your Financial

Summary.

Trade is also affected by the same phenomena.

Declines in both domestic and foreign trade

were common during wars and during periods

of unrest in general. This is portrayed by a con-

nection between your annual quota of mer-

chants and your stability. If your stability is at

the lower end – that is, –3 or –2 – you will have

great difficulties getting the merchants to do

business; they will simply lack all incentive to

trade, which lowers your pool of merchants by

two (–2). If your stability is at –1, your pool is

lowered by only one merchant (–1). If stability

is at 0 or +1, you gain one (+1) or two (+2) ex-

tra merchants. If the stability of your country is

excellent, +2 or +3, you gain three extra mer-

chants. In addition, stability affects the ability

of the merchants to get into the trade centers,

as well as their ability to compete with mer-

chants who are already present. Note also that

the annual interest of your loans varies along

with your stability.

Your diplomatic skills and the risk of rebellion

are also affected by the stability of your coun-

try. When it comes down to your diplomatic

abilities, you may not declare wars if your sta-

bility is at the very bottom (at –3). This is part-

ly due to social unrest and the fact that court

intrigue is at such a high level that the monarch

and the government are unable to deal with

anything other than trying to keep the country

united. To fight a war at such a time is impossi-

ble. The risk of rebellion in your provinces is in

direct proportion to your stability. The lower

your stability is, the greater the risk of rebel-

lions, and vice versa. You can read more about

this later in the manual.

Rebellions and the Risk of Rebellion

Rebellions were fairly common during the pe-

riod, primarily during the early part, the 16th

and 17th centuries, while decreasing in scope

and frequency during the later years. There are

several reasons for this. Normally rebellions

were caused by social or religious injustices

against the broad base of society, known as

"peasant uprisings." A fortunate start of a re-

bellion required leaders and even administra-

tors in order to compete with the governmen-

tal power, and this is where the nobility and

prominent townsmen entered the picture. Any

successful rebellion required that all levels of

society got involved if they wanted to change

social reality. A few such "successful" rebellions

are the war of liberation of Gustavus Vasa, and

the French Revolution, but even properly or-

ganized and solid rebellions could fail in the

end. The fewer rebellions at the end of the pe-

riod were usually due to the fact that few rebels

had access to the modern weapons technolo-

gies available to the government, and the in-

creasing difficulties in uniting different social

classes. The arm of the government had be-

come longer, and its grip was also much

stronger.

The risk of rebellion varied from province to

province. In order to review the risk of rebel-

lion as a percentage value, click the church of

the province and point at "Risk of Rebellion."

You will then see what the risk is, and what is

causing it. You may also look at the map show-

ing religions, where you see all provinces with

various levels of shading. The darker the shad

is, the greater the risk of rebellion. The two

25

Europa Universalis


most important causes for rebellion are the lev-

el of stability and the level of tolerance of the

monarch and the government toward the reli-

gion of the provincial population (note that a

province may have another religion than the

"state religion" – see "State Religion and

Provincial Religion). The risk of rebellion is in

direct proportion to the stability and the level

of tolerance; that is, the lower the values, the

greater the risk of rebellion, and vice versa.

There are also a few general factors affecting

the risk of rebellion. The risk is always lower in

the province with your capital, because the

monarch and the government have much bet-

ter political control, compared with the other

provinces. If you have built a factory in the

province the risk is lower as the population has

a higher production, which results in a higher

standard of living. On the other hand, the risk

will increase if you have appointed a bailiff as

tax collector, as more efficient taxation leads to

less income for the population. You may also

lower the risk of rebellion by appointing a

lawyer as high judge, as this improves the judi-

cial system and the police. The game incorpo-

rates a special case, which may be good to

know about: the phenomenon is called "Dutch

nationalism" and will occur sometimes during

the second half of the 16th century. It will re-

sult in a heavily increased risk of rebellion in the

Dutch core provinces, which originally (1492)

belonged to Spain. This "nationalism" was

controlled by religion. The risk is affected by

the religion of the provinces. If the country

they belong to has a different religion, the risk

of rebellion will be much higher.

What happens when there is a rebellion?

Each month there will be an uprising in each

province, and the chance of success depends on

the risk for rebellion. When a province rebels, a

rebel army unit appears, carrying a red flag. It

immediately engages any regular army units in

the province and then starts a siege of the forti-

fied city. If the rebel forces manage to take the

province, the red flag will fly above the city. If

the city garrison also rebels, then the rebels will

automatically control the city. This means that

the rebels will control the province, and also

26

Europa Universalis


that the risk of rebellion will increase in each

adjacent province, and that the rebel forces will

move into the next province in order to con-

quer it. A rebellion may spread like wildfire all

over your country if you are unable to stop it in

time.

The same things apply to provinces con-

trolled by enemies as to provinces controlled

by rebels; you do not get any income from the

province until you have manage to retake it. If

the rebels manage to take control of enough

provinces (the number to be controlled varies

from country to country), two things may oc-

cur. Either the rebels are allowed to take over

the sovereignty of certain provinces (more

about this in the next chapter), or the "govern-

ment will fall." If the government falls, you re-

turn to stability level +3 and regain all of your

provinces that used to be controlled by the

rebels, and all rebel army units disappear.

There is also a chance of your country switch-

ing state religion. The rebels were simply able

to win, and you just lost a whole lot of victory

points.

How do you get rid of a rebellion? If low lev-

els of tolerance caused the rebellion, these can

be changed. If the level of stability in your

country is low, you may try to change that, be-

cause rebellions decrease if stability is high. But

if a rebellion has succeeded, and you now have

a rebel force in your country, your only way of

dealing with it is through the use of force,

sending an army unit into the province and de-

feating the rebels in a field battle. When an

army unit is fighting and taking losses, then

morale decreases over time, until the unit pan-

ics and has to retire. The rebels will never re-

tire. If the morale of the rebels reaches the pan-

ic level the unit simply dissolves. Do not forget

that provinces conquered and controlled by

rebels will generate new rebel forces, which

must be conquered in order to put a stop to the

rebellion.

Liberation Movements

A liberation movement may start as a regular

rebellion, but may develop after a while into a

liberation movement with demands of inde-

27

Europa Universalis


pendence. Certain areas, like Brittany, Norway,

Catalonia, and the Ukraine, among others,

may develop into liberation movements, and

then proclaiming their independence, but this

is also true of formerly existing countries,

which have been annexed during wars. The

provinces under the control of the rebels are

simply transferred from your country to a new

country, which has just appeared. The new

country starts its existence automatically at war

with your country. There is nothing that pre-

vents you from conquering the new country

and annexing it.

Example: France (stability 0) is at war with

Switzerland. The monarch and the govern-

ment are of the firm opinion that the war may

be won, and decide to switch the state religion

from Catholicism to Protestantism. Stability

drops to –3, and rebellions start in several

Catholic provinces. The war with Switzerland

is not successful, and an alliance consisting of

Spain, Lorraine, and Cologne declares war

with France. After half a decade France has lost

a few provinces to the "alliance," but Provence

and Brittany have appeared as independent

countries. The "alliance" refuses to offer peace

without massive concessions of land, and

France finds it necessary to make smaller con-

cessions to Provence and Brittany, in order to

lower the number of adversaries, thus avoiding

a loss of land to Spain.

Religion and Tolerance

Religion was a very important part of life during

the period. Catholicism was the uniting force in

Christian Europe. In 1492 Castile and Aragon

had "liberated" the Iberian Peninsula from al-

most 800 years of Moslem government. Neither

the Pope nor the Emperor had the same power

over people any longer as during the Middle

Ages, but religion still served as a common sys-

tem of thought for the inhabitants of Europe.

People on the eastern fringes of Europe still con-

fessed to the Orthodox variety of Christianity,

and lived within a similar, but slightly different

system. The Ottoman Empire was both the in-

heritor of the Byzantine Empire and the

Caliphate of Baghdad, and here the Sunnis were

28

Europa Universalis


in majority. The Sunni Moslems were fighting

the Shia Moslems of Persia. This struggle con-

cerned who should lead the Moslem Caliphate.

According to the Europeans, the world beyond

Europe and the Middle East was simply popu-

lated with lots of heathens.

When the Reformation occurred the

Catholic Church was divided, and Protestants

and Reformists emerged out of the split, which

also brought about a wave of violence, with

both religious and political overtones. Reli-

giously it was a struggle for the reformation of

the old church order. It will be noted that the

Catholic Church was also reformed from with-

in. The political struggle concerned the power

over the possessions of the church and the ap-

pointment of priests, but above all about the

freedom of thought: whether the Pope had the

right of interpretation in all religious matters or

not. You could also say that Catholicism repre-

sented a universal view, a common European

church, while the Protestants and the Re-

formists wanted more decentralized, National

churches.

After a while the struggle developed into re-

ligious wars without any clear winners. Because

of a general European fatigue, the different

variants of Christianity were finally forced to

accept the status quo. This was the first step to-

ward tolerance and freedom of thought, which

would really get underway during the Age of

Enlightenment.

State Religion and Provincial Religion

Each country has a state religion, and as has

been mentioned earlier, it was a system of

thought, regulating morals and the philosophy

of life, but it was also a form of state ideology

the rulers used in order to control their sub-

jects. This means that the religion of your

country affects certain phenomena of society

in the following ways:

Catholicism: Provides your country with 2

additional diplomats each year. The monarch

may be elected for the office of Emperor of the

Holy Roman Empire (see The Holy Roman

Empire). Poland-Lithuania is an example of a

Catholic country.

29

Europa Universalis


Counter Reformed Catholicism: Provides

your country with 2 additional diplomats each

year, and 1 additional colonist each year. You

have the option of forcing protestant and re-

formist countries to convert to Catholicism.

This religion will also provide a positive bonus

when investing in stability, due to the authority

restored to the Pope. Finally it lowers your an-

nual and monthly income by 20%, as this part is

due the Pope in Rome and the church, which is

separate from the state. The monarch may be

chosen for the office of Emperor of the Holy

Roman Empire (see The Holy Roman Em-

pire). The Papal State, naturally, and Spain dur-

ing the reign of Charles V are examples of this

religion.

Protestantism: Provides 1 additional diplo-

mat and 1 additional colonist each year.

Provinces in Protestant countries will also have

a higher production value and provide higher

taxes on production than countries with other

religions, as the protestant mind frame places a

great emphasis on individualism and work

ethics. Each Protestant coastal province pro-

vides up to 3 additional merchants each year.

As individualism gives rise to sectors and popu-

lar uprisings, your country gets a negative

bonus when investing in stability, but as the

church is controlled by your monarch and gov-

ernment, your annual and monthly income are

increased by 20%. Sweden became a Protestant

country in 1544.

Reformist: Provides 1 additional diplomat

and 3 colonists each year. Militant Reformist

army units and fleets are also provided with one

extra level of morale. Reformist merchants re-

ceive higher profits than merchants of other re-

ligions. Each Reformist coastal province pro-

vides up to 3 additional merchants each year.

The Reformist society was heavily controlled

through the general social norms, which pro-

vides a positive bonus when investing in stabil-

ity. Your annual tax income will decrease by

30%, as the Reformist society was strongly de-

centralized, and public spending was handled

at the community level. Examples of Reformist

countries include Holland, Switzerland, and

Scotland.

30

Europa Universalis


Orthodox: Provides 1 additional colonist

each year. The Orthodox Church was not in-

volved historically in the enflamed conflict be-

tween Catholics and Protestants, and its diplo-

matic relations were not affected in the same

way by religious change in the rest of Europe.

The best example of an Orthodox European

nation is of course "The Third Rome," Russia.

Shia Moslem:

During a very long period the Shia Moslem

faction was forced to keep its religion a secret,

in order to avoid the wrath of the Sunni

Moslem majority, but after a number of upris-

ings and heavy fighting, the Shia Moslems

managed to establish a number of independent

nations, with sharp theological differences to-

ward the Sunni, which also gave rise to a cer-

tain fanaticism, providing their army units and

fleets with an additional level of morale. The

Shia Moslem countries had a stricter relation-

ship to the Koran for political guidance, which

provides a positive bonus when investing in

stability, but as a much stricter interpretation of

the Koran regarding religious taxation was ob-

served, the annual income is lowered by 30%.

Examples of Shia Moslem countries include

Persia and the Egypt of the Mamlukes.

Sunni Moslem: No special advantages or dis-

advantages in game terms, but functions in-

stead like Catholicism in the Christian world.

An example of a Sunni Moslem country is the

Ottoman Empire.

The state religion is the religion preferred

and supported by the monarch and the govern-

ment. In practice it means that the religious

leaders of the state religion were responsible

for the spiritual guidance of the people. They

also acted as missionaries. In certain countries

religious minorities could be exempt from the

state religion and keep their own religious lead-

ers and church organizations. This practice was

fairly common and came about as a result of

provinces being ceded in war only if the popu-

lations were allowed to keep their old religions.

Another reason could be a lack of resources or

an actual will to "combat heretics" in the coun-

try. An example of a country with several differ-

ent religions within the borders, combined

with a high religious tolerance, is Poland-

Lithuania, while Spain under Ferdinand and

Isabella may serve as an example of a country

with a low tolerance.

The provincial religion is the religion of the

population of the province. A province may

have another religion than your state religion,

which may result in rebellions if you have a low

tolerance toward the religion of the popula-

tion. As a player you have a religious/political

tool you may use to control the level of toler-

ance of your monarch and government toward

different religions.

Religious Tolerance

You may control the level of tolerance in the re-

ligion window regarding different religions on

a scale from 0 to 10. Note that you have a "nat-

ural balance in a zero-sum game" between how

you determine your levels of tolerance. For ex-

ample, if you only have two religions to control

your tolerance against, and you maximize tol-

erance toward Catholics (10), then you will au-

tomatically minimize tolerance toward Protes-

tants (0). The level of tolerance affects the risk

of rebellion in your provinces (according to the

tolerance toward the provincial religion), and

also your diplomatic relations with other coun-

tries.

An example: Sweden has a high tolerance to-

ward Protestants (9) and a low tolerance (1)

toward Orthodox Christians, which will affect

diplomatic relations with Russia (state religion:

Orthodox) and improve diplomatic relations

with Brandenburg (state religion: Protestant)

over time.

Four Important Events

There are four important historical events

closely tied to religion during the course of the

game. In chronological order, these are the Re-

formation, Jean Calvin, the Council at Trent,

and the Edict of Tolerance. Note that they all

assume that the previous one has occurred. In

order for "Jean Calvin" to occur, the "Refor-

mation" event must already have happened.

31

Europa Universalis


The first event is the "Reformation," although

not earlier than 1517. After Martin Luther

nailed his 95 Theses on the gate of the church

at Wittenberg a far-reaching discussion started,

particularly in Germany, about the relations

between religion and royal power. You could

say that the big question raised by Martin

Luther was whether the Pope and the Curia of

Rome really had the right of interpretation in

the areas of religion and politics, and that reli-

gion and politics had become inseparable was

obvious. After a while there came a break be-

tween the pope and countries that had taken

up the views of Luther and Melanchton of the

church as an inseparable part of the influence

of the princes. This means that your country

may now convert (see Converting Peacefully

or Using Force) to Protestantism. If a country

changes its state religion from Catholicism to

Protestantism, the country receives 25 ducats

per province for confiscated church property.

Note also that many European provinces will

change their provincial religion from Catholi-

cism to Protestantism as soon as the event oc-

curs. In a country like Sweden, for example, al-

most all of the provinces become Protestant,

while the state religion is still Catholic, which

may be as good a reason as any to change your

state religion.

The event "Jean Calvin" occurs after the Re-

formation, and actually represents the appear-

ance of Jean Calvin as a reformer. Before him

Ulrich Zwingli, John Knox, and Ulrich von

Hutten had already acted as reformers. Calvin,

though, was one of the most important post-

Lutheran reformers, and organized Protestants

in a decentralized fashion, with greater empha-

sis on the role of the layman in the church. Fur-

ther, the main points concerned work ethics

and predestination, and a strong anti-Catholic

sentiment, which strongly increased the al-

ready great tension in Europe. This means that

your country and others may convert to the

Reformist teachings. Please also note that cer-

tain European provinces automatically convert

from Protestantism to Reformist.

The "Council of Trent" event occurred be-

tween 1545 and 1563. The goal originally was

to reform the Catholic Church to let Protes-

tants and Reformist to be able to return. The

goal was not reached, however; one reason was

that the Protestants and the Reformists refused

to attend. They did succeed in renewing and

reforming the activities and the organization of

the church, and as en effect of the wars in

progress they repudiated the teachings of the

Protestants and the Reformists. This in turn

led to an agenda to let the lost sheep return to

the fold. This means that Catholic countries

now are able to convert to Counter Reformed

Catholicism, which provides a unique ability. If

a Counter Reformed country totally defeats

(controls all of the provinces) a Protestant or

Reformist country, it may demand that the

conquered country must convert to Catholi-

cism as part of a peace treaty.

The event "The Edict of Tolerance" is a gener-

ic term for all of the edicts and treaties that

tried to create a permanent religious peace be-

tween Protestants/Reformists and Catholics.

None of these succeeded to any great extent

nor did any last very long. Ironically the sword

and not the pen brought peace to the religions

instead. Both the French wars of religion and

the Thirty Year War created such widespread

fatigue, that people were forced to accept the

status quo in the matter of religion. The effect

for your country is that the effects of both the

"Tordesilla Treaty" (see The Tordesilla Treaty)

and the Council of Trent end. All Counter Re-

formed Catholic countries return to the status

of "regular" Catholic countries, and all

provinces and colonies with a Counter Re-

formed church are now automatically

Catholic.

The Foreign Policy Consequences ofReligion

The state religion of your country is extremely

important to diplomacy. Your diplomatic ca-

pacity, that is your annual supply of diplomats,

is affected by your state religion. Catholic and

Counter Reformed Catholic countries receive

2 additional diplomats, Protestant and Re-

32

Europa Universalis


formist countries receive only 1 extra diplomat,

while Orthodox and Moslem countries do not

receive any extra at all. The diplomatic rela-

tions (on a scale of +200 to –200; see Diplo-

mats and Relations) of your country are also af-

fected by your state religion. The relationship

between a Protestant country and Catholic

countries deteriorates over time. A simple rule

of thumb is that relations deteriorate all the

time between Counter Reformed

Catholics/Catholics and Protestants/Re-

formist, and between Christians and Moslems,

between Sunni and Shia, and to a lesser extent

between Orthodox Christians and everybody

else. Relations only improve over time between

countries with the same state religion, between

Reformed Catholics and regular Catholics, and

between Protestants and Reformists. Also note

that your country may only arrange royal mar-

riages with countries of the same religion, with

exceptions between Protestant and Reformist,

and Counter Reformed Catholic and Catholic

countries. Orthodox countries could enter

marriages with any and all Christian countries.

The Effects of Religion on DomesticPolitics

When we talk about the effects of religion on

domestic politics, naturally we discuss how the

monarch and the government are handling the

politics surrounding the religious issues. The

levels of tolerance in the religion window gov-

ern this. It is important that you think strategi-

cally when you handle religious issues. If your

country has a lot of religious minorities within

its borders it may become difficult to handle

religious issues and become difficult to wage

war, as the entire population probably has a

rather lukewarm view of your policies, mean-

ing that some are quite happy, while others are

definitely unhappy about the whole thing.

Let’s try an example. It is 1631 and the state

religion of Sweden is Protestant, and all of its

provinces are Protestant. Sweden knows about

Catholics, Reformists, Orthodox, and

Moslems, and thus has a level of tolerance to-

ward each of these. Sweden may in principle

maximize its tolerance toward Protestants and

Reformists (allies), and minimize tolerance

against all the rest. In a violent two front war

Sweden then conquers and receives during

peace treaties provinces from both Russia and

Spain. The Russian provinces are Orthodox

and of the Spanish provinces one is Catholic

and the other is Sunni Moslem. The problem

now is dividing tolerance, as you cannot maxi-

mize all of them at the same time. If you chose

to keep a low tolerance toward Catholics, even

though you now have a Catholic province in

your country, you must expect rebellion. It is

not improbable for you to lose the province. If

instead you set all tolerance levels at the middle

level, war fatigue will be felt much quicker,

which in itself may be quite a problem if you

are going to fight a war for thirty years. The

question is if it is really a good thing for you to

settle a peace on such conditions. That is why

you must plan ahead, strategically, to avoid

ending up in impossible situations.

The levels of tolerance and stability are the

key to both control of your country and devel-

opment of the same. If you let rebellion run

rampant, it will affect your treasury.

Converting by Peaceful or ViolentMeans

In modern democratic countries matters of

faith are viewed as concerns on which each in-

dividual must take a stand. Should I or should I

not convert? During the period this was not

the case. The monarch and the government

were often seen as responsible for the spiritual

life of their subjects, as Gods representative on

Earth. A country where the subjects had the

same faith was also much easier to rule. Con-

version may mean several things in the game.

It could mean that your country changes

state religion in a peaceful manner under your

control. In order to change state religion, go to

the religion window to choose the religion to

which you wish to convert, and then click the

"convert" button. Note that you may not

change state religion non-historically; for ex-

ample, Gustavus Vasa of Sweden may not

33

Europa Universalis


switch from Catholicism to heathenism or the

Sunni Moslem faith. Changing state religion is

not done lightly, because there will be a lot of

negative consequences. Your stability is low-

ered by five steps (–5) when you switch reli-

gion. There is one exception, though: when

you switch from Catholicism to Counter Re-

formed Catholicism, as these two religions

were so much alike that the subjects never real-

ly bothered. The second consequence is a dete-

rioration of your diplomatic relations with

countries that still have your old religion,

which may lead to war if things turn out really

bad. There is also a huge risk of rebellion in

your provinces, especially if you switch be-

tween Catholicism and Protestantism.

It may also mean that your country forces

another country to change state religion, or

another country forces your country to

change. This situation requires that the "en-

forcer" is a Counter Reformed Catholic coun-

try and the victim is a Protestant or Reformist

country. Also note that the actual conversion

occurs when you make an offer of peace (see

Peace Treaties and War Damages). An obvious

gain as a Counter Reformed Catholic is the

amount of victory points received for convert-

ing Protestants and Reformists.

Finally you may be forced to change state re-

ligion if there are such widespread rebellions in

your country that the government itself is

falling.

Your provinces may also convert to other re-

ligions, either to the state religion or to some-

thing else. It may happen in one of two ways.

Catholic provinces may change to Protes-

tantism because of the "Reformation" event,

Protestant provinces may change to Reformist

through the "Jean Calvin" event, and Catholic

provinces may change to Counter Reformed

Catholicism because the country has per-

formed the same change of state religion. The

second way for a province to change religion is

as a random event. It could be a change to the

state religion through the work of church offi-

cials, or to another religion as part of a heretic

movement.

Finally, under certain conditions you may

convert provinces of your country to the state

religion. Under certain conditions you may use

your colonists as missionaries. Use the same

procedure as when you are colonizing. You

may use your colonists to increase the popula-

tion level to 5000 inhabitants. If you send

colonists to a province with less than 5000 in-

habitants it will change its religion to the state

religion.

Example: Sweden (state religion: Protes-

tantism) has conquered the province of Carelia

(provincial religion: Orthodox / population:

4876) in a war with Russia. You decide to con-

vert the province by sending a colonist as a mis-

sionary (in the same way you send a colonist).

If the colonization (the missionary operation)

is successful the province of Carelia changes

from Orthodoxy to Protestantism.

Note that a rebellion in a province often low-

ers the population. This means that if your

country has provinces you wish to convert, you

may lower the level of tolerance toward their

religion until they rebel. If you then quash the

rebellion, thereby lowering the population to

less than 5000, you may now convert the re-

mainder using the above method. It is impor-

tant to remember, though, that rebellions are

quite dangerous affairs for your country, espe-

cially if you are not able to keep them under

control. Production and income are lowered,

and finally you lose victory points when the

population drops, as this is a clear sign of your

disability to run your country. To willingly put

your country at risk through a sort of religious

terror must be considered carefully. Examples

of failed religious politics are the Spanish driv-

ing out of the Moors, and the French persecu-

tion of the Huguenots.

Politics and DiplomacyDiplomacy was developed during the second

half of the 15th century from the legislative

system of the Pope into an effective and orga-

nized tool in the hands of the rulers at the be-

ginning of the 16th century. The diplomat was

the personal representative of the prince in all

34

Europa Universalis


foreign courts, and it was his duty to defend

and strengthen the interests of the prince.

There were also many different types of diplo-

mat, but all of them are gathered under this

name. Envoys had special tasks, while ambas-

sadors had the highest rank and were accredit-

ed to foreign courts, performing all sorts of

tasks for the prince. The most important mat-

ter was that the informal rules for exchanging

diplomats were formalized and became part of

the civilized behavior between the countries.

The "rules" also protected the diplomat

against arbitrary violence.

In the game we only talk about diplomats.

The diplomats represent the ability of your

country to use non-violent power and to main-

tain relations with other countries. By sending

diplomats your country may present gifts, de-

liver insults, discuss royal marriages, or even

declare war or make offers of peace. The two

most important factors governing effective and

productive diplomacy are access to money and

the amount of available diplomats.

Diplomacy as a Political Weapon

Power, violence and diplomacy are intimately

connected. Earlier diplomacy was talked about

as the "first tool" of the monarchs and war as

the "ultimo ratio regum," or their last argu-

ment. In the classic lines of Carl von Clause-

witz, war is "the continuation of politics using

other means." Frederick the Great once said

that diplomacy without power is like an orches-

tra without notes.

The diplomatic and military means may thus

be seen as alternative ways of reaching the same

goal—influencing another country in a desired

way. Let us now see how the "political

weapon" may be used.

Diplomats and Relations

The nations of the world may be regarded as a

very large and quarrelsome family, where each

member is a separate country. Just like in a

large family, there are members with different

amounts of power, and they are able to enforce

their will in varying degrees of success. In addi-

35

Europa Universalis


tion each family member has a special relation

to everyone else.

Your country has a specific relation to each

other known country in the game. This rela-

tion may vary between –200 and +200, and

may be influenced by many different things. To

start with, you should note that relations

change much more slowly if they are very good

or very bad, but quicker if they are neutral. The

second item to consider was the view of the un-

touchable rights of the princes to their own

countries, which meant that a declaration of

war without a good reason (Casus Belli) was

quite unacceptable. The same thing applied to

the annexation of formerly independent na-

tions.

The relation between your country and an-

other country is affected positively if there is a

royal marriage between members of your royal

families, and if you are part of the same alliance.

Countries with which you have this sort of tie

are less affected by any negative acts performed

by your own country. But the opposite also ap-

plies; for example, if Sweden declares war on

the Teutonic Order, then the relations be-

tween countries with marriage ties to the Teu-

tonic Order and Sweden will deteriorate more

than with any other country.

Alliances are also important for your foreign

relations. By entering an alliance your relations

to your brothers in the alliance will improve,

and continue to do so as time passes. In addi-

tion the members of your alliances are much

more indulgent toward your acts against any

"third parties" (for example wars or annexa-

tions aimed at countries that are not part of the

alliance).

Religion is another important factor regard-

ing relations. Your levels of tolerance toward

various religions affect the relations of your

country. If your country has a high level of tol-

erance toward a specific religion, your relations

will improve as time passes, while they will de-

teriorate with regard to religions where toler-

ance is low.

Annexations will almost certainly have a neg-

ative impact on your relations. It is perhaps not

so much a question of loyalty to the expelled

monarch, but the painfully realized awareness

that all annexations disturb the balance of pow-

er between the various countries.

Diplomats will use any kind of communica-

tion between countries. When you wish to pre-

sent a gift, declare war, make offers of mar-

riage, etc, you send a diplomat, which means

that your "diplomatic corps" is reduced by

one. On the other hand it does not cost any-

thing to reply to an offer from another diplo-

mat. You may not send more than one diplo-

mat a month to the same country. You must

then wait a month before you send another

one. The "diplomatic corps" of your country

increases in numbers each year. The number of

diplomats you receive depends on the diplo-

matic ability of your monarch (each value

above 5 provides an additional diplomat), and

if your country is at war you receive an addi-

tional diplomat. If your state religion is Protes-

tantism or Reformist you receive one extra

diplomat, but if your state religion is Catholi-

cism or Counter Reformed Catholicism you

receive two additional diplomats. It may also

receive diplomats because of random events.

Your country will always receive one diplomat

because your neighbors recognize it.

There are three different methods of directly

improving relations with other countries. You

may send a letter of introduction, which costs

25 ducats and will give a small improvement.

The letters of introduction were a common

feature of the period, and it was not unusual for

some monarchs to send steady streams of let-

ters to each other. Catherine the Great of Rus-

sia, Gustavus III of Sweden, Frederick the

Great of Prussia, and Joseph of Austria, were all

involved in discussions on the subjects of phi-

losophy and national finances, for example.

You may also send personal gifts, which will

cost 100 ducats, giving your relations a stable

boost. In order to show how important these

diplomatic gestures used to be, we only need to

remind you of the tea services, embroidered

silk cushions, beautiful furs, etc, that are on dis-

play in many European museums. You may al-

36

Europa Universalis


so send a gift of state, which will cost you 250

ducats, giving your relations a huge boost. His-

torically these were often a combination of dif-

ferent things. It could be a large personal gift,

like a gilded gala carriage or a pleasure yacht,

but often there were subsidies involved in the

game. Subsidies were similar to today’s aid to

developing countries, gifts to poor relations. If

you want to be cynical you could say that coun-

tries bought the friendship of weaker coun-

tries. Examples include Sweden during both

the Scanian War (1674–1679) and the War of

Pomerania (1757–1762), both of which were

financed by French subsidies.

You may also choose to worsen your rela-

tions. You have three methods at your disposal,

reminiscent of the methods above (which you

used to improve your relations), with a small

difference—it never costs any money to worsen

your relations. The first method is sending let-

ters of warning, which will worsen your rela-

tions a little bit. These were quite common and

were used to let somebody know that a certain

act was not acceptable and that violence could

be the response to further actions. The game

does not require any actual unfriendly acts to

have happened if you would like to send any

letters of warning. Just invent something, like

Peter the Great before the beginning of the

war against Sweden in 1700. He claimed that

he had been treated quite badly during his visit

to the Swedish town of Riga, but most of the

surviving documents suggest that this was just

an excuse.

The second method is sending insults, which

really worsen your relations. This was more un-

usual, but did occur now and then. It often

concerned problems between countries, which

escalated when the monarchs were unable to

solve their differences at the negotiation table.

A good example is the exchange of letters be-

tween Erik XIV of Sweden and Ivan the Terri-

ble of Russia, which started with letters of in-

troduction, turned into letters of warning, and

then changed into a veritable flood of written

insults. The relations then deteriorated into

war.

The third and final method is to present

claims to the crown of a certain country, which

may worsen relations all the way down to out-

right war. It was not unusual to lay claims to

the crown of other countries, but to do this

openly was a mortal insult, as it implied that the

sitting monarch was a usurper. A historical ex-

ample is the claims of the Polish Vasa kings to

the Swedish crown for a number of years. The

Danes also had claims to the Swedish crown,

and certain English monarchs had claims to the

French crown. Both Spanish and French

monarchs had claims to the crown of Naples.

It is important to remember that changes of

relations are not static, but continually depend

on the diplomatic talent of your monarch. If

your monarch is undiplomatic, basically an in-

competent in the area, even a gift of state may

cause a worsening of relations. You don’t give

large gilded crosses to the sultan of Istanbul

without punishment, you know. The state reli-

gion of your country, and its level of tolerance

toward other religions also affect your rela-

tions. If Sweden has a very low tolerance to-

ward Sunni Moslems, the relations between

the Ottoman Empire will deteriorate over

time.

There are some other diplomatic actions re-

quiring diplomats. These will be explained in

greater detail later on, but we will mention

them here anyway. Diplomats are required if

you wish to make a declaration of war or make

offers of peace. Diplomats are also required if

you want to trade information about discover-

ies with other countries, basically to get access

to the maps of the other country. Finally, you

must send a diplomat if you want to offer to

lend money to another country.

Royal Marriages

The royal marriage was intended to unite two

dynasties and thus two countries to each other.

When such marriages were made the relations

between the countries improved. In order to

arrange a royal marriage both parties must be

of the same religion. There is one exception.

Orthodox Christian royalty could marry into

37

Europa Universalis


any other Christian faith. The marriages were

also the basis for further diplomatic relations,

for example alliances and vassalage, after which

an eventual political annexation was possible.

Also note that the royal marriage could have a

defensive purpose, as the risk of war between

countries sharing royal blood is lowered. In the

game this is represented by a further lowering

of stability by one step if anybody declares war

on a country with which it has ties of marriage.

For example, you could imagine a royal mar-

riage between Sweden and Russia as a precau-

tion when preparing for a war with Denmark,

in order to avoid the risk of a two front war. Fi-

nally it should be noted that you may annul any

royal marriages your country is involved in, but

it will lower stability by one step as an effect of

the political turnaround, and the fact that your

monarch is breaking what the population views

as divine order—the holy matrimony.

Please note that the term "royal marriage" is

not to be interpreted literally, as even a mar-

riage between the republics of Venice and the

United States is defined as a royal marriage.

The important thing to remember is the im-

portant political bindings such an "official

marriage of state" entailed in the anarchic

world of nations. They were the most impor-

tant proofs of friendship between countries

you could give. Even non-monarchies like the

Papal State, Venice, and the United States mar-

ried off the protégés of important and power-

ful men in order to strengthen and protect the

interests of their countries.

Alliances

During the period alliances between countries

were as important then as now when it came to

keeping the peace and being fortunate in war.

To be a member of an alliance was a good thing

both as a deterrent and as protection during

war. The system of alliances of the period was a

sort of self-help. A number of countries swore

to defend each other’s independence on the

principle of "one for all, all for one." Anyone

attacking a member of an alliance was risking

war with all of the other members of the al-

liance. You should also remember that the "al-

liances" described here were a kind of ideal. In

reality monarchs and governments with a

strongly developed self-interest ruled the

countries. It was not at all certain that every

one in the alliance should honor their pledges.

In the game you may enter into already exist-

ing alliances, accept requests of entering al-

liances, or create new alliances by suggesting

the idea to another country of your choice. All

this is handled using the diplomacy window. In

order for your country to be able to do any-

thing at all, you need to have good relations

with the country in question, or with the lead-

er of the alliance you want to join. Each alliance

has a leader. Traditionally this was the strongest

member of the alliance, but it could also be a

rather small country. The Papal State and the

Republic of Venice are both examples of small

nations that often act as leaders of various al-

liances. In the game the leader is always the

country that created the alliance. The advan-

tage of being the leader is that only the leader

may invite new members, and is also the only

one who may force members of the alliance to

leave. The leaders of two alliances may also en-

ter a peace treaty with each other above the

heads of the other members, which means that

these two countries set the rules that the rest

must obey. This is something that Sweden suf-

fered after the war of 1674–1679, when France

at the peace negotiations of Fontainebleau set-

tled the peace between Sweden and its enemies

and at the same time did not allow the Swedish

envoys to even enter the chambers where the

discussions were held. The disadvantage is that

you, as the leader, may never leave the alliance

yourself, but have to wait until it expires. This

is not the case if you are not the leader.

Alliances are perishables. If the members do

not regularly repeat their solemn promises of

coming to each other’s rescue the alliance loses

its relevance and expires at a set date. The run-

ning time is normally 10 years from the date of

the latest peace treaty of the alliance. Note that

there can be differences if various members

make separate peace treaties or choose to wage

38

Europa Universalis


their own wars, without requesting the active

support of the other members. If one member

of an alliance (Hungary) is attacked by another

country (the Ottoman Empire), all of the oth-

er members of the alliance (Venice and Persia)

are asked if they want to declare war on the at-

tacker (the Ottoman Empire). There are two

natural choices in this case, and the other two

members will make the different choices. In

our example Venice chooses not to honor the

alliance, and will not declare war. Venice’s sta-

bility is lowered by one step because of its dis-

tasteful act of cowardice. Venice may also be

forced to leave the alliance if relations with

Hungary drop sufficiently. Persia chooses to

honor the alliance and declares war with the

Ottoman Empire. This may be done without

loss of stability. Persia is now at war with the

Ottoman Empire in conjunction with Hun-

gary. The leader of the alliance, either Hungary

or Persia, may also end the war with the Ot-

toman Empire without consulting the other

member.

The art of upholding a good alliance, where

all members actually honor the alliance, is di-

rectly related to maintaining good relations be-

tween the member states. If you are not suc-

cessful the alliance will dissolve sooner or later.

Military annexation of countries during peace

treaties is a sure way of destroying even the

strongest of alliances. A factor of some impor-

tance is the fact that you receive a temporary

Casus Belli toward each country not honoring

an alliance if your country is attacked. The tem-

porary Casus Belli is only good for six months.

Two alliances could not be joined in order to

form a single alliance. The diplomatic system

during the period was not flexible enough to

handle this. There were actually reasons why

two alliances should keep away from each oth-

er, because sometimes the hatred between

members of two different alliances could be

enough to prevent it, and at other times the

problem was simply the case of the general un-

predictability of even the biggest and strongest

of nations.

Vassalage

The purpose of vassalage changes with time in

the game. Originally the "vassal" emerged dur-

ing the Middle Ages as a subordinate prince,

who was obliged to provide his lord with a

number of knights for the defense of the entire

kingdom. As compensation the vassal could

keep most of the income from his territory, but

was also required to uphold law and order in

his territory, which was a profitable line of busi-

ness. At the end of the middle ages, which is

the earliest phase of the game (1492-1520),

the political systems of Western Europe devel-

oped away from feudalism and toward more

centralized states, when the kings started to

create the professional embryos of the state bu-

reaucracies. This development also led to a

lessening of the importance of having vassals

throughout the country. Instead the vassal be-

came countries heavily dependent on the

monarch of the country on which it was depen-

dent. If you were to translate this concept of

vassals into modern times, you could compare

the political position of some of the small Cen-

tral American states in relation to the United

States during the 1950s and the 1960s. A

Swedish historical example would be the sub-

ordination of Estonia under the Swedish

crown during the reign of Erik XIV. The Esto-

nian knighthood submitted to the Swedish

crown under certain conditions, which may be

defined as vassalage. At a later stage the

province was simply drawn into the kingdom

of Sweden to be more or less annexed.

Vassalage may be the result of your country

arranging a royal marriage with another coun-

try. If the relations between the two countries

are at 190+, they are both sharing the same

state religion; your country may offer the other

country the status of vassal. If the country ac-

cepts, you may freely use the provinces of that

country for movement purposes, and you also

receive a part of the yearly income of the coun-

try. It may not enter into any royal marriages

with any other countries and will be on your

side if war breaks out. This also applies to the

vassals of other countries, so if you declare war

39

Europa Universalis


on a vassal, you risk getting the "main coun-

try" coming after you.

If you start a scenario as a vassal, or if for some

impossible reason you have accepted to become

a vassal of another country, your only possibility

to get rid of your status as a vassal is to declare

war on your lord. This will of course result in a

massive loss of stability. The same thing is true if

you have a vassal and want to get rid of the vas-

sal in order to declare war on that country. The

reason for such an event could be because your

relations have deteriorated so much that your

vassal has started to send tenders of alliance to

the archenemies of your country. Note also that

your vassal may end the dependence and de-

clare war on you if your relations deteriorate

too much (it has this opportunity already at

120+). Countries available as player nations in

the scenario may not be vassalized. Note that

only vassals may be annexed politically.

Annexation

Political annexations were not as common dur-

ing the period as military annexations, but did

occur now and then. For example the union of

Scotland with England, and the union of Bo-

hemia and Hungary with Austria may be seen

as political annexations. The political annexa-

tion of a country means that a formerly inde-

pendent country becomes part of your own. Its

provinces become your provinces, and your

laws, your state religion, and your decisions are

to be followed, exactly as in your own country,

or more correctly, the provinces become a dis-

soluble part of your country. Political annexa-

tions are the epitome of diplomatic ability and

effort. This is where the border between war

and peace disappears, and diplomacy fulfills the

same goals as war.

You may only offer annexations to countries

that are your vassals, and only if your relations

are extremely good (190+). If your vassal ac-

cepts, the provinces of the vassal are turned

over to you and will behave just like your own

provinces. You also control all of the fleets and

army units of your former vassal. It is a good

idea to gather everything directly after the an-

nexation, so you don’t forget any of the units,

which will then needlessly suffer attrition (see

Attrition). Your country will also receive a

bonus when researching various areas of tech-

nology, if the annexed country had any levels

that were higher than your own. Your country

will also receive a stability bonus if the annexed

country had a higher stability at the moment of

annexation. If the vassal had any loans at the

moment, these are written off (your country is

not liable). Finally your country will receive all

of the maps of the annexed country, which

means that your country now will "see" every-

thing that the former vassal could see.

As an explanation you could say that "the of-

fer of annexation" is given to certain select

powerful citizens of the country, such as the

nobility or the church leaders, as the vassal

himself probably would not like to lose his

power, regardless of the size of it.

Refusal to Trade

To politically close a center of trade for the

merchants of certain countries was not an un-

usual occurrence during the time period. After

the Dutch struggle for liberation, when the

United Provinces were created, a temporary

peace treaty was signed with Spain. This peace

did not last very long, as the Dutch had closed

the waterways to Antwerp, thus monopolizing

trade in the whole area. This was of course un-

acceptable to the Spanish king. Also mercantil-

ism contributed to a monopolistic attitude

with political overtones. The English Act of

Navigation of 1651 and the French acts under

the supervision of Colbert were de facto a re-

fusal to trade. Sweden issued its own naviga-

tion act during the 1720s, but with poor re-

sults.

Using diplomatic means you may prevent

another country from trading at your centers

of trade. If you subject a country to a trade em-

bargo, this country may not send any more

merchants to the trade centers in any of your

provinces. The merchants already present are

"frozen," no longer providing any income to

their country. You can now put them out of

40

Europa Universalis


business by sending in additional merchants of

your own. Trade embargo was a common prac-

tice during the time period. Monopolizing

trade centers meant considerable income, and

the use of this political weapon was a very effec-

tive way of creating or maintaining monopo-

lies, especially if the country concerned had

more effective merchants. Note that refusal to

trade involves some adverse effects. The coun-

try you are putting into quarantine has a Casus

Belli toward your country as long as the refusal

to trade is in effect. If you chose to allow trade

again, the Casus Belli against your country dis-

appears. Also note that a trade embargo will

adversely affect research in trading technology,

meaning that your country receives a negative

bonus (–1) for each country it subjects to a re-

fusal to trade.

Also remember that your country may be

subjected to the same trade embargo if your

merchants start to act aggressively in any other

center of trading, especially if they are starting

to put the owner of the center out of business.

War Affects Your Relations

War will of course affect your relations. Decla-

rations of war will catastrophically lower the

level of your relations toward the one you have

declared war upon, and to the allies of that

country to a lesser degree, even if the allies

choose not to honor the alliance. Relations

with any country that has a better relationship

to your enemy than you have will be lowered.

This will also apply to all countries tied to your

enemy by royal marriage. The deteriorating ef-

fects of the declaration of war will lessen if you

have ties through royal marriage to affected

countries.

The result of the war – the peace treaty – may

also affect your relations. Military annexations

will result in catastrophic worsening of rela-

tions with every country that knows about you.

Only your allies are not affected this way. If you

receive provinces as part of a peace treaty your

loss of respect (the lowering of your relations)

are not quite as damaging, although you are

now seen as dangerous and threatening. Re-

member that it is quite easy for relations with

your surroundings to deteriorate. This may

turn you into a hated pariah, but it takes a long

time and large sums of money to repair and re-

build your relations.

The relations of your country also affect you

in war. Countries that hate your country will

feel much less uncomfortable when attacking

your country, even stabbing you in the back.

Any country ceaselessly attacking other coun-

tries, annexing countries left and right, will eas-

ily become prey to one or more alliances that

want to put it in its place.

Tolerance Affecting Your Relations

We have already mentioned that your tolerance

toward the various religions is affecting your

relations. Historically countries saw themselves

as the protectors of every inhabitant in the

world sharing the same religion (or at least as

many as possible). For example, Russia consid-

ered itself to be the protector of all Orthodox

Christians, just like Spain during the 16th and

17th centuries considered itself to be the pro-

tector of every Catholic.

The level of tolerance is a value between 0

and 10, but only the really extreme values will

affect your relations. Normal tolerance, or a

tolerance of 5, will not make any difference. A

high level of tolerance (6–10) will increase the

annual improvement of your relations in rela-

tion to your level of tolerance. A tolerance of

10 will result in a higher increase than a toler-

ance of 6. The opposite is of course true for low

levels of tolerance.

This phenomena means that your country

may have problems later in the game when try-

ing to maintain good relations with countries

of other state religions than your own. If your

monarch and your government have a low lev-

el of tolerance toward a religious minority, it

could happen that a country with that same

state religion may declare war on your country

in order to protect the "religious rights" of the

minority.

41

Europa Universalis


The Holy Roman Empire

During the period the Holy Roman Empire

was not a single nation, like Sweden or Eng-

land, but rather a supranational organism.

During the Middle Ages it was supposed to be

a country, a vast Christian Roman empire. It

had its origins in the efforts of Charles the

Great to reestablish the Roman Empire. The

efforts failed when his sons and grandsons di-

vided the realm and started to fight over it. At

the end of the Middle Ages the Empire had

been quite decentralized, reducing the emper-

or’s power. The Empire consisted of a number

of independent states, with more or less their

own foreign policies. Some of these states were

called electors and elected the emperor at cer-

tain times. In the game the Holy Roman Em-

pire consists of all of the independent states

within its borders, except for the Italian coun-

tries, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The

Hapsburg dynasty ruling Austria and Bohemia

had at this time been able to make the crown

go from father to son within the dynasty, but

the office of emperor still had to be appointed

by election, and this remained.

The office of emperor of the Holy Roman

Empire had certain advantages. The emperor

may freely move all of his troops throughout all

of the provinces of the entire empire if he is at

war. He also has an easier time improving his

relations to all of the countries within the em-

pire. Note that your own state religion must be

Catholicism or Counter Reformed Catholi-

cism if your monarch is to be eligible. The rela-

tions to all of the electors are very important if

you want to be elected emperor. You gain 50

victory points if you are elected emperor.

Note that conquered and annexed electors

no longer count as electors, and neither may

the conqueror "assume" the office of elector.

There is one special case. If a province of the

Holy Roman Empire is somehow given up to a

Moslem country through peace treaties or an-

nexation, the province is no longer part of the

Holy Roman Empire, as the Turkish sultan

may never hold a fief under a Christian emper-

or, regardless of the size of the land.

War and Peace

Casus Belli and Declarations of War

Casus Belli has been mentioned earlier, but has

not been fully explained. Casus Belli is Latin

and roughly means "lawful cause of war." If

your country has a lawful reason to declare war

on another country, it will not affect any third

parties negatively, third parties being your own

population and any other countries. Normally

your stability is lowered by two steps if you lack

a proper Casus Belli. If you have a Casus Belli,

you do not lose any stability at all.

How do you receive a Casus Belli against an-

other country? Firstly, there is permanent Ca-

sus Belli at the start of each scenario, because of

ancient enmity between countries. The perma-

nent Casus Belli are in effect throughout the

scenario. Secondly, each country may receive

temporary Casus Belli. If your country loses

any of its core provinces during war you receive

a Casus Belli, which is in effect until you have

regained your province. If a country does not

honor an alliance when you are attacked, you

receive a limited Casus Belli against the coun-

try or countries that chose not to honor the al-

liance (6 months). If a country refuses to repay

a loan to another country, this country receives

a limited Casus Belli (of 12 months duration).

Any country receives a Casus Belli against

countries that refuse to trade. The Casus Belli

is in effect until trade resumes.

You may make declarations of war whenever

you wish, but with two exceptions. Firstly, your

country must have a diplomat available in or-

der to declare war, and secondly, you may not

declare war if the stability of your country is at

the lowest possible level (–3). Your monarch

and your government have enough on their

minds keeping the country in one piece to wor-

ry about anything other than the unrest at

home.

A country must declare war on another

country in order to move its army units into

that country. There are exceptions to this rule

(see The Holy Roman Empire, The Treaty of

Tordesilla, and Vassalage).

42

Europa Universalis


A declaration of war almost always will result

in loss of stability. The loss may have a number

of reasons (see Stability). After the declaration

of war your country is at war until a peace

treaty has been signed between your country

and the country or countries with which you

are at war. Being at war affects a number of

things in the game and your route toward vic-

tory. Let’s take a closer look.

Advantages and Disadvantages of War

We should start by stating that if you want to

win the game you must collect the greatest

number of victory points. Victory points are

distributed throughout the game. For example

you receive victory points for having the largest

number of army units and fleets, by having a

high level of stability, by conquering provinces,

by winning pitched battles and naval battles, by

taking fortifications through sieges, by win-

ning wars (getting stars when peace rolls

around), and by actually keeping the peace.

You lose victory points by losing wars (having

tombstones when the peace treaty is to be

signed), by losing provinces, pitched battles

and naval battles, by losing fortifications

through sieges, by losing historic commanders

in battle, by breaking peace treaties, by declar-

ing war, and finally when you suffer rebellions

in your own country.

It is quite easy to see that war means a high

risk of losing victory points, even though war

may bring you victory points. If you win the

war you gain many points, and if you lose the

war you lose many points. Note also that this

also applies to your opponent. If we take Swe-

den as an example, you could say that Russia

passed Sweden in victory points at the peace of

Nystad in 1721, where Russia gained the same

number of points that Sweden lost. All losses of

victory points are directly due to declarations

of war. If a declaration of war lowers your sta-

bility, which it usually does, you will also re-

ceive a lower annual and monthly income.

Your monthly investment in technology de-

pends on your income, which lowers the speed

of technological development. The country

leading in technological development receives

a number of victory points as time passes. In

this case it will be a country other than yours.

You also receive victory points if you have mer-

chants present at the international centers of

trading, and your ability to send merchants is

limited in proportion to your loss of income.

We want to stress that war is not a profitable

adventure unless you can wage war without a

loss of too much stability, and you should go to

war only if you think you are able to win.

Now you are hopefully deterred from declar-

ing and fighting wars without care or plan. War

can also be a very good prospect for your coun-

try. War is actually one of the best ways of ex-

panding your country with new provinces, and

by winning wars you may increase your income

from your provinces. The higher income may

now be invested in new technology, which may

enable your country to defend itself at a later

stage in the game. It is important to think

strategically, especially when playing the long

scenario from 1492 to 1792. If other countries

are expanding territorially when your country

is not, they are becoming relatively stronger at

your expense. Later on it may become fatal, es-

pecially if they have a higher income, better

military technology, and a better manpower.

You risk your independence as a nation.

The relative effects of any shift of power

should not be underestimated. Let’s try an ex-

ample. Sweden (annual income: 100 ducats)

goes to war with Russia (annual income: 100

ducats). Sweden wins the war and receives

Carelia, Onega, and Novgorod, which in our

example are worth a total of 25 ducats annual-

ly. The total effect of the war is that Sweden re-

ceives an annual income of 125 ducats, and the

annual income of Russia drops to 75 ducats.

This shifting of power may change the entire

game. Make sure you also keep track of all of

the more distant countries, or else you may

find that they are undefeatable.

In order to lower the impact of the negative

consequences of war you may enter into an al-

liance where at least one of the member states

hates the country against which you would like

43

Europa Universalis


to declare war. Chances are fairly high that

your brother in the alliance will declare war

sooner or later, and when this happens you may

honor the alliance without loss of stability. You

may also try to surround your enemy through

alliances with all of his neighbors. If war breaks

out, at least you have minimized your risks of

losing the war.

Side Effects of War

One of the first things you must consider is the

duration of the war. The longer a war lasts, the

greater fatigue you suffer, and consequently the

risk of rebellion in your provinces increases. If

your country has a number of religious minori-

ties a long war may be fatal. Your effort at im-

proving your stability is a much slower affair if

you are at war, compared with a period of peace.

The recovery after a war is also a difficult

time. You may have to invest in stability for

many years. This is when you should be invest-

ing in new technology instead, the very thing

your enemies are certainly busy doing. After a

long war there is a particularly great risk of hav-

ing lagged behind in technology, which may

mean that you will loose the next war, even if

you won the last one. Your foreign relations

may also be ruined, especially if you have won a

war and have annexed another country. Also

remember that your country may be ruinously

devastated after the war, with a number of

provinces plundered, and many of your trading

posts may also have burned.

A very unpleasant side effect of war is the risk

of other countries getting into the game. If you

are really doing badly in a war, there is a risk of

getting declarations of war from countries

where your relations are really bad, as they may

think that your country is about to collapse.

Manpower and the Limitations ofYour Provinces

Each country has a manpower base, limiting

the possibility of recruiting army units. When

you recruit army units you will see how your

manpower base is lowered. Each unit of 1000

infantry, 1000 cavalry or 10 pieces of artillery

lowers your manpower base 1 step. There are

always a limited number of available young

able-bodied men, and there is always a perma-

nent demand for strong men and women if you

want your farming to be handled properly in

each village. This all means that there is a limit

to how many soldiers you may recruit. Each

province has a recruitment value, showing how

much it contributes to the armed forces of your

country. The manpower base is computed as an

annual sum, which is increasing as time passes.

If your country has conquered new provinces

or developed colonies into towns, your annual

manpower base may increase. It will also in-

crease as time passes because of a general popu-

lation growth. Your manpower base may also

drop if you lose provinces or suffer losses of

population for any other reasons. Building

ships for your fleets is not affected by your

manpower base, as there was a relatively small

demand of manpower, compared with the

needs of the army units.

There is also a local limitation, or recruit-

ment capacity when applied to the recruitment

of army units or fleets. You recruit your army

units in your provinces, which means that the

level of development of each province limits

each separate recruitment attempt. By appoint-

ing officials, upgrading fortifications, and

building factories, you improve the recruit-

ment capacity of each province. Note that the

population level is the most important factor

defining recruitment capacity. If you are raising

an army unit or building a fleet in a province,

you may not start recruiting a new unit or build

a new fleet until the work in progress has been

finished.

If your country has reached a sufficiently

high level of military or naval technology, you

may increase the recruitment or building ca-

pacity by constructing conscription centers

(military tech level 31) and naval shipyards

(naval tech level 16). The conscription center is

shown as a small military tent, and represents a

number of administrative and economic func-

tions in your province, making it easier to es-

tablish larger army units. The effect is a tenfold

44

Europa Universalis


increase in the recruitment capacity of your

province, and improved maintenance ability

for any army unit in the province (see Mainte-

nance, and Attrition). The province’s contri-

bution to the recruitment capacity of your

country is also greatly increased. The naval

shipyard will change the port symbol of your

province, making it larger and colored in gold.

The naval shipyard is simply an improved ship-

yard, with the capacity of building all ship types

at a much higher speed, a sort of "assembly

line" production of the times. The naval ship-

yard increases the building capacity of your

province tenfold. The first naval shipyard you

build also provides one extra colonist each year.

Pillaged Provinces

Army units often lived off the land of whatever

province they occupied. This means that they

arbitrarily "requisitioned" whatever they need-

ed. These necessities and moneys were of

course taken from the inhabitants of the

province. It is therefore quite understandable

that provinces where enemy army units have

passed through do not contribute as much to

the state treasury.

In the game this means that provinces where

the enemy or rebels have gone through may

have been pillaged. You will see that a province

has been plundered by the fires around the

town or colony of the province. The pillaging

does not provide any income to the pillager,

but there will be negative consequences for the

owner of the province. The pillaged province

does not contribute to the income of the coun-

try, and the population growth of the province

is decreasing, which will affect your total in-

come in the long run. A pillaged province will

recover after a while, usually 12 months, and

then the town or colony will stop "burning."

War Taxes

War was associated with standing armies and

armed fleets during long periods. Moving

troops through the kingdom or making the

fleets seaworthy almost always required good

coin. The money covered running expenses for

supplies and ammunition. Money was also

needed to strengthen already recruited army

units. Attrition because of friction was as high

then as now, although it was caused by other

reasons then.

War taxes are a generic name for a number of

smaller taxes that were justified because of the

country being at war. The populations were

rarely very fond of all of these special taxes, war

contributions, war taxes, or lack of compensa-

tions for the activities of the state.

When choosing war taxes as an option, you

will get a 100 percent increase in income from

each of your provinces during 6 months. The

price to pay is a loss of stability of one step. You

should really consider if this extra income is

greater than the cost of regaining your stability.

If not, you should really save this measure for

any really desperate situations.

The Goal of War

We are used to looking at war in the rearview

mirror and with a focus on the 20th century –

the Age of Total War. During the epoch of the

game the scope and goals of war were not total

and all encompassing. This was an era when

ideas like Honor, Fame, and Status were more

important than Freedom, Justice, Equality,

and Brotherhood. There was also a sort of fluid

boundary between the war of the Prince and

the war of the Nation, which of course influ-

enced the overall goals. One of the reasons for

the Swedish declaration of war against Prussia

at the outbreak of the War of Pomerania in

1757 was that the Party of the Hats of the

Swedish Parliament wanted to insult the

Swedish queen, who was the sister of Frederick

II of Prussia. This will serve as an example of a

somewhat different way of thinking as com-

pared with what we are used to. The goals were

often more modest than today. Taking too

much was always punished. Both Philip II of

Spain and Louis XIV of France met heavy resis-

tance from strong coalitions when their lust for

power was perceived as a threat, but also Gus-

tavus II Adolphus of Sweden and Maximilian

of Austria ran into these "European scales of

45

Europa Universalis


balance." When making an offer of peace your

country may receive or lose a maximum of

three provinces. The exception is when you

control all of the provinces of a (non-player)

country, where you may offer annexation, and

thus win the entire country.

In a game like this, of course each player

must formulate his or her goals. There are a few

things that must be pointed out. It is important

that you plan your wars. Continually ask what

you want to gain through the war, and always

consider your actions. Sometimes your goals

may be as clear as water, for example you want

to take just that province, presenting a very

clear approach. There may be greater prob-

lems, though, especially if you have a large

country with the ambition of rubbing elbows

with the great powers of the world. What

would happen if your neighbors realize that

one of their greatest competitors has grown

very powerful and seems to be increasing even

more in power? In this case it may be necessary

to form alliances and start a war against that

power – which may be a war they don’t always

expect to win. In this case your goal may be to

keep your enemies continually occupied by

wars with other countries, thereby breaking

apart in rebellion because the fatigue of war has

become too great.

In order to win your wars you only need to

do two things, although they are admittedly

quite difficult. You need to prevent your ene-

mies from taking your provinces, and you need

to take the provinces of your enemies. You may

only demand provinces that you are actually

controlling at the time of the peace talks, and

your enemy will be more than willing to accept

your terms if you are also controlling the capi-

tal of the enemy.

Peace Treaties and War Damages

A peace treaty may be reached in three differ-

ent ways. Either you accept the offer of peace

coming from your enemy, or you make an offer

of peace, or there will be an automatic status

quo peace between you and your enemy. Note

that the third alternative will occur automati-

cally only between two countries at war with

each other, when there have not been any hos-

tile actions during the past 36 months, and if

neither of the parties are in control of any

provinces belonging to the enemy. Let’s look

more closely at the details. If you are offered

peace you may only accept or decline. You may

not renegotiate. You may decline and then fol-

low up with another offer to your enemy. If

you want to offer peace you open the diploma-

cy window, choosing "Peace offer," whereby

another window opens. The first thing you see

is the number of "stars" or "tombstones" the

war has given your country so far, and a verbal

assessment of the actual meaning of all these

stars and tombstones.

Essentially, the more stars you have, the

more you may demand, and the more tomb-

stones you have, the more you must give up in

order to get your peace. Each star/tombstone

represents a tribute of 250 ducats, which you

may either demand or pay. Two stars/ducats

represent one province, which you may de-

mand or cede. Note that you may never de-

mand or pay more than the number of stars or

tombstones, as they are directly related to the

fortunes of war so far. Also note that no more

than three provinces may change ownership

through the same peace treaty. You may also

only demand provinces you already control,

and you may only cede provinces controlled by

the enemy.

What actions result in stars? You receive stars

for controlling enemy provinces, by winning

pitched battles and naval battles, and for con-

trolling the capital of the enemy. Will your ene-

my accept your offer? It all depends on how

well the offer conforms to the fortunes of the

war, and if you are generous or not.

Let’s take an example. Sweden and Russia

are at war, and Sweden has been fortunate, and

is now offering peace. Sweden has four stars. If

Sweden chooses to demand 2 provinces

(2+2=4 stars) there is a risk that Russia will not

accept the offer. If Sweden demands one

province and 250 ducats (2+1=3 of 4 stars) the

chance of peace is greater, and if Sweden would

46

Europa Universalis


demand only one province (2 out of 4 stars) it

is very likely that Russia will accept.

Also note that you may never demand the

province where your enemy’s capital is located,

or cede the province of your own capital. There

is one special case, which has been mentioned

before, and that is "military annexation." If

you control all of the provinces of the enemy,

with its cities, when you offer peace you will re-

ceive all of its provinces (including colonies

and trading posts). The enemy country then

ceases to exist. There are two things of note in

this case. The first is that you make an "offer"

of annexation, which means that you make an

offer to the political elite of that country to be-

come part of the political elite of your own

country; these powerful men may actually de-

cline the offer. The second is that countries

that started the scenario as player countries

may never be annexed, for example if you play

the "The Grand Campaign of 1492–1792" as

Spain, you may annex any country except

France, England, Portugal, Sweden, Poland-

Lithuania, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire.

Don’t forget that military annexations always

will worsen your foreign relations enormously.

When you have annexed a country you will also

control all of its army units and fleets. A useful

line of action is to gather all of these immedi-

ately after annexation, so you don’t "forget"

any of them, which would make them suffer at-

trition (see Attrition).

When your country has accepted an offer of

peace, or when your enemy has accepted your

offer of peace, or when an automatic peace is

settled, your country and your enemy now

have a peace treaty. A peace treaty also means

that if either of you declares war on the other,

the one breaking the peace treaty within 5

years after signing it will suffer a terrible fate.

Breaking a peace treaty results in a massive loss

of stability—a total of five steps (–5).

If your country is involved in an "alliance

war," involving one or several alliances, there

are two possibilities regarding peace offers. If

your country is at war with an entire alliance,

you may make an offer of peace to the leader of

the alliance, and thus get a binding peace treaty

with all of the members of the enemy alliance,

or you may sign separate peace treaties with in-

dividual members of the enemy alliance. There

are many instances when using this option is an

excellent alternative. With a separate peace the

game only involves counting the stars and

tombstones that apply to your country and

your single enemy to whom you are offering

peace, while all of the stars and tombstones in-

volved in the war are counted when you are

dealing with the leader of the alliance. Here is

an example of when you should offer a separate

peace during a war against an alliance. The Ot-

toman Empire is at war with the "Small Al-

liance," consisting of Hungary (the leader),

Venice and Bohemia. The Ottoman Empire

has won a few battles against Venice and con-

trols three Venetian provinces. Hungary, on

the other hand, has taken two Ottoman

provinces and has won two battles. Bohemia

has won a single battle against the Ottoman

Empire. The Ottoman Empire starts by offer-

ing Venice a separate peace. Here the Ottoman

Empire has 5 stars, and demands and receives

two provinces. Venice is out of the game. Then

the Ottoman Empire makes an offer to Bo-

hemia. The Ottoman Empire has one tomb-

stone, but is hoping for a peace of status quo,

and succeeds. Bohemia is out of the game, and

only Hungary remains. The Ottoman Jan-

itchars are turning toward Hungary. Even a

peace with only the leader of the alliance may

be quite effective. Sweden is at war with Russia

(the leader), Poland-Lithuania and Denmark.

The war is going badly for Sweden, as all three

members of the alliance control three Swedish

provinces each. Sweden makes an offer to Rus-

sia, offering 1 province and 1000 ducats, rep-

resenting 6 tombstones. Russia accepts and

neither Denmark nor Poland-Lithuania re-

ceives any provinces. In this case Sweden gets

off the hook in relatively cheaply, only losing

some money and a single province.

Movement and Battle

Battles and movement are the tactical compo-

47

Europa Universalis


nents of warfare. During the period, battle and

movement could often be decisive for the out-

come of a war. A single pitched battle or a naval

battle could save the existence and indepen-

dence of an entire country. If the Spanish Ar-

mada had not foundered in 1588, England

probably would have become a vassal state of

Spain, just like Portugal. If the Ottoman Em-

pire had won outside of Vienna in 1683 Eu-

rope, as we know it, most likely would not have

existed. Another immensely important factor

was how efficiently a military unit could be

moved. Poland-Lithuania defended their giant

commonwealth by dashing about with their in-

credibly mobile armies: one moment to the

coast of the Black Sea; the next to the Baltic;

the next to the Ukraine, winning battles in the

meantime.

You may move two kinds of military units in

the game: army units and fleets. There are

three kinds of battle: Pitched Battles, Sieges,

and Naval Battles. All of this will be thorough-

ly covered in this chapter.

Army Units

As has already been mentioned, there are

three branches of the army that may be includ-

ed in the army unit: infantry, cavalry and ar-

tillery. The infantry was the basic army unit and

the cheapest one to recruit, and was also easier

to train. The infantry, together with the ar-

tillery, served as a garrison for a fortification. In

a field army, the infantry was slower than the

cavalry but faster than the artillery. The cavalry

was less economical and took longer to train;

however it was the fastest unit, extremely ma-

neuverable, and could have an enormous shock

effect in the heat of battle. On the other hand it

was less serviceable in a siege. It is also worth

noting that the cavalry, as the successor of the

knight, was the "army branch of the nobility,"

a status it was to hold until a long time after the

period covered by this game.

At the end of the 15th century, artillery was

chiefly used in sieges. Cannons were usually

very heavy and immobile and seldom of much

use in a pitched battle. The basis of the field

army was the infantry, which often lacked the

firepower to make it the decisive factor in a bat-

tle. The cavalry was the principal actor of the

battleground and lacked all firepower, but

made up for this by its strong shock effect with

the ability of quickly shattering the morale of

the enemy, if it was employed efficiently. In the

late 16th and early 17th century, the emphasis

was shifted from shock effect to firepower in

the armies of Europe. The infantry became the

equal of the cavalry, although the two forces

served different purposes during a battle. The

artillery had become lighter, and thereby more

mobile, and was also beginning to be utilized

as relief for the infantry in battles. During the

18th century, another shift in focus of battle ef-

ficiency took place. Drill and discipline had

been established in the European armies,

thereby making it possible for the infantry fire-

power to be utilized more efficiently. Infantry

became more important on the field of battle

than cavalry, even though the cavalry still

played a very important operational role, being

the most efficient branch for reconnaissance

purposes during the period. In addition, the

cavalry was still the only fast, long-range

branch of the army, which made it indispens-

able in deep-going wars such as those in Russia,

Poland, and the Middle East. The efficiency of

the artillery had increased, and it was orga-

nized in batteries with a direct fire effect

against infantry on the battlefield. Efficiently

utilized artillery could be the decisive factor of

a battle, simply because the heavy artillery fire

could shatter morale in a wing or even a flank,

an advantage that was then used by sending a

cavalry shock against the shaken, retiring in-

fantrymen.

The time it takes to recruit a unit varies be-

tween the different branches, partly because

the time it takes to train an efficient army unit

varies, partly because the setup of the unit de-

manded several kinds of specialized equip-

ment. To simplify, we can say that artillery units

take the longest to recruit, followed by the cav-

alry, and then the infantry.

The cost of recruitment depends upon a

48

Europa Universalis


number of factors. Firstly, different kinds of

troops always cost differently. Artillery is the

most expensive, followed by cavalry, and in-

fantry is the cheapest. Secondly, the cost is de-

pendent on which country is recruiting the

troops. Different countries had different tradi-

tions when it came to choosing army branches

and the composition of army units. Some

countries, for instance, chose quality above

quantity. Thirdly, the cost will vary depending

on which level of military technology your

country possesses. In general, troops get more

expensive the higher your military technology

level is, since a higher level of technology

means costlier training and more expensive

equipment. Infantry and cavalry are recruited

in units of 1000 men and artillery in units of 10

pieces.

The maintenance of your army units is paid

monthly. By accessing your country’s Financial

Summary you’ll be able to see how large the

sum is compared with your other expenses.

You may change the maintenance payments of

your country by accessing the army informa-

tion window, where you may choose what per-

cent of the maintenance you wish to pay. The

payment must be at least 50% of the actual

costs. The size of the maintenance is also based

on the size of your troops; if you have 20,000

men you’ll have to pay twice as much as if

you’d had 10,000 men. You may disband army

units to reduce the cost of maintenance. Note

that your morale will be adversely affected if

you pay less than 100% maintenance.

Fleets

As has already been mentioned, a fleet may in-

clude three kinds of vessels: warships, trans-

ports, and galleys. Warships are oceangoing,

heavily armed vessels, representing a number

of different sizes and designs. Your level of

naval technology is the determining factor.

Galleys also represent different sizes, levels of

armament and designs, but they differ from

warship in that they are less seaworthy on the

open sea, and their strength relative to the war-

ship diminishes over time. Their advantage lies

in being cheaper to build. Transports are a

jumble of different designs, differentiated, like

the other types of vessels, by your naval tech-

nology level.

Building times vary between the different

types of vessels, due to their different levels of

advancement. Generally, the higher the level of

naval technology a country possesses, the

longer it will take to build a vessel. One rule of

thumb is that warships take the longest to

build, followed by transports, and then galleys.

The cost of building a vessel depends upon a

number of factors. Firstly, different kinds of

vessels always vary in cost. Warships are the

most expensive, followed by transports, and

galleys are the cheapest. Secondly, the cost is

dependent on which country builds the vessels.

Different countries had different naval tradi-

tions about the composition of fleets. Some

countries, for instance, chose quality above

quantity. Note that galleys can only be built in

coastal provinces along the Baltic Sea, the

Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and

the Gulf of Persia, which means that countries

by these seas will have naval traditions includ-

ing the employment of galley fleets. Thirdly,

the cost will vary depending on the level of

naval technology your country possesses. In

general, vessels become more expensive the

higher your naval technology level is, since a

higher level of technology entails more expen-

sive training and equipment. All vessels are

built in units of one ship, although certain

coastal provinces can build more than one at a

time.

The maintenance of your fleets is paid

monthly. By accessing your country’s Financial

Summary you can see how large the sum is

compared with your other expenses. You may

change the maintenance payments of your

country by accessing the naval information

window, where you may choose what percent

of the maintenance you wish to pay. The pay-

ment must be at least 50% of the actual costs.

The size of the maintenance is also based on

the size of your fleets; if you have 72 vessels

you’ll have to pay twice as much as if you’d had

49

Europa Universalis


36 vessels. You may disband fleets to reduce

the cost of maintenance. Note that your

morale will be adversely affected if you pay less

than 100% maintenance.

Commanders and Specialists

A commander leads each army unit or fleet.

Commanders have a very large impact on bat-

tles (see Pitched Battles and Naval Battles),

transportation, and attrition. Commanders are

historical or general. The former are well-

known generals and admirals who worked dur-

ing the period and who are regarded as particu-

larly interesting, either because of their skills or

their imperfections in battle. The latter come

from a "national pool" and have names from

history, but none of them were distinguished

enough to become historically important.

They are something of a cheaper article, but

they still mirror the state of training and skill of

the country’s body of officers.

An army unit or a fleet may have more than

one commander, but only one of them will

command the unit; this will be the highest-

ranking commander, who is also the only one

who will add anything to the battle. Note that

you may split a unit if you want to take advan-

tage of more than one good commander.

Commanders may die in battles or through

random events. A monarch, for instance Gus-

tavus II Adolphus, may be a commander,

which means that if the monarch dies in a bat-

tle, the heir to the throne or regency will suc-

ceed him. If a commander dies in a battle, the

second-highest ranking commander will auto-

matically assume command of the army unit or

fleet. If the unit or fleet only had one historical

commander, a general commander will imme-

diately assume command.

All commanders are assigned a value in each

of the skills of Movement, Firing, Shock Ef-

fect/Boarding, and Siege. Note that each

commander is either an army or a navy com-

mander. General commanders always have the

same values, depending on their country of ori-

gin. Their values may never exceed 6 or go be-

low 0. Historical commanders have unique val-

ues that may be much more varied, i.e. be high-

er than 6 or lower than 0.

There are also two kinds of specialists: Con-

quistadors and Explorers. They function like

commanders, but also possess some special

functions.

Conquistadors lead army units and receive a

special bonus for exploring new provinces.

They also receive a special bonus when battling

natives, and a very high capacity for mainte-

nance (i.e., small risk of attrition.)

Explorers lead fleets and have a special bonus

for exploring new sea zones and bordering

provinces. Like the Conquistadors, they have a

very high capacity for maintenance (i.e., small

risk of attrition.)

Movement Restrictions

When you order an army unit to move, i.e.,

give it marching orders, there is no limit to

how far away from the province where the unit

is stationed the destination may be. The unit

will start moving toward the destination at the

speed of its slowest army branch. If you, for in-

stance, have a unit consisting of infantry, caval-

ry, and artillery, the whole unit will move as

slowly as if it only consisted of artillery. If an

enemy army unit should move into a province

through which your unit is moving, the unit

will stop immediately and a battle will take

place. If your army unit should lose, it will re-

tire. You cannot influence where it will retire,

as the commander automatically will move into

a neighboring province, giving preference to

provinces that you control. If your army unit

wins the battle, the enemy will retire while your

unit stands still, and you must give it new

marching orders. Thus, two army units from

enemy armies may never stand still in the same

province after a pitched battle, unlike units

from allied countries.

In times of peace, you may move your army

units both through your own provinces and

those of your vassals. When you are at war, you

may also move through the provinces of your

allies. You can also move freely through unfor-

tified and fortified enemy provinces, provided

50

Europa Universalis


that you detach a troop to watch the fortifica-

tion. After detaching a troop, the main part of

your unit may march on. To detach a troop for

guard purposes, click on that button in the in-

formation window.

Each army unit is assigned a number of move-

ment points each month, according to the fol-

lowing table:

Infantry 2

Cavalry 3

Artillery 1.5

Each time you move to a province it costs

movement points as follows:

Open terrain 1

Woods 1.25

Mountains 1.75

Desert 1.25

Swamps 1.5

Rivers 1

Country border 0.5

Example: A cavalry unit (3 MP/month) is con-

sequently able to move through three

provinces of open terrain in one month; or

through one desert and one mountain

province in one month. A mixed army unit

with all three army branches (1.5 MP/month)

wanting to move into a swamp province on the

other side of a river and a country border (1.5 +

1 + 0.5 = 3) will need two months to complete

their movement.

Fleets are moved in the same way as army

units, the only difference being that the sea

zones through which the fleet moves don’t be-

long to anybody. If you move into a zone

where an enemy fleet is located, an attempt of

naval interception will occur (see Naval Inter-

ception.) If neither your fleet nor the enemy

fleet succeeds with the interception, you may

keep moving. If either of you succeeds, a naval

battle will take place and the one who success-

fully intercepted the other one will receive a

bonus since he surprised the other one. Ports

do not count as sea zones, and no interception

or naval battle can take place against a fleet in

port. However, it may be blockaded if the level

of naval technology is sufficiently advanced

(see Naval Blockades and Ports.)

Each fleet is assigned a number of movement

points according to the following table:

Naval

technology

level Warships Galleys Transports

Carrack 6 4 6

Galleon 10 4 10

Lateen sail 10 4 10

Battery deck 10 4 10

Vaisseaux 12 4 12

Three-Decker 14 4 12

Each discovered sea zone costs one movement

point.

Naval Supremacy and Interception

As has already been mentioned, you cannot

control the ocean; you can only try to prevent

the enemy from controlling the shipping lanes.

Naval warfare was conducted in a fundamen-

tally different way from the battle on land, and

reaching what is sometimes known as domina-

tion of the seas was a lengthy process. We will

attempt to explain this.

Firstly, it was important to defend coastlines

and the strategic and important passages that

must be used. Enemy fleets could not be al-

lowed to cruise off a country’s own coast, as

this could mean a sudden landing with disas-

trous consequences; England lived under this

threat for many years, mainly from Spain and

France. Moreover, a country could have a nar-

row canalizing passage such as the English

Channel, the control over which would give

economic advantages and would minimize the

risk of having part of the country cut off from

the rest. To defend a coast from a nearby ene-

my fleet, it was necessary to go out to sea, find

the enemy, and attack, and thus forcing him

back to his own waters. This is where intercep-

tion is important. Since the sea zones were so

large, and a fleet could only control a small area

physically, it was never certain that a naval bat-

51

Europa Universalis


tle would occur. Many times, two enemy fleets

would keep sailing back and forth looking for

each other for a long time without having a de-

cisive battle.

When your fleet gets into the same sea zone

as an enemy fleet, there is always a chance of a

successful interception and an ensuing battle.

What happens depends on what respective lev-

els of naval technology the combatants possess,

how skilled the commanders are in maneuver-

ing their vessels and a considerable portion of

luck. Luck in this context is all about how the

wind blows. The one in the right quarter of the

wind usually had the decisive advantage in the

era of sailing ships. Note that fleets cruising

outside their own coast receive a bonus when

intercepting, and that interceptions in certain

coastal provinces (Scania, Zealand, the

Bosphorus, Gibraltar, and Tangiers) always

succeed, due to the tactical advantages for the

fleet controlling these constricted passages.

After having successfully chased an enemy

fleet away to their own port, the defending

fleet would then cruise outside the enemy coast

or try to blockade the enemy ports. When a

majority of the enemy fleets were eradicated or

in blockade, naval supremacy was achieved.

Naval Battles

A naval battle will occur when two or more en-

emy fleets receive orders to stop in the same sea

zone, or when an attempted naval interception

has succeeded.

The battle will consequently come about

when two or more enemy fleets are in the same

sea zone. You will see two battling sailing ships,

symbolizing the two sides in the battle. Each

ship will have a narrow rectangle. The color of

the rectangle shows the level of morale and how

it changes during the course of the battle. The

length of the rectangle shows the size of the

fleet compared with the enemy fleet, and how

the relative size of the fleets change as they suf-

fer losses in the battle. The battle is divided into

a number of phases that will continue until one

side loses the battle. Note that you can’t influ-

ence what happens during the various phases;

this is the duty of the fleet’s commander.

52

Europa Universalis


The losing side is the one which first loses all

its morale and thereby flees, i.e. retires (see Re-

treat) or who loses all its vessels in the battle.

Note that both sides may choose to retire at

any point during the battle. If you do, your

fleet will hoist a white flag. If you win the bat-

tle, the enemy will retire and you may either

move your fleet to another sea zone or, if you

wish and possess the naval technology for it,

begin a naval blockade; or simply cruise in the

sea zone.

What determines the outcome of a naval bat-

tle? Firstly the odds, i.e., the relative difference

in strength between the fleets, are immensely

important. Secondly, the difference in naval

technology levels is very important. Thirdly

the commander is important, as his skill value

in maneuvering, firing, and boarding will influ-

ence the phases of the battle. Fourthly the out-

come of the battle is influenced by who has uti-

lized the wind conditions most efficiently, for

which your commander is responsible. You

cannot influence this, but note that only one

side will get the bonus for wind conditions.

The loser of a naval battle must retire from

the sea zone. If the enemy originally tried to

force himself out of a blockaded port, his fleet

will retire to the same port, or else it will retire

to the sea zone which is closest to one of the

country’s own or allied ports, and which does

not contain an enemy fleet.

Naval Blockades and Ports

It has already been stated that certain

provinces—coastal provinces—possess ports.

You may send a fleet into one of your own

ports (i.e., a port in your own country) at any

time providing that you control the province

where the port is located. You may also send

your fleets into the ports of allied countries

provided that the country in question controls

the province where the port is, and that your

country and the allied country together are at

war with another country.

Why would you want to send your fleet into

port? Firstly, a fleet in port may never be at-

tacked by an enemy fleet, which means that it

can be tactically sound to send a fleet into port

53

Europa Universalis


if the enemy’s naval strength is superior to

yours. Secondly, fleets don’t suffer attrition in

port, which means that it is advisable to send a

fleet into port from time to time. Note that if

an enemy army unit takes control of a province

in which there is a port where you have a fleet,

the fleet is automatically forced out of the port

into the nearest sea zone. If there is an enemy

fleet there, a naval battle will take place.

What is a naval blockade? A naval blockade

means that you have a fleet in the sea zone ad-

jacent to a port, and that your country has

reached the right naval technology level. What

will automatically happen is that your fleet

blockades every enemy port bordering on the

sea zone. Your fleet will patrol the entrance of

the port and thus prevent ships from leaving

and calling at the port. A fleet blockading a

port can be attacked both from other sea zones

and from the port in question. The fleet will

automatically receive the bonus for successfully

utilizing wind conditions if it defends itself

against the blockaded fleet.

Pitched Battles

A pitched battle will occur when an army unit

moves or withdraws into a province containing

a hostile army unit, or when a hostile army does

something similar and moves into a province

containing one of your own army units. It may

also occur when an army unit moves into an in-

dependent province and encounters a band of

natives. If you have an army unit present a

pitched battle will take place. If not, one of two

things may happen. Either you had no trading

post or colony there before, and then nothing

will happen, or you had one, and in that case

the natives will take control over the colony.

Pitched battles, in other words, occur when

two or several army units find themselves in the

same province. You will then see two fighting

soldiers, symbolizing the two sides of the bat-

tle. Each soldier has a long rectangle. The color

of the rectangles shows the level of morale and

how it changes during the battle. The length of

the rectangles shows the size of the army unit

in proportion to the enemy army unit, and how

54

Europa Universalis


the size changes when the unit sustains casual-

ties. The battle is divided into phases that will

continue until one of the sides loses the battle.

Note that you can’t control the action during

the phases. That is the task of the commander.

The side that either loses its morale and

thereby flees (or withdraws, see Retreat) or los-

es all its soldiers has been defeated. Note that ei-

ther one of the armies may chose to withdraw at

any time. If you do that your army will carry a

white flag. If you win the battle the enemy will

withdraw and you may either move your army

to another province or you may chose to begin

a siege or assault against any fortifications in the

province where the army unit is standing.

What determines the outcome of the battle?

Firstly, the odds, i.e. the relative strength be-

tween the army units, are extremely important.

Secondly, the difference in level of military

technology is very important. Thirdly, the

commander is important since his skills of

movement, fire, and shock effect will influence

the phases of the battle. Furthermore, the out-

come of the battle is affected by the side that

has cavalry superiority. This will give the com-

mander scouting information that he may use

while commanding the battle and an effective

force to send against retiring enemies. Note

that cavalry superiority loses its importance in

provinces with forests, swamps, and moun-

tains. Finally, the invader will receive a negative

bonus when attacking in a mountain province,

across a river, or when disembarking in a

province containing a hostile army unit.

The defeated party in a battle must withdraw

from the province, preferably to a province

controlled by its own country or an ally, and

not containing any hostile army units.

Retreat

Retreat will occur if either of two conditions

are present: when your army or fleet is defeated

in a pitched battle or naval battle, or when you

order your army or fleet during a pitched battle

or naval battle to move away from the province

where the battle is taking place, i.e. voluntary

retreat.

Note that if an army is defeated in a pitched

battle or if a fleet is defeated in a naval battle it

must withdraw. If, for some reason, there is no

province or sea zone to withdraw to, the unit

will be destroyed.

When a fleet or army withdraws the unit’s

flag will be exchanged for a white flag, thus

marking that your are no longer in control of

the unit, that it will not affect the province it

withdraws to, and that it is increasingly vulner-

able if attacked by the enemy.

When a withdrawing army or fleet arrives in a

province or sea zone free of hostile units, the

unit’s flag reverts to the flag of its country, the

player regains control over the unit, and

morale will slowly recover.

Note that it is tactically sound to pursue a

withdrawing enemy and immediately resume

the pitched battle or naval battle, thus using

the advantage of your unit’s superior morale.

Fortifications, Sieges, and Assaults

The importance of fortifications cannot be

overestimated. A hostile army unit automati-

cally controls a province without a fortress as

soon as it has moved into the province. A

province with a fortress, however, must either

be put under siege or assaulted. Sieges may

take a long time; anywhere from three months

up to a year is common. The assault may be

quick, but usually with great loss of life. In ad-

dition, the great loss in combat morale experi-

enced after an assault makes you vulnerable to a

quick counterattack that could completely

wipe out a hitherto successful military opera-

tion (see Combat Morale). You should erect

fortifications in your provinces. The basic cost

is 100 ducats, but the price may be higher de-

pending on the country’s level of inflation. You

may also upgrade existing fortresses to more

modern and larger models, but in order to do

that you must achieve a certain level of military

technology.

A siege commences after a victorious pitched

battle in a fortified enemy province, or once an

army unit is moved into a hostile province with

a fortress but with no enemy army units pre-

55

Europa Universalis


sent. In both cases the army unit must be of

minimum size in order to initiate the siege.

Normally the size should be equal to that of the

unit stationed at the garrison.

Why would you want to besiege a fortress?

This is your only opportunity to control the

city and thereby the province. A controlled

province gives you more stars when you or

your enemy offers peace. When preparing for a

siege, you have a couple of options. Firstly, you

may assign a watch detail. This makes it possi-

ble for you to maintain a supply line through

the province, keep an eye on the fortress, and

control the province. Secondly, you may assign

the actual siege force. This force will subse-

quently attempt to take the city by building

trenches that are successively extended and ad-

vanced, attempt to undermine the fortress

walls using sappers, fire upon, and starve the

garrison into surrendering.

Each month the garrison’s defenses are test-

ed. If they fail, the fortress falls into your

hands. Factors that affect this include how long

the siege has been in place, the besieged com-

mander’s siege experience, the province’s ter-

rain (where the fortress is located), the relative

difference in artillery, the size of the fortress,

and earlier results.

A fortress usually falls sooner or later, but

note that your enemy may send an army unit

into the province, forcing you to fight and win

a pitched battle in order to continue the siege.

Another problem is attrition: If the size of your

army unit becomes smaller than that of the

forces defending the garrison, then the siege is

lifted and you may only guard the fortress. You

may of course move additional units into the

province and resume the siege. Also note that

at any time you may break off the siege in order

to leave the province, or assault the fortress.

It has been noted earlier that an assault may

turn out to be very bloody. An example of a

failed assault is Charles X Gustavus’ attempted

assault of Copenhagen in 1659. Assaults may

also be successful. Assaulting after a few

months’ siege is usually a good strategy. To

launch an assault, click on the assault button in

the information window. The assault itself is

similar to a pitched battle, with a few notable

exceptions.

The person launching the assault will win if

the enemy’s garrison is completely wiped out

or forced to retreat (which means it is disband-

ed). The terrain is of no consequence. Nor is

cavalry used during an assault. If the assault is

successful, the fortress’s level is lowered one

step (e.g. from medium to small), although

never so low that the province is left without a

fortress. Finally there is a risk that the town is

pillaged, which significantly reduces the popu-

lation. Pillaging is an abstract phase of the bat-

tle that can’t be seen, and the player cannot

control it since it is the result of soldiers who

run amuck.

Supply Lines

Army units and fleets sometimes suffer attri-

tion, i.e. suffer a loss of lives without having ex-

perienced battle. Army units must maintain

functioning supply lines in order to reduce the

risk of attrition. Historically, a supply line was

more or less a caravan of wagons with supplies

and necessities that shuttled back and forth be-

tween the field units and the supply depots lo-

cated in more civilized areas. Each army unit

has its supply level checked once a month. If

the level is high there is a low rate of attrition,

but if the level is low the unit will lose more sol-

diers.

So what is a supply line? An army unit must

be able to draw an imaginary line through

provinces on the map to a province that serves

as a supply base. There is no limit to how long

this line may be. This line may only be drawn

through provinces that are controlled by you

or your allies and not through those containing

enemy units or provinces that are not held ei-

ther by your forces or those of your allies. The

point is that the line cannot be drawn through

a province containing enemy army units. Also,

the line may not be drawn through neutral

provinces (i.e. provinces belonging to coun-

tries that are not involved in your war) or inde-

pendent provinces.

56

Europa Universalis


Which provinces may then serve as supply

bases? First of all, all provinces with a town or

colony, without a port, that belong to and are

controlled by the country. Secondly, coastal

provinces controlled by the country (i.e. they

do not have to belong to the country) and that

are not under a sea blockade. Note that you

and your allies may use each other’s supply

bases during war. In addition, note that

provinces with trading posts cannot be used as

supply bases.

The effect of not being able to draw a supply

line is that the attrition rate increases by 30% a

month.

Attrition

Army units were traditionally worn out more

quickly than they are today. There wasn’t the

same level of medical care, the diet was differ-

ent, and there was a different awareness of hy-

giene. You marched regardless of the weather,

you were seldom dry, and you slept under the

stars. Diseases and epidemics flourished and

poor nutrition increased susceptibility. To top

it all off, there were soldiers who didn’t want to

fight. They were simply fed up and escaped as

soon as they saw their chance. These are a few

factors affecting attrition and are sometimes re-

ferred to as one element in the strategic con-

cept of "friction."

In the game it is of course the case that the

more trials an army unit or fleet is exposed to,

the greater the attrition. Time also plays a part.

Each month the supply level of each army unit

and fleet is checked. The result is shown as the

number of losses due to attrition.

Which are the factors affecting attrition in an

army unit? Most important is the size of the

unit. Secondly, the allegiance, control, and sta-

tus (pillaged or not) of the province in which

the unit is located. Thirdly, the province’s rela-

tive richness, i.e. the size of its production, is

considered. You may see this information for

each selected province in the information win-

dow if you click on the church. Also, some

types of terrain and the weather in the province

may have an influence (e.g. desert or swamps,

and winter). Moreover, the attrition rate is af-

57

Europa Universalis


fected by the use of the army unit: movements,

retreats, battles, sieges, assaults, and whether

the unit is able to maintain a supply line. Final-

ly, the attrition rate is lowered in proportion to

the commander’s movement skill. Note here

that one of the great advantages of the Con-

quistadors above all other commanders is their

ability to reduce the attrition rate to a mini-

mum level.

A skull in the information window indicates

the attrition level for a selected army unit. The

extent of attrition is shown using colors.

Red Lacks a supply line

Yellow Attrition is occurring

White Army unit located in tropical climate

(very high attrition)

Grey No attrition

Which factors play a part in the attrition of a

fleet? Firstly, the level of naval military technol-

ogy achieved affects attrition. The higher the

level, the lower the attrition. Secondly, it is a

matter of where the fleet is located. Attrition is

always zero in port, but increases incrementally

in the following: sea zones that border on a

coastal province, sea zones that border on an-

other province, and finally sea zones that do

not border on a coast. The attrition rises to

catastrophic levels if the fleet is located in a sea

zone where there is a storm or one that is ice-

locked. Further, attrition is reduced in propor-

tion to the commander’s movement skill. Also,

attrition increases for each month that the fleet

is at sea without visiting a port. Finally, attrition

increases on galleys operating outside the

Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, or the Black Sea.

A skull in the information window indicates

the attrition level for a selected fleet. The ex-

tent of attrition is shown using colors.

Red Storm (as well as galleys in any "in-

correct" sea zones)

Yellow At sea

White Following the coast

Grey In port

Combat Morale

Combat morale is an important factor in battle.

If the army unit’s or fleet’s combat morale falls

to the lowest level during combat, then it will

lose the battle. Each army unit and fleet has a

combat morale value, shown as a narrow rect-

angle at the base of the unit. This indicates the

unit’s morale in the scale red-yellow-green. A

newly recruited or assembled unit always starts

its career with the lowest possible morale. It in-

creases each month until it reaches the maxi-

mum level possible considering your level of

technology.

The combat morale depends on the naval

and land military level of technology, respec-

tively, that your country has achieved. The

higher the technology level is, the higher the

combat morale. There are some special cases.

Firstly, countries with a reformed or Shia

Moslem state religion experience a bonus in

combat morale. Secondly, the combat morale

in your country decreases for five years if it has

suffered an economic collapse. Thirdly, the

morale is lower if you pay less than 100 % of the

cost of maintenance. Fourthly, fleets consisting

only of transport ships have a very low combat

morale. Finally, galleys always suffer a low com-

bat morale and are not affected by improve-

ments in naval military technology.

Note that a unit whose combat morale has

decreased will recover to maximum morale

each month. It may therefore be tactically

sound to wait a month before using a unit with

low morale to attack and thereby allow it to

"take the bull by the horns" when it is fully re-

covered.

58

Europa Universalis


Economy and

Infrastructure

Your Economy Is Your Heart

Economy is, of course, the art of managing

your resources. Your country enjoys many

sources of income, but also has a number of ex-

penses as a result of the activities (war, trade,

etc.) that your country carries out. If your

country is poor, i.e. all enemies or potential en-

emies are richer than your country, then an im-

portant conclusion to draw is that you must in-

crease the income and/or reduce the expenses.

Also note that poorly financed activities (such

as financing war by taking loans) seldom pays

in the long run.

There are different types of income, and they

vary both in form and size. First of all, we dis-

tinguish between annual, monthly, and other

incomes.

Annual income

The annual income is received at the start of

each new year and comprises a Census Tax,

Tolls, and Trade Tariffs. When you receive the

annual income, the funds are placed in your

treasury at your disposal.

The Census Tax is a fixed tax that was as-

sessed per inhabitant and in the game it is based

on the sum value of your provinces’ taxes. In

reality, tolls were the fees that the state charged

on goods as they were transported from one

place to another within the country, and it was

through these that the government attempted

to control trade by channeling goods to only a

few cities. The size of the tolls depends on your

country’s level of trade technology, as well as

the size and number of cities, colonies, and

trading posts that belong to your country.

Trade tariffs are a fixed fee that merchants must

pay in order to run their business in the trade

centers that belong to your country (i.e. those

located in one of your provinces). The trade

tariff is 5 ducats per merchant.

59

Europa Universalis


Monthly income

The monthly income is received once the

monthly cost (more about this later) has been

deducted. The monthly income comprises Tax

Income, Production Income, Interest on Ex-

tended Loans, and Income from factories. The

monthly income is to be distributed. You may

invest in stability, research in areas of technolo-

gy (land military, naval military, trade, infras-

tructure), and make "withdrawals" to cash.

The exact composition the of tax income

varies from country to country and period to

period, but historically it may be said in gener-

al that land taxes and informal fees (e.g. salt

fees, etc.) made up the largest part. Tax income

is based on the sum value of your provinces’

taxes. Production income traditionally came

from the sale of products from the royal

grounds, as well as the sale of official offices

and a throng of various minor fees aimed at the

subjects’ production and consumption. The

production income is based on the sum value

of your provinces’ production. Trade income

derived primarily from an indirect tax on inter-

national trade, but during the Mercantile era

also became a political method of attempting

to subsidize the development of the country’s

means of production. The trade income’s size

is a result of the total number of merchants

your country has stationed in foreign centers of

trade. Interest on extended loans is exactly

what it says: the interest you earn on the loans

you have made to other countries (see Loans).

Income from factories is the income that the

state receives, partly due to the special prices

that the governments’ own institutions enjoy

when buying the factory products, partly be-

cause the state often owned part of the facto-

ries and thereby received part of the profits.

These incomes are dependent on how many

factories your country has and of what type

(see Upgrading the Infrastructure).

Other Income

The other sources of income lack regularity

and appear on special occasions when the in-

come appears as liquid assets in your treasury.

These can be gifts from other countries, new

loans, tributes paid as a result of a peace agree-

ment, the levying of a war tax (see War Taxes)

as well as random events.

Such things as the stability of the country,

the national level of inflation, and the level of

technology at which your country’s infrastruc-

ture operates affect both the annual and

monthly incomes.

In terms of expenses there are only monthly

expenses and other expenses. In other words,

there are no annual expenses. Monthly expens-

es include the cost of maintaining a military

and the interest on loans you have taken. As

mentioned earlier, the monthly expenses are

deducted from the monthly income before it is

received. If the monthly balance is negative,

the difference is withdrawn from the treasury.

If there isn’t enough money to cover the differ-

ence or the treasury is empty, then your coun-

try is automatically forced to borrow money. If

your country already has borrowed the maxi-

mum five times allowed in the game (see

Loans), then it is automatically declared

bankrupt.

For example, balance is achieved if: monthly

income – (monthly expenses + investments) =

0.

If there is no balance, then: liquid assets in

treasury – negative result.

The other expenses lack regularity and ap-

pear on special occasions at which the cost is

immediately deducted from the liquid assets in

your treasury. These include gifts to other

countries, repayment of loans, payment of trib-

utes as a result of a peace agreement, as well as

random events. Included in other expenses are

the variable costs incurred when recruiting

army units, building fleets, appointing officials,

building or upgrading fortresses, and sending

out colonists, traders, and merchants.

Provinces and Population Growth

If it is true that your country’s economy is its

heart, then the provinces are your country’s

veins. It is in the provinces that everything hap-

pens. The economic system is alive with the ex-

60

Europa Universalis


change of goods. This occurs in the market

places next to where people live, people who

produce and consume.

In other words, the population of a province

is directly related to the amount of goods pro-

duced, the number of people working, the ex-

tent of the trade, and finally the government’s

ability to receive income from taxes and fees.

This means that every province has a tax val-

ue, a production value, and a trade value.

These are in direct proportion to the size of the

province’s population. If the population in-

creases, then these three values increase as well,

which in the end means that both the monthly

and annual incomes increase.

How then do you increase the size of the

population? Note first of all that when we refer

to the population we are talking about the

town’s, the colony’s, or the trading post’s pop-

ulation, i.e. the provincial center. Each

province normally experiences a positive popu-

lation growth that contributes to an increase in

the size of the provincial population each

month. You can see the exact amount by click-

ing on the church in the information window.

The amount of growth can be higher than nor-

mal if there is a center of trade in the province

or in a neighboring province, if there is a facto-

ry in the province, or if the province contains

the country’s capital.

The province may also experience a negative

population growth (i.e. the size of the popula-

tion decreases over time). This is likely to occur

in provinces where you have founded a colony

and in cities located in very inhospitable areas

(e.g. in the tropical parts of Africa). The

province may also suffer a temporary negative or

less positive population growth if the province is

plundered, besieged, or if the province is con-

trolled by rebels.

There are also times when the size of the

population changes suddenly and at once, ei-

ther up or down. When you send a colonist, the

population will increase by 100 inhabitants, al-

though you cannot send colonists to provinces

with a population of 5000 or more. When an

army unit successfully conquers a province

through siege or assault, the population might

61

Europa Universalis


decrease in size due to a massacre (the soldiers

of the time were sometimes very difficult to

control). Finally, random events may change

the size of the population.

So, the larger the population the higher the

production value, tax value, and trade value.

Trading posts usually have a very low produc-

tion value and barely any tax value, but have a

very high trade value. The colony will be seen

as a less developed city. A city has more bal-

anced values, but the production value and tax

value may increase significantly as the popula-

tion increases, while the trade value remains

steady. Note that the trade value is not as de-

pendent on the population size as are the other

values. What is much more important is supply

and demand and the market price, but more

about this later. To get an idea of at what popu-

lation levels these three values are strongly af-

fected, see "levels of development" below.

When a city’s population has grown so much

that the city achieves a new level of develop-

ment, the three values increase significantly.

Level of development Inhabitants

Colony Level 1* 100

Colony Level 2* 200

Colony Level 3* 300

Colony Level 4* 400

Colony Level 5* 500

Colony Level 6* 600

Colonial City Level 1* 700



City Level 1 5000

City Level 2 10000

City Level 3 20000

City Level 4 40000

City Level 5 80000

City Level 6 200000

Sending colonists may increase the population.

Also note that if the population size reaches

1000 inhabitants it can never decrease to less

than this amount. Remember that stability al-

ways has an impact on population growth.

62

Europa Universalis


Production and goods

Production is, of course, the foundation of any

economy. The inhabitants of a province pro-

duce goods and these goods are varied, but

usually one or a few stand out as characteristic

for a province. Using modern terminology one

would speak of "comparative advantages," i.e.

if a province is best at producing a certain prod-

uct then that product should be the one they

produce. It isn’t difficult to see that it is better

they produce wine and feta cheese in southern

Europe, and timber and furs in northern Eu-

rope rather than the other way around. There-

fore, in this game each province has a specific

product that they produce. This should be seen

as the most important product in the province

(after all, historically every province produced

grain and fish).

For obvious reasons, products have different

prices on the market. The market price de-

pends on supply and demand, but also on what

we call the product’s base value. What is base

value? Today there are relatively few new prod-

ucts that have never been seen before, but the

pricing mechanism is affected by advertising

and trends. During the period of the game

there were similar factors that affected pricing.

New, exotic goods created the same kind of

"higher value" as our trends today. Status was

not only as important then as it is now, but it

was more visible. Open and boastful consump-

tion brought status and showed everyone what

a great person you were. Base value is, in other

words, the difference in value that is caused by

reasons not normally taken into account by the

pricing mechanism. The chart below shows the

products found in this game and their respec-

tive base values.

Product Product’s base value

Cloth Normal (10)

Gold* Special (-)

Cotton Normal (10)

Fish Normal (10)

Fur Normal (10)

Grain Low (5)

Ivory High (15)

Iron Normal (10)

Copper Normal (10)

Chinaware Very High (20)

Naval Supplies High (15)

Salt Normal (10)

Slaves Normal (10)

Spices Very High (20)

Sugar High (15)

Tobacco High (15)

Wine Low (5)

Wool Low (5)

*Gold is not traded and is not given a base val-

ue. However, the production value is automat-

ically converted to liquid assets. Below you will

find a more detailed description of each prod-

uct and what affects the demand side of the

pricing mechanism.

Cloth represent various fabrics and raw ma-

terials for clothes that were used during this

time period, primarily fleece and wool, but also

linen, rough homespun, etc. Once the planta-

tions started up in America during the 18th

century and trade with India increased, cotton

also became a raw material in the production of

cloth. Demand for cloth increases when more

trade good factories and recruitment centers

are built.

Gold and silver were the basis for the entire

monetary system in Europe, and they were

much-coveted raw materials. The discovery

and exploitation of gold deposits in Central

and South America made some European

countries very wealthy, but also increased infla-

tion and significantly lowered the value of their

currencies. The value of gold is not affected by

supply and demand. The more gold that is ex-

tracted globally, however, the more inflation

increases for all countries in the game. The

countries mining gold will experience even

greater inflation.

Cotton originally came from Central Asia

but was not commonly used in Europe until it

was successfully planted in the American

colonies. It was used as an inexpensive and ad-

equate complement and substitute for wool in

the emerging textile industry of the 18th cen-

tury. The demand for cotton increases when

63

Europa Universalis


more trade good factories are built, as well as

when provinces that produce textiles are colo-

nized.

Fish was not only the basic source of nour-

ishment for historical Europe (meat was con-

sidered the luxury food of the upper class), but

also the entire fishing industry contributed to

considerable shipbuilding. Fishermen were the

primary manpower for most naval military

fleets. The demand for fish increases when

more factories, recruitment centers, and naval

shipyards are built.

Furs were the basis of high quality, warm

clothing and came from a number of different

animals such as sable, fox, mink, bear, and wolf.

The highly desirable furs originally came main-

ly from Scandinavia and Russia, but as America

was colonized this also became an important

source up until the middle of the 18th century.

The demand for furs increases when more fac-

tories, recruitment centers, and naval shipyards

are built, as well when an increasing number of

cities appoint chief judges and governors.

Grain represents the different vegetables

that constituted the foundation of the daily di-

et (i.e. bread) for both humans and domesti-

cated animals. The lack of grain nearly always

led to uprisings and rebellion. The European

cereals – especially rye, oats, and barley – were

later joined by tomatoes, corn, and even pota-

toes, which provided a significantly more var-

ied diet. The demand for grain increases when

more factories, recruitment centers, and naval

shipyards are built.

Ivory was one of the most important trade

goods from Africa alongside the slave trade.

Ivory was highly sought after by the craftsmen

of Europe, who used it to make eating utensils,

jewelry cases, reliquaries, instruments, orna-

ments, furniture, etc. The demand for ivory in-

creases when more factories, recruitment cen-

ters, and naval shipyards are built; and when

more cities appoint chief judges and governors.

Iron includes iron and similar metals except

copper, lead, and precious metals. Iron was the

most important raw material of the entire met-

al industry, and was used for weapons, tools,

shipbuilding, reinforcement of buildings, etc.

The demand for iron increases when more

weapon factories and naval shipyards are built.

Copper also includes metals such as tin, zinc,

lead, and silver, as well as gems. Copper is one

of the ingredients in brass and therefore impor-

tant to the early foundries, but it was also used

in its pure form or in other alloys to manufac-

ture receptacles, weapons, armor, and canons.

The metal was also used to make coins and ob-

jects of art. The demand for copper increases

when more weapon factories and naval ship-

yards are built.

Chinaware includes various exotic trade

goods such as silk, porcelain, carpets, gems,

ebony, and other arts and crafts manufactured

in India, China, Persia and the Far East. Since

every object of this sort was completely unique

in Europe, the merchants and sea captains who

succeeded in bringing home a couple of ob-

jects often received astronomical sums. The

demand for chinaware increases when more

factories, recruitment centers, and naval ship-

yards are built; and when more cities appoint

chief judges and governors.

Naval supplies represent all of the different

raw materials necessary for shipbuilding, from

timber and canvas to tar, hemp, and ropes.

Originally most of these raw materials came

from Scandinavia, but later North America be-

came an increasingly important source. The

demand for Naval supplies increases when

more shipbuilding plants and naval shipyards

are built.

Salt was as important a part of the domesti-

cated animals’ diet as it was for the humans. It

was also the only way (apart from freezing in

the winter) of preserving food. They used ei-

ther the mineral salt from the mines in Central

Europe, or the sea salt extracted by evaporation

at sunnier latitudes. The demand for salt in-


ters, and naval shipyards are built.

Slaves were an accepted commodity for trade

since antiquity, but demand increased drasti-

cally when they were needed as labor on the

North American cotton, tobacco, and sugar

64

Europa Universalis


plantations. Slaves were an important com-

modity in the Moslem world long after the

time when slave trade was more or less abol-

ished in Europe. The demand for slaves in-

creases as more provinces that produce cotton,

sugar, and tobacco are colonized.

Spices were known in Europe since antiquity

and used both for food preservation, seasoning

of rather rotten food, and for alleged healing

properties. Pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cinna-

mon, etc., were shipped from East Africa, In-

dia, China, and the Spice Islands (today called

Indonesia) to the markets in Alexandria and

the Middle East. The European call for a faster

and less expensive supply was the main reason

for the first Portuguese explorations eastward.

The demand for spices increases when more

factories, recruitment centers, and naval ship-

yards are built; and when more cities appoint

chief judges and governors.

Sugar was used not only as a seasoning but

also as a preservative. At the time cane sugar

was the only known source of sugar, and it was

originally cultivated near the Mediterranean.

The plantations in America, primarily in the

Caribbean, quickly took the lead, however.

The demand for sugar increases when more

breweries are built.

Tobacco was unknown in Europe until the

first Conquistadors returned home from

America during the 16th century. It quickly

became fashionable in the upper classes to

smoke the expensive tobacco, which lead to a

quick economic boost for the British colonies

on the North American East coast and in Por-

tuguese Brazil. The demand for tobacco in-


ters, and naval shipyards are built; and when

more cities appoint chief judges and governors.

Wine had been produced in southern Eu-

rope for as long as anyone could remember and

was a regular feature in the daily diet, with the

exception of the Moslem world. Wine was not

considered exclusive, but was probably a rather

welcome relief from the pains of everyday life a

couple of hundred years before penicillin, an-

tibiotics, and sterile environments. In northern

and eastern Europe mead, beer, vodka, and

65

Europa Universalis


low-alcohol beer were similarly used as meal-

time beverages. The demand for wine increases

when more factories, recruitment centers, and

naval shipyards are built.

Wool came primarily from the flocks of sheep

that were kept in Europe and Asia’s more dis-

tant corners, and together with linen constitut-

ed the main raw material for clothing before

the arrival of cotton. The demand for wool in-

creases when factories, recruitment centers,

and naval shipyards are built.

External Factors

Your country’s economy is, of course, affected

by what happens in the world at large and what

your country does. The factors we discussed

earlier in the chapter – production, taxes, trade,

etc. – take place in your provinces; i.e., within

your own country. We have also described

what "normally" happens, when the world is

quiet and peaceful. Things may be quite differ-

ent, however, in times of war or general unrest.

Two factors that affect your economy on dif-

ferent levels and thereby have "multiple effects"

are your country’s level of stability and its level

of infrastructure technology. If your country

suffers reduced stability, all of your income will

be reduced together with your ability to invest

in research. War is another scourge since, even if

your country’s stability is intact (i.e. another

country declares war on yours), you will face re-

duced resources. Pillaged provinces, centers of

revolt, sieges, assaults, and many other factors

may reduce the population of your provinces

and, with time, your income.

Remember that you must think relatively.

When you look back on the past decade and

discover that your annual income has risen

10%, it is not necessarily time to celebrate. If

the annual income of your potential enemies

has increased by 50% during the same period,

you have lost economic strength in relation to

them.

Loans

Loans during this period were as common as

they are today, but repayment was not as com-

mon.

66

Europa Universalis


First of all, you may receive a loan from the

country’s national bank. This means that you

are borrowing money internally from your

own subjects. If you do not repay the loan you

will suffer the consequences, since your sub-

jects are not likely to trust you in the future. A

national bank loan equals 200 ducats, no more

and no less. The size of the loan, however, may

change as a result of development of your

country’s financial institutions (random

events). Your country may have no more than

five loans simultaneously. Each loan has a term

of five years (effective as of the loan date). After

five years, the loan is either repaid or extended

for five more years. If a loan is extended, then

the interest rate on all loans increases. Each

month the interest due on all loans is deducted

from the monthly income, since the interest is

part of monthly costs, as was mentioned earlier.

The level of stability in the country, the num-

ber of loans you have taken, if the country has

been declared bankrupt, and whether you have

renewed any loans, affects the interest rate.

Countries may also lend each other money.

You decide the terms when you extend the offer

to lend money (in the diplomacy window). Here

you decide the sum you want to offer, and you

may offer no more than half the sum in your

treasury at any one time. You may also decide

the interest rate, which can be between 1 and

10%. Finally you decide the loan period, which

may be between 1 and 300 months. Note that

your counterpart may decline the loan offer.

This is a result of the terms you offered and your

foreign affairs relationship. If you are offered a

loan you cannot negotiate the terms. You may

only accept or decline. If two countries that have

a loan relationship (one has borrowed from the

other) go to war, then the loan ceases to exist,

i.e. the lender will never be repaid and the bor-

rower never has to repay the money.

Repayment of a loan is always a problem and

may sometimes come as an unpleasant surprise.

The best way to avoid the surprise is to use the

archive effectively (see Archive). Loans from

the national bank are for a five-year period,

which means they are to be repaid five years af-

ter they are issued. You cannot choose to repay

the loan earlier because loans of liquid assets

had to be repaid in liquid assets, and since the

majority of the country’s income and expenses

was managed within a barter economy, careful

planning was required. Nor can loans be amor-

tized, i.e. paid back a little bit at a time. This is

because those who extended the loans obvi-

ously want to maximize the interest income

they receive. When a loan is due for repayment,

you may choose either to repay it in full, or to

renew the loan. Note that if you renew a loan,

you are only postponing the problem because

sooner or later you will either have to repay or

declare national bankruptcy. The latter is very

unpleasant and should be avoided at all costs.

Repayment of loans from other countries

works a little differently. Firstly, they are not

counted toward the five-loan limit. Secondly,

you may simply decide not to pay back the

money, i.e. declare that you do not owe the

other country any money. This will result,

however, in your stability level dropping one

level and giving the other country a Casus Bel-

li against your country.

You must declare national bankruptcy if your

country has five unpaid loans and you either

cannot repay one of them on the due date, or if

you have five unpaid loans and your monthly

income/expense balance is negative and your

treasury lacks the funds to cover the difference.

Note that if this should occur and you have less

than five loans, then a loan will automatically

be taken to cover the negative balance.

When your country declares national

bankruptcy the stability level drops one level,

since your subjects lose faith in the ability of the

monarch and the government to manage the

country’s finances. All loans from the national

bank are written off (i.e. disappear) when you

declare bankruptcy, but all future loans from

the national bank will have a much higher in-

terest rate. Inflation is cut in half since the

country no longer has interest payments to

make. Finally, your army units and fleets’ com-

bat morale drops. This effect will last for three

years from the time your country goes

67

Europa Universalis


bankrupt. The reason for the drop is the gener-

al unrest that spread through the troops when

they heard that the national treasury, from

which their salary is paid, was empty.

Observe that loans are not necessarily trou-

ble, only poorly managed loans are. Loans are

in fact often a necessity. A few examples are

when your country wants to build factories or

needs to recruit army units quickly for a war

that is about to break out. In other words,

there will be times in the game when you can-

not afford not to take a loan, and then it will be

more profitable to take the loan instead of

slowly saving money in the bank.

Inflation

In the past inflation was an even greater prob-

lem than it is today, at least in Europe. The rea-

son for this was that they had a lesser under-

standing of the causes of inflation than today,

and that they lacked the political control neces-

sary to suppress it.

As you know, inflation is a function of gener-

al price increases keeping a higher pace than in-

dividuals’ increases in income, as well as the

amount of legal tender (i.e. money) circulating

in the economy. This was very problematic

during the pre-capitalist era, and for good rea-

son. One problem was the differentiated mon-

etary system during this period. It meant that

part of the system was a barter economy with-

out money as a means of payment. When mon-

ey was used there were several different types of

coins used simultaneously. The value of the

coins was based on the value of the metal of

which the coins were made. Generally it can be

said that the majority of people used copper

coins, the merchants and city dwellers added

the use of silver coins, and the government

added gold coins to the mix. If, say, the value of

copper dropped then the relative value of silver

and gold coins increased, amplifying the effects

of inflation for the broad masses of society. An-

other problem was the subjects’ confidence in

the quality of the coinage. There were many

possibilities for forgery, a fact abused by less

scrupulous governments.

What will increase inflation in your country?

First, it is the supply of gold in your provinces.

The problem was that gold could be used for

little else than coins. If a country could extract

a lot of gold from its gold-producing

provinces, then the country’s government

could use this gold as a means of payment. In

simple terms you could say that the amount of

currency in a country must be in balance with

the country’s total production, and when the

means of payment increased disproportionate-

ly inflation followed. The rule of thumb is,

then, that gold causes inflation, but at the same

time gold production provides a direct profit of

liquid assets that the other provinces do not

yield. Secondly, inflation is affected if your

country borders on a country that produces

gold. Thirdly, the inflation rate will be impact-

ed for every neighboring country that has

higher inflation than your country. Fourthly, it

is affected by each loan your country has taken,

since the loan results in liquid assets pouring

into your country’s monetary system. Fifthly

and perhaps most importantly, it is changed by

the amount of liquid assets you choose to with-

draw from your monthly income. By with-

drawing liquid assets in this way you are financ-

ing public consumption through the produc-

tion of coins, which in modern terms is usually

referred to as "starting up the printing press"

(for bank notes).

So what will decrease the country’s inflation?

You may conquer and annex countries that

have a higher inflation than yours, but for obvi-

ous reasons this is hardly cost-effective. Choos-

ing to cede gold-producing provinces through

peace treaties isn’t an alternative either since

these provinces are some of the richest in the

world. There were, after all, more reasons than

just establishing trading posts for why Spain

chose to colonize America. You may, however,

attempt to avoid taking loans, or at least take as

few as possible and pay them back on when

due. To never withdraw part of your disposable

monthly income as liquid assets is a near im-

possibility, but not doing it unnecessarily is a

virtue. Declaring national bankruptcy will cut

68

Europa Universalis


inflation in half, but as mentioned earlier car-

ries with it a number of negative economic

consequences. It is almost impossible to avoid

inflation completely, but through a planned

and well-executed economy you may lessen its

effects. One thing you may do to control infla-

tion is to appoint mayors as governors. They

are efficient inflation fighters and each ap-

pointment lower inflation by one percent.

What are the effects of inflation? Basically,

the price of anything that money can buy will

increase with inflation. This includes recruiting

army units, building fleets, building or upgrad-

ing fortresses, building factories, and appoint-

ing public officials. Note that all income con-

nected to taxes, trade, and production is affect-

ed by inflation.

Upgrading the Infrastructure

Your country’s income is dependent on the

provinces and their ability to generate it. How

can you affect the provinces’ tax, production,

and trade value?

First of all you may appoint public officials in

the provinces. The bailiff can be appointed tax

collector (infrastructure technology level 1 is

necessary), which means that the province’s tax

value and production value increase, while at

the same time the risk of rebellion in the

province increases. The population does not

approve of the introduction of an efficient tax

authority. Provided that you have appointed

the bailiff as tax collector you may appoint the

legal counsel to chief justice (infrastructure

technology level 3 is needed), which further in-

creases the province’s tax value and lessens the

risk of rebellion. The population is justified in

feeling more secure with an efficient justice sys-

tem. You may also appoint the mayor to be

governor (infrastructure technology level 5 is

necessary), which increases the province’s pro-

duction value and population, while at the

same time lowering the country’s inflation.

This is natural since the highest public official

has higher status and authority to control and

manage the province.

One should view the appointment of public

officials in the game as a development over

time from a decentralized semi-feudal political

system to an increasingly centralized political

system. The political reform introduced during

the period of the game had strong ties to the

organization of the country’s economy. In

countries with a semi feudal economy such as

Poland-Lithuania and the Ottoman Empire,

the political development toward a more cen-

tralized society could quickly come to a halt.

Secondly, you may build factories which of

themselves affect a lot of other factors (see In-

vesting in Factories). Factories raise the pro-

duction value and tax value of the province in

which they are built, since their relatively ad-

vanced work methods had "spin-off" effects.

Note also that factories increase the size of the

population in the province and increase global

demand for certain products.

Thirdly, you may build and upgrade fortress-

es. These do not affect the economy signifi-

cantly, but protect the province from enemy

control that in turn would lead to a loss of in-

come.

Managing Your Resources

Managing your resources is not a miracle drug,

but it may significantly simplify your country’s

challenging path toward victory. "Resources

are limited, but goals are unlimited" is an old

saying that rings true to this day.

When you use your resources, "balance" is a

keyword. This applies both to the monthly bal-

ance between income and expenses, as well as

the balance between the different enterprises in

which you may invest your resources. We di-

vide these enterprises roughly into three areas:

Defense, Finance, and Expansion.

The challenge is to defend your country while

you are investing in research and upgrading

fortresses, appointing public officials, and colo-

nizing the New World. If you can succeed in cre-

ating monopolies in trade centers and winning a

war or two, then your fortune is secured—but

it’s all a matter of keeping the balance.

69

Europa Universalis


Trade and Colonization

When the Europeans first came to America it

was to find gold, honor, and new souls to

Christianize. But the driving force of the ex-

pansion changed very quickly. While they start-

ed out as discoverers and explorers, the Euro-

peans changed to become traders and con-

querors. Both in the role as trader, which the

Europeans were in Africa and initially in North

America; and in the role as conqueror, which

they were in South and Central America, the

motivational force behind the expansion

evolved as the native ("discovered") people’s

economy was penetrated, broken apart, and fi-

nally replaced with the Western economic sys-

tem (during the larger part of the historical pe-

riod a form a proto-capitalism).

What happened may be illustrated by the Eu-

ropean contact with the native peoples of North

America. The native population primarily sub-

sisted on hunting and fishing before the Euro-

peans came, but after the first contact when the

Europeans offered weapons and luxury items in

exchange for furs, it made more sense in the

short term for the native people to hunt and

gather furs and to a lesser extent grow corn for a

living. By so doing the native people slowly but

surely moved further inland and left the fishing

waters and game-filled hunting grounds behind.

When a tribe later experienced a poor harvest or

drought they were forced to turn to the Euro-

pean traders who exchanged goods for future

supplies of furs at prices that today would be

called profiteering. The areas that the native

people left behind, either due to the aforemen-

tioned reason or because of epidemics, was ex-

tremely suitable for European colonization that

indeed started during the early 17th century.

Once the Europeans had a strong foothold in

North America the native peoples never suc-

ceeded in retaliating. The Europeans had more

advanced weapons that in fact could have been

parried by the native people’s mobility and ef-

fective combat tactics, heretofore never seen by

the Europeans, but what finally proved decisive

was the difference in political systems. While the

70

Europa Universalis


European system’s main purpose was to central-

ize resources for use by a small government, the

native people’s decentralized system prevented

the North American tribes from mustering joint

resistance.

Due to increasing international trade, more

and more non-European economies were tied

to the European economy, which eventually

transformed into a global economy. The new

colonies grew, increasing the demand for prod-

ucts, sparking a dynamic, forward-pushing

economic effect.

Supply, Demand and Market Prices

As was mentioned earlier, each province has a

tax value, production value, and a trade value.

Production and taxes were an important part

of a province’s economy, but very few coun-

tries were autarchies, i.e. self-sufficient. Differ-

ent countries’ inhabitants were variously profi-

cient at producing different products, and

some countries lacked the necessary prerequi-

sites to produce some products. Switzerland

does not produce a lot of fish, and Sweden does

not produce a lot of ivory. Trade started as a

means to acquire all the goods that a country

needed but didn’t produce. You could say that

a province’s tax and production values benefit

the country to which the province belongs,

while a province’s trade value goes into a pool

from which every country can compete for the

profits using merchants.

Every province has a trade value based on the

size of the population and the base value of the

product. The trade value is placed in the trade

center to which the province belongs, which you

may see on the trade map by clicking on the trade

symbol in the information window. All trade

thereby takes place in the globally distributed

centers of trade. In these centers market prices

are "set" as a balance between the product value

and the trade value, which represent supply and

demand. The trade income your country re-

ceives depends on the number of merchants you

have sent to the trade centers around the world,

i.e. your income is directly proportional to how

much of the trade your country controls.

Centers of Trade, Merchants andTrade Income

When a center of trade has "set" a market price

each country with merchants in place will re-

ceive income from the trade in proportion to

how much of the trade they control. Note that

different centers have different total trade val-

ues. A center of trade with a relatively low total

trade value provides less trade income than a

center with a high total trade value. Your coun-

try’s trade income depends primarily, however,

on two factors: trade levels and trade techno-

logical levels.

First, it depends on the trade level your

country has achieved in each center of trade. A

country may have anywhere from no trade lev-

el (i.e. does not control any trade there) to

trade level 6, which means they have a monop-

olistic status. More than one country may have

the same trade level. The only exception is

trade level 6, since only one country may have a

monopolistic status. The reason the term "mo-

nopolistic status" and not "monopoly" is used

is simply because a country with trade level 6

may accept that other countries trade at the

center but do not send more merchants. In

terms of trade income, the higher your coun-

try’s trade level is, the greater the trade income

will be.

Second, your country’s trade technology

level plays an important part. The concept

"trade technology" perhaps sounds a bit

strange, but it is a generic term for a number of

innovations in the areas or transportation,

measurement, credit systems, accounting sys-

tems, administrative and financial advances

such as corporations and insurance, and corpo-

rate law. The higher your country’s level of

trade technology, the greater your trade in-

come from all centers of trade; and each mer-

chant is given greater competitive power in the

battle over market shares.

How do you increase your trade level at a

center of trade? The only way is to send your

merchants. Stationing merchants costs money,

as does their maintenance. It is more expensive

to station and maintain merchants abroad than

71

Europa Universalis


it is to do so in your own country, and it is more

expensive the further from your own borders

the center is located. When one or more mer-

chants have been sent to a center of trade they

will fight with existing merchants for market

shares. It takes at least a month to settle this

and success depends on the distance from your

capital to the center of trade. Once it is done,

you may see if your country has achieved a

higher trade level or not as well as if you have

driven the merchants of any other country out

of the market. Doing this means that their

country drops one trade level. Note also that

the reverse may happen to you; i.e., that you

lose trade levels in a center of trade as a result of

other countries sending merchants who drive

you out of the market.

Your country’s merchants’ guild will grow

each year. The reason for this is your country

starts with one merchant, in addition to which

you earn one merchant for every center of

trade within your country’s borders, one mer-

chant for every center of trade where your

country has a monopolistic status, one mer-

chant if your country has achieved trade tech-

nology level 5, one merchant for every core

province that is also a coastal province, one

merchant for every two coastal provinces if

your state religion is Reformist or protestant

(to a maximum of three merchants), and final-

ly the level of stability is deducted or added de-

pending on whether it is negative or positive.

Your country does not have to send out the

merchants immediately upon receiving them

but may instead save up to six merchants at a

time. You may also choose to automatically

send the merchants to the centers of trade. This

you do at one of the centers of trade. Observe,

however, that in this case, you cannot control

where the merchants are sent. The computer

will instead calculate which placement is the

most profitable for your country and send the

merchants as soon as there are ducats in the

treasury. Also note that you cannot send mer-

chants to trade centers located in countries that

are carrying out a trade embargo against your

country (see Trade Embargo).

The competition at a center of trade depends

72

Europa Universalis


on how many merchants have been sent there

and how often. If the level of competition is

high at the center it may be because the total

trade value is high, the cost of sending mer-

chants there is low, and that nearby countries

have access to a small number of alternative

centers of trade. It is important to remember

that the trade income from a center of trade

where you have monopolistic status (trade lev-

el 6) is so much greater than the income at oth-

er levels that the fight for monopolistic status

may increase competition immeasurably. In

terms of income, the country with monopolis-

tic status receives trade income from their trade

level (6) as well as all other trade income that

would have been generated if the center of

trade had been filled with merchants; i.e., had

all the trade levels been occupied.

The competitiveness of the merchants de-

pends on the relative trade technology level of

their country, the administrative skill of their

monarch, which trade level they have already

achieved at the center of trade in question, and

the stability of their country. Additional factors

that may affect their competitive ability is

whether there is a trade embargo in place be-

tween competing merchants of different coun-

tries, and if the center of trade in which the

competition is taking place lies within either of

the competing merchants’ own borders or not.

Trade income is based on how many trade

levels your country has achieved in the centers

of trade. At each center of trade there are 20

trade levels that may be occupied by the mer-

chants. When the trade income is distributed

your country receives as large a share of the to-

tal trade value of the trade centers as the num-

ber of trade levels you hold divided by the total

number of trade levels, and finally multiplied

by your country’s trade technology level divid-

ed by ten.

Example: Curland has trade technology level

3 and four trade levels in the center of trade

"Novgorod" (total trade value: 200). The for-

mula reads: (Curland’s trade levels / 20) x total

trade value x Curland’s trade technology level

/ 10 = Trade income from center of trade.

Curland would in this case receive (4 / 20) x

73

Europa Universalis


200 x 3/10 = 12 ducats from the trade in

"Novgorod."

As mentioned earlier, monopolistic status

(trade level 6) gives you extra trade income.

What makes this so is the number of trade lev-

els that you may count as yours; i.e., you are

credited for all the "empty" trade levels. It

seems you have more trade levels than you real-

ly own. Here’s an example.

Example: Spain has trade level 6, England

trade level 3, and Curland has trade level 2.

Since there are 20 trade levels at a center of

trade, Spain may count on 6 + (20-6-3-2) trade

levels = 6+9 = 15 trade levels, which gives them

15/20 of the center of trade’s total trade value.

The closing of Japan – a historic event

In 1636, the warlord and leader of Japan, the

Shogun Tokugawa Iyemitsu, decides to close

the door of Japan on the world. The Japanese

are not allowed to travel abroad, and those re-

siding abroad are not allowed to return home.

This is the beginning of a consistent blockade

policy under which Japan lives in total isolation

for 250 years – a petrified Middle Age king-

dom, shut out from the world’s political, so-

cial, and economic progress, but also protected

from the aggressive colonial policy of the Eu-

ropeans.

The event means that Japan carries out, au-

tomatically and without negative conse-

quences, a trade embargo against every other

country in the world. In order to trade with

Japan you have to defeat them in a war.

Pirates

The period of 1492-1792 may be described as

the golden age of piracy. Pirates worked in

more or less all the known seas, mainly because

of the lack of any protective bases. The relative-

ly unprotected trade caused piracy. The colo-

nial powers naturally tried to protect their

trade, but they were not able to patrol the

oceans beyond Europe until the later part of

the period. Nevertheless piracy continued and

still exists today, although on a lesser scale.

Piracy involves enormous risk, but also very

high profits if you are lucky.

74

Europa Universalis


Pirates are autonomous fleets cruising the

sea zones close to centers of trade. The goal of

the pirates is to exploit the weakly protected lu-

crative trade far away from the European naval

bases, thereby stealing as much as possible. Pi-

rates, (naval units) may never be controlled by

a player but are always autonomous. Pirates are

automatically at war with every country in the

game, and may attack and be attacked by all

countries in the game at any time. Note that a

country does not have to declare war to attack

pirates. A country is never at war when pirates

attack their ships. The country does not lose

any stability, and may not issue any war taxes,

etc.

Pirates influence economy and trade in the

area they reside in by capturing ships and at-

tacking coastal provinces. In all provinces adja-

cent to a sea zone with pirates, tax income and

trade values are lowered by 0.5 ducats for each

ship of the pirate fleet. In this way pirates affect

both your annual and monthly incomes.

The only way to get rid of pirates is to wipe

them out by sending a fleet and defeating the

pirates in a naval battle. Note that the pirates

may return, because even if the risk was great,

the chance of profit was even greater. We also

recommend placing a fleet in the vicinity of any

sea zone where pirates have attacked, in order

to quickly eliminate any further attempts. Fi-

nally, pirates strongly dislike fortifications as

they make it harder to attack your coastal

provinces. Building fortifications lessens the

risk of pirates appearing at your coasts, and

thereby leaving your income untouched.

Trading posts and Merchants

Trading posts do not provide any notable pro-

duce from the province, but instead give you a

better trading value, which affects the center of

trade it belongs to. It may never have more

than six levels. At the higher levels the trading

post provides a very high trading value. Each

level is equal to one merchant you have sent

there who has succeeded in setting up the next

level. Your colonists may be used as merchants,

colonists or missionaries.

You could say that by setting up a trading

post you lose the ability to start production, as

you let the local inhabitants produce, and in-

stead manage the trade with the goods pro-

duced.

Trade centers have been mentioned earlier

and it will again be noted that there are big dif-

ferences between centers situated in your own

country and centers located outside your bor-

ders. If your country has trade centers within

its own borders, the trading value of each trad-

ing post your country establishes will belong to

centers in your country. It is also easier to ac-

quire and maintain a monopoly (trading level

6) in a center of trade in your own country, as

your merchants will have better competitive

powers.

What are the advantages and disadvantages

of trading posts? The advantage of having trad-

ing posts compared with colonies is that they

are cheap. It is a cheap and practical tool to

"claim" what is yours and thereby tell other

countries to stay away. You may at any time

send a colonist and turn the trading post into a

colony.

Additionally, some parts of the world are di-

rectly unsuitably for colonization, but trading

posts are always feasible. Greater parts of Africa

and Asia have climates, which prohibited al-

most all colonization prior to the 19th century.

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, trading

posts produce high trade values, especially

when trading in unusual and exotic products.

If you manage to establish a number of such

posts and also manage to acquire a monopoly,

trading posts can be a lot more profitable than

colonies.

The drawbacks of trading posts are that they

do not increase the population of your country,

and thereby do not increase your production

and tax values. Trading posts also lack ports,

which limits the reach of your fleets. You may

not build fortifications, recruit armies, or build

any fleets at your trading posts. This makes

them quite vulnerable to attacks. Additionally,

the maintenance ability is low in provinces with

trading posts, which means that attrition is very

75

Europa Universalis


high. Finally, while colonies may only be trans-

ferred to other countries through peace

treaties, enemy army units in the province may

burn trading posts.

If your army unit is in a province with an en-

emy trading post, a "Burn trading post" but-

ton will appear in the information window. If

you press the button the trading post will dis-

appear and the province will be emptied.

Establishing trading posts is the quickest and

easiest way to raise the total trade value of a

center of trade.

Colonization of the New World

We have mentioned before that trading posts

are cheaper then colonies, and most often the

attempt to establish a trading post has a greater

chance of success than an attempt at coloniza-

tion. Furthermore, it is easier to establish a

colony in a province where you already have a

trading post, compared with a neutral

province. Provinces with colonies may develop

into provinces with towns, which is very good

for your country. Provinces with towns provide

both tax and production income, along with

certain trading revenues. A nation with a limit-

ed economy can never win in the long run. Be-

sides war, colonization is the means by which

you may expand your country’s financial

strength. It must be noted that not all coun-

tries were colonial powers of the same caliber as

Spain, Portugal, France, England, and the

Netherlands. Countries like Russia, Sweden,

Denmark, and Curland made attempts along

those lines but failed to create lasting empires

mainly due to their less strategic geographical

locations and relatively weak economies. To

colonize, your country must explore new

provinces, and have access to colonists that

may be sent out as settlers (including mer-

chants).

You receive an annual number of colonists at

your capitol. The actual number available to

your country depends on the following condi-

tions. Firstly: you never get any colonists if

your country lacks coastal provinces. Secondly:

you acquire one colonist if you build a naval

shipyard. Thirdly; countries with the following

state religions acquire colonists in accordance

with their religion: Catholics and Sunni

Moslems get none; reformed Catholics, Or-

thodox Christians, and Protestants get 1; Shia

Moslems get 2; and Reformists get 3. Further:

you may receive colonists through random

events. Finally you may receive 0-3 colonists

depending on colonial dynamics. This depends

on what nation you are playing and what year

you have reached in the game.

When you discover an independent province

to colonize, there are a couple if questions you

should ask. First, check to see if the province

contains local inhabitants, and in such cases, al-

so check the size of their military forces (in

game terms: number of army units) and the ag-

gression level of the units. You have two choic-

es. Either you may send army units to destroy

all enemy forces or you make an attempt at col-

onizing, even though the local inhabitants are

still in the province. The advantage of your first

choice is that you get a higher chance of suc-

cess, and that there are no more locals to rebel

and take over your colony. The advantage of

the second alternative is that when you have

sent seven colonists to the province, it develops

into a town. The local army units will then dis-

solve and are added to the population of the

city, which in turn may provide very high pop-

ulations and thereby a high income. Base your

choice on the aggression level of the locals,

which varies from province to province but falls

within a scale of "Very low" to "Very high."

You should also consider whether the province

is suitable for colonization or not. Maybe it

would be better to set up a trading post. This is

something you will learn by playing the game,

but the goods produced by the province and

the aggression level of the natives also play a

part. A rule of thumb is that Africa is rarely suit-

able for colonies.

The chance of establishing a colony or a trad-

ing post along with its respective costs depends

on a number of things. The cost is lower if you

have a conquistador in your province or an ex-

plorer in an adjacent sea zone, if it is a coastal

76

Europa Universalis


province, and if it borders on a province with a

town, or a colony belonging to your nation.

The cost is also heavily dependent on the ag-

gression level of the natives, the distance to

your capital, things present in the province at

your colonization attempt, whether it already

contains a trading post, colony or town, and

what level it may have. The climate of the

province also plays a part. The chance of suc-

cess depends on whether you have a conquista-

dor in the province or not, if there is a town,

colony or trading post already present, and the

number of earlier attempts. Note also that

France has a small extra bonus if there are na-

tives in the province, which represents the his-

torical successes of France in negotiating with

the natives of America, India and Africa.

When you have succeeded in establishing a

colony it is appropriate to check the rate of

population increase of your province by click-

ing the church icon in the information win-

dow. If the population growth is negative you

have either chosen a very poor location for the

colony or your country has a low stability. Note

that growth also is dependent on the size of the

colony, i.e. if you send more colonists and

thereby increasing the population, you will also

increase the growth rate, and the chance of

success at your next attempt at colonization

will increase. It’s a good thing to have colonies,

but developing them into towns is even better.

The Treaty of Tordesillas — A Historical Event

The Treaty of Tordesillas formalized the decree

of the Pope that the world west of the Azores

should belong to Spain and that the eastern

half should belong to Portugal. The dividing

line was later moved to the west of the Cape

Verde islands, allowing Portugal to keep its

possessions in Brazil. The world was also divid-

ed in the Pacific to let Spain keep the Philip-

pines. Portugal got everything west of the line

and Spain everything to the east. The borders

of the Treaty can be seen on the map, i.e. the

one you use when you want to send colonists.

The Treaty of Tordesillas ceases to be valid

when the Edict of Tolerance occurs (see Four

Important Events).

Explorers and Conquistadors

Explorer and Conquistadors are often abso-

lutely necessary if your country is to become a

real colonial power. Explorers explore sea

zones that are Terra Incognita, and conquista-

dors explore provinces that are Terra Incogni-

ta.

Note that there are areas that are Permanent

Terra Incognita that may never be explored.

When a country reaches Naval Technology

Level 21 and Land Military Level 11 any "nor-

mal" commanders may discover provinces and

sea zones that were previously Terra Incognita,

but it takes much longer, when compared with

explorers and conquistadors.

Conquistadors and explorers also have some

unique abilities, which is why they are called

specialists and not commanders. Conquista-

dors and explorers provide lower attrition rates

for their respective fleets and army units. This is

due to their personal courage and excellent

ability to lead these units into the unknown.

Conquistadors also receive a bonus in pitched

battles against natives, due to the better

weaponry of the Europeans, and the ability to

turn cultural beliefs about gods and myths to

their own advantage. Finally, the conquista-

dors have a nasty ability to spread disease

among the natives in the provinces through

which they pass.

Note that the measles, smallpox, and the

common cold were some of the most impor-

tant reasons why the Europeans managed to

establish control over North America. Note al-

so that none of the special values have any ef-

fect in Europe and that the power value is a lot

lower there then beyond the borders of Eu-

rope.

Note also that explorers need to get ashore

from time to time; otherwise they will wear out

and disappear. A good tactic is to establish

colonies here and there, so that your explorers

do not have to travel far every time they go to

explore Terra Incognita. Regarding the con-

77

Europa Universalis


quistadors it may be a good idea to develop at

least one colony into a town in every important

region or continent you try to explore, as you

may then periodically increase the army of the

conquistador, as even these units suffer attri-

tion.

As the conquistador increases the chance of a

successful attempt at colonization, it may be a

good idea to return with a conquistador to a

colony when you want to speed up the devel-

opment by sending more colonists. Remember

that it may be a good idea to "claim" a province

you can’t afford to colonize by establishing a

trading post, as the trading post is both cheap

and easy to establish.

Colonial Growth and EconomicConsequences

We have mentioned that the populations of

your provinces grow over time. The popula-

tion of a province grows or declines on a

monthly basis, with growth depending on the

population growth factor of the province. The

only difference between a province with a town

and a colony is that the colony has a lower pop-

ulation growth due to its smaller size. Other

then that all growth factors are the same.

Whether it is best to concentrate on a few

colonies and develop them into towns as fast as

possible, or to go for more colonies that partly

run themselves and let them develop over time

with the population growth, is not an easy

question to answer. It all depends on the style

of the player, the position of your country on

the map and what the other countries are do-

ing, where your colonies are located, et cetera.

The important thing to keep in mind is that a

good balance between trading posts and

colonies is very profitable for your nation, as

you receive higher income from both produc-

tion and taxes, and from trade. Trading posts

compared with colonies provide higher rev-

enues in a shorter period of time at a lower

price. The only problem is in defending them.

Another good point is that, no matter what

strategies you choose, you always have to find a

way to defend your possessions. Remember

that if, for example, you have decided to colo-

78

Europa Universalis


nize North America, (between 50 to 100

colonies) with Level 1 colonies, and if you have

not deployed any army units or fleets as protec-

tion, your transatlantic empire will be a quick

and easy target for any of your neighbors. Even

computerized countries enjoy free lunches.

Protecting Your Colonies

As has been mentioned earlier, colonies and

trade centers need protection. The attrition

rate of the army units are often very high in

provinces with trading posts and high in

provinces with colonies and for this reason it is

often a good idea to expand a colony into a

town, preferable in a province within marching

distance of your other colonies and trading

posts. You may only recruit army units and

build ships for your navies in provinces with

towns. Unless you want to transport a great

number of army units that are rapidly worn out

all over the oceans, it is important that you try

to create a small, civilized zone in an ocean of

colonies.

It is also appropriate to base naval forces at

strategic points along your new provincial

coasts, in order to fight pirates and to ward off

enemy troops. We should mention that a trade

station may never provide the province with a

port, which in some regions (i.e. Africa) means

that you may have to build colonies in less prof-

itable locations if you want to be able to sail

from Europe to India or Asia, or if you want to

be able to defend any of your trading posts in

Africa.

Note that diplomacy is a natural tool for pro-

tecting your colonies and trading posts. If for

instance the Netherlands were creating a small

trade empire with unprotected colonies and

trading posts spread all over the world, it

would be wise not to make enemies with pow-

erful neighbors like Portugal.

Technology and

Development.

To Develop Over Time

This game starts in the late Middle Ages when

armored knights, crossbows, and halberds

ruled the battlefield. Then comes the renais-

sance with the first firearms and the drill. It

ends with the late baroque period with well-

trained and drilled mass armies in perfect

squares and scientifically formed sieges. Under

such conditions it is of utmost importance that

you develop over time.

Your nation has four areas of technology. Re-

search is automatic in these areas and the level

of technology in each field increases over time.

This basic research is slow, but may be im-

proved by investments. This means that you

may choose how much of your monthly in-

come you want to spend on research in the var-

ious fields on a regular basis, but you may also

directly invest in one or more areas of research.

The direct investment cost 200 ducats and pro-

vides a technology advancement equal to 100

ducats spent over time. Note that you may on-

ly invest directly in a field of technology once a

year. All investments are made in your state ac-

count. When enough research has been made

within a field the level increases by one step. If

your nation has reached the maximum level in

a field of technology at the end of the game, all

investments in that area are transferred to the

treasury.

The four fields of technology are Land mili-

tary technology, Naval military technology,

Trade level and Infrastructure.

Besides the investments mentioned above,

research is influenced by the military and ad-

ministrative skill of the monarch with reference

to trade and infrastructure, which both influ-

ence the land and naval military technology.

Also, you receive a negative research bonus for

every trade embargo your country has re-

ceived, as it prevents influence and impulses

from abroad. The levels of your neighbors in

those areas influence all areas of technology. It

79

Europa Universalis


is also linked to the technology group of your

country, which will be explained later. Finally,

research is cheaper if your country is small

(containing fewer provinces) than if your

country is large (with more provinces), as ap-

plying and coordinating research and intro-

ducing the results need more time in larger

countries compared with the smaller ones.

Note that every consecutive level of technol-

ogy becomes more expensive over time. This is

due to inflation and the increase of your in-

come, as well as due to the fact that innovations

in time become more highly advanced and

need more resources. Technology does not re-

ally advance until the Industrial Revolution.

To Invest in Stability

Stability is not technology as such, but as we

mentioned earlier, it is a generic term for the

political and social state of your country. You

may divide your monthly income as "invest-

ments" in stability or you may make point con-

tributions in the same way as in the other tech-

nological areas. This investment is actually the

cost of countering and pacifying various upset

social groups. It should be noted that when

your country’s stability reaches its maximum

(+3) the entire sum invested each month is

paid out in real ducats instead. It is therefore

wise to watch this development, in order to re-

set the distribution of your investments so you

won’t get unnecessary inflation.

Areas of Technology and Research.

There are four areas of technology in the game;

Land military, Naval military, Trade and Infras-

tructure.

Land Military Technology concerns the in-

novation and change of weaponry and equip-

ment; e.g. firearms, standardized uniforms and

new systems of maintenance and support, but

also tactical and strategic developments such as

formations and the introduction of the dra-

goon on the battlefield. Sometimes advances in

natural science may have immediate effects on

warfare. Your land military technology affects

all of your army units. The higher the level is,

the higher the firepower, the shock effect, and

the morale of your units will be. It should be

noted that in pitched battles, the most impor-

tant factor is the relative strength of the oppos-

ing forces.

Naval Military Technology comprises inno-

vations and changes in weaponry, equipment

and new types of ships, e.g. new naval artillery

types, roping and rigging in new materials, new

navigational techniques, or the introduction of

the frigate as a heavily armed vessel etc. Also in-

cluded are tactical and strategic advancements

such as new flag signaling systems, new battle

arrays and new improved ways of maneuvering.

Sometimes advances in natural science may

have immediate effects on naval warfare. Your

naval technology affects all your fleets. The

higher the level is, the higher the firepower, the

shock effects and morale of your fleets, along

with a better ability to use the winds and the sea

will be. As with pitched battles, the important

factor is the relative strength of the opposing

forces.

Trade is not technology in itself, but a devel-

opment and refinement of the rules and meth-

ods that make trade more effective and prof-

itable. Examples are transportation, measure-

ments, and systems for credit, bookkeeping,

administrative and financial innovations like

companies and insurance, and the right of

commerce. Trade technology affects the in-

come of trade and the competitiveness of your

merchants.

Infrastructure is not technology either, but a

generic term covering the changes in society,

which increase governmental influence and ef-

ficiency of the economy. The systems of trans-

portation are another example. Additionally

we should mention factors such as new im-

proved systems for taxes and fees, a functional

national banking system, the bureaucracy of

the state management, partitioning of land and

crop rotation, and changes in the guilds. In-

frastructure affects all your income except

trade revenues.

80

Europa Universalis


Cultural Technology Groups

The game contains four technology groups:

the Exotic, Orthodox, Moslem, and Latin

groups. Each nation belongs to a technology

group, which may never be changed. You may

not change technology group by changing

your state religion, as there are more factors in-

volved than just religion. The technology

groups represent the different political and so-

cial attitudes, along with cultural and religious

beliefs about and against new technology. The

difference between the technology groups is

the rate of research. The groups are listed be-

low in technological order of effectiveness

(from the slowest to the fastest).

Exotic: All non-European nations having

neither Moslem nor Christian state religions,

along with the Nubians and the Mughal Em-

pire.

Moslem: All nations with the Moslem state

religion except the Nubians and the Mughal

Empire.

Orthodox: All nations with the Orthodox

state religion, including Hungary, Poland-

Lithuania, Moldavia and Wallachia.

Latin: All other nations.

Investing in Factories

Your nation may invest in factories, which are

specialized buildings of great importance to

your nation. Historically we may show that the

number of proto-companies and proto-indus-

tries determined the relative importance of the

various regions of Europe in economic, politi-

cal, and social status. A factory turns your

province into one of the important regions. You

may only build one factory in each province.

Factories provide a monthly income, as has

been discussed above. Additionally they affect

research in their respective fields of technology,

lessen the risk of rebellion, increase the de-

mand for certain goods, and increase the rate

of population growth in the province where

the factory is located. There are five buildings

81

Europa Universalis


that are called factories: refineries, naval equip-

ment factories, fine arts academies, weapons

factories, and goods factories.

The refinery was usually a semi-governmen-

tal distillery, which could produce alcoholic

beverages at a reasonable price and in much

higher quantities then at home. Lots of liquor

became important export goods to foreign

countries and colonies. Liquor also became a

part of the social intercourse among both high

and low. The calming effects of the intoxicat-

ing beverages lessened social anxiety and in-

creased the fighting ability of soldiers and

sailors during harsh conditions. You may build

refineries when you have reached technology

level 2, providing an extra monthly income if

the refinery is placed in a province producing

sugar or wine. Every refinery provides a re-

search bonus in Trade.

Naval equipment factories were a number of

smaller factories producing rope, rigging,

treated hemp and flax and sails. Naval equip-

ment factories are necessary if you want to

achieve the status of naval nation, because all of

these goods are in demand if you are going to

build ships. The naval equipment factory may

only be built when you have reached naval

technology level 5, providing an extra monthly

income if it is built in a province producing

naval necessities or fish. Each factory you build

provides a research bonus in naval military

technology.

The fine arts academies were not actually

places of manufacture, but places where the at-

mosphere and environment were designed to

attract artists such as singers, philosophers, his-

torians, academics and learned men. The fine

arts academy also contains a number of things,

which attract these people, such as universities,

theaters, opera houses, churches, and magnifi-

cent castles and palaces. They had immaculate

botanical gardens, and you could also find the

occasional triumphal arches.

A fine arts academy may be built when you

have reached infrastructure level 4, and it pro-

vides an extra monthly income if you build it in

your capital province. Each academy provides a

research bonus for stability.

The weapons factories consisted of a number

of different production facilities. These were

advanced furnaces, smithies, and foundries,

and they could also contain mines and facilities

for ore processing. To have a weapons factory

is a definite plus in the technological struggle

for advantages on the battlefield. Weapons fac-

tories may be built when you reach land mili-

tary technology level 17 and they provide an

extra monthly income when building in

provinces producing iron or copper. Each fac-

tory provides a research bonus in land military

technology.

Goods factories are a generic term for all the

specialized smaller workshops producing goods

for export. Mostly these include refined cloth,

cotton, and tobacco, but other luxuries may al-

so be included, such as ivory, furs, spices, and

oriental goods, or even the packaging and han-

dling of fish, sugar and salt. The spread of the

goods factories comprised the origin of indus-

trialization, a catalyst for huge trade volumes

and capitalism in general. Goods factories may

be built when you reach infrastructure level 6

and each provides a monthly income if built in

provinces producing cloth, cotton or tobacco.

Each factory also provides a bonus in re-

search in the area of infrastructure.

82

Europa Universalis


Monarchs

Stimulating Development

The development of your country is affected

by a number of factors. It is affected by every-

thing you may do that is described in this text,

along with everything that your opponents are

doing and how they are reacting. We have

mentioned earlier that you are playing the man

behind the throne, "the gray eminence." This

means that the monarchs of your country are

succeeding each other over time. The qualities

of your monarch affect the development of

your country in a number of areas. Each

monarch has a military, an administrative, and a

diplomatic skill.

The military skill provides a continuous

bonus in research in both land and naval mili-

tary technology. Note that a monarch does not

have to be skilled on the battlefield to obtain a

high level of military skill, but may be a re-

former with strong interests in technological

and organizational development. Examples of

such monarchs are the Swedish king Charles XI

and the Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Great. If

the monarch is a great leader on the battlefield,

your country will then gain a supreme com-

mander in the monarch. Note that the

monarch may die prematurely in battle on land

or at sea, just like ordinary commanders. If this

happens, governmental control is taken over

by regency. Andrea Doria, a leader of the Gen-

ovese Republic, Jan Sobieski, a Polish-Lithua-

nian king, and Gustavus II Adolphus, a king of

Sweden, are examples of such monarchs.

The administrative skill provides a continu-

ous bonus in research for infrastructure and

trading technology, along with an investment

bonus for stability.

The Administrative skill affects your foreign

political relations every time your country is in-

volved in diplomatic activities. The higher the

skill of your monarch, the greater the chance of

making successful suggestions will be.

Epochal Events

There are monarchs and there are monarchs.

In the game, some monarchs are joined in what

are called "epochal events." This simulates the

exceptional dynamics of your country during

the period. Below is a list and description of the

monarchs and statesmen who automatically

provide epochal events. These events are in fact

random events, which are no longer random,

but happen automatically during each reign.

Exactly what these events are will not be re-

vealed here, as you will have to play to find out.

Süleyman I

Country: The Ottoman Empire

Skills:

Administration: 9

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 7

Period of reign: 1520-1566

Type: Monarch

Süleyman the Great, or "the Magnificent" as he

was also known, was the son of Selim I, and

gained power in a fast and bloody coup. His

brothers, who lost all their influence in the coup,

were executed, just like Ottoman custom dictat-

ed. His 46 years as a ruler is regarded as a very

glorious period in Ottoman history, and poster-

ity often calls this the golden age of the Ottoman

Empire. He was a highly skilled administrator

and lawmaker, and he also reformed the econo-

my, financing system, and the bureaucracy. He

also sped up the incorporation of European

technology in the Ottoman Empire. After hav-

ing reorganized and modernized the Ottoman

armies, the great conqueror launched thirteen

great military campaigns. These added Serbia,

Rhodes, Hungary, Iraq, Moldavia, and Azerbai-

jan to the realm. Parts of Hapsburg Austria and

Persia were also conquered. At the same time

the Ottoman fleets were spreading terror

throughout the Mediterranean. The Christian

nations in the area were highly concerned about

ending up under the scepter of the sultan. He al-

so negotiated with François I of France, who re-

garded Süleyman as a bulwark against Austrian

hegemony. Until his death in 1566, Süleyman –

and thereby the Ottoman Empire – was perhaps

the most important arbitrator of Europe.

83

Europa Universalis


Henry VIII

Country: England

Skill:

Administration: 7

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 6


Type: Monarch

As the son of Henry VII, the founder of the

Tudor dynasty after the War of the Roses, the

most important goal for Henry VIII was the

survival of the dynasty. To reach his goal he

married six times in order to provide the En-

glish throne with an heir. Henry VIII was a

monarch of his times and he was very proud of

his court and its splendor, but he nevertheless

took care of the political, economic, and reli-

gious problems facing England. He very skill-

fully used the animosity between Spain and

France, and allied himself sometimes with the

one, sometimes with the other. As an adminis-

trator, Henry managed very well in his work to

pull England out of the economic misery it had

fallen into after the War of the Roses. He

chiefly supported the production of wool, and

it would later become the foundation for Eng-

land’s prosperity, as this wool was then export-

ed to the Flemish cities, which turned it into

cloth, dyed it, and sold it. Because of this eco-

nomic connection, England would later on

show a great interest in the Dutch struggle for

freedom.

Charles V

Country: Spain and Austria

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 6


Type: Monarch

Charles was the leading man of the house of

Hapsburg, and as son of Philip the Good and

Joan the Mad he came to inherit a realm where

the sun never set. From his mother he inherited

Spain, southern Italy, and The New World to

the west, and from his father he inherited Aus-

tria, Bohemia, Hungary, and the Netherlands.

In Austria he was Charles V but in Spain he was

known as Charles I.

Charles was a very pious Catholic and spent

most of his time fighting the Protestant

heretics in Germany and the infidel Turks in

the whole of the Mediterranean region. He al-

so launched an attack against the Barbary

States of Algeria and Tunis, and although the

attack failed, it did not affect his rising star. His

greatest victory was against France in Italy. The

French had invaded this region and Charles de-

feated François I at Pavia in 1525. The struggle

against the French fared worse at his northern

front in present day Belgium and Lorraine, and

this may have been the first signs showing that

his realm was far too big and too diverse. In

1566 he abdicated, bitter about his setbacks in

the religious conflicts in Germany. The empire

was split between his brother Maximilian of

Austria and his son Philip II of Spain. Charles

returned to his beloved Spain where he spent

the last of his days praying in the monastery of

San Yuste.

François I

Country: France

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 5


Type: Monarch

When Louis XII, the former king,

died in 1515, his sons were long since dead. As

France had an order of succession preventing

women from inheriting the throne, François de

Valois-Angoulème, the son of a second cousin,

succeeded to the throne. He was crowned in

1515 as François I. He was imbued with the

chivalrous and knightly ideals of the earlier

generations, and the legendary Bayard had

dubbed him a knight directly on the battlefield

at Marignano in 1515. He was also without

scruples as a diplomat and politician, who

made alliances with both the heretic Protes-

tants of Germany and the Moslems. François

84

Europa Universalis


was also a leading personality in the field of cul-

ture and a protector of the arts, with a passion-

ate interest in the Italian renaissance. François

was less successful in his wars against Charles V

and left his nation in chaos at his death in 1547.

Maybe he should be excused as France had ac-

tually fought several wars against one of the

greatest empires of the world without losing as

much as an inch of his lands.

Ivan IV

Country: Russia

Skill:

Administration: 4

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Monarch

Ivan was born in 1533 and his mother Elena

ruled the nation from when he was three years

old until he ascended to the throne as czar of all

Russia in 1547. He was a highly skilled and ac-

tive organizer and reformer, and set up the

Strelstser Guard (infantry in the west Euro-

pean style equipped with firearms), and man-

aged to expand the realm south (Volga) and

east (Kazan and Siberia). He failed to make in-

roads in the Baltic counties or Finland, but in

all probability laid the foundation for the

strategic dogma which influenced all later

czars, namely to gain ports in the west. Ivan is

often given the epithet "the Terrible." It is true

that he reigned with terror chiefly against the

powerful nobles at the end of his period, but it

should be noted that his mother "disappeared"

when he was only eight and that during the

next decade he lived in fear of the nobles who

had pushed him aside and humiliated him. He

also accused them of the death of his beloved

wife Anastasia in 1560. His violent behavior

seems to have its origin in the senile dementia

Ivan acquired toward the end of his life. The

fear of forgetfulness and the hate he felt for the

nobles could well have been the offsetting fac-

tors. His death in 1584 was followed by a long

period of anarchy in Russia.

Mehmet Sokullu


Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 6

Diplomacy: 6


Type: Statesman

Mehmet Sokullu was Sadr-I azam or "grand

vizier" in the Ottoman Empire. Sokullu Pasha,

as he most often was called, was a very righ-

teous and loyal administrator, which was rather

unusual during the period. Mehmet partially

reformed the financial system of the Ottoman

Empire and made the state less dependent on

the feudal system. He also managed to recon-

struct the finances after the costly wars of Sü-

leyman the Great. At an early stage he also un-

derstood the fact that the naval forces of the

country were not up to the task of expanding

its dominion at sea in the Mediterranean and

then keeping it without upgrading the technol-

ogy. Unsuccessfully he tried to convince his

ruler, but Süleyman’s continued naval warfare

resulted in the battle at Lepanto in 1571,

which turned into a strategic loss for the realm.

Elizabeth I

Country: England

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 6

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Monarch

Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and

Ann Boleyn and succeeded her half brother

Edward VI and her half sister Mary on the

throne. Elizabeth was a strong monarch with

the same spirit as her father and grandfather, a

true Tudor. Under Elizabeth’s firm leadership

England developed from a backward land of

farmers on the outskirts of Europe to a nation

of merchants and seafarers. It was also during

her reign that English explorers and adventur-

ers, like the Cabots, father and son, and Sir

Francis Drake, sailed the oceans. She also es-

85

Europa Universalis


tablished trading companies for trade to the

West Indies, the Far East and India. The manu-

facture of wool was developed further with dif-

ferent protectionist measures and special trad-

ing companies. Elizabeth ruled with an author-

ity that resembled the autocracies later devel-

oped on the continent. Autocracy never got a

foothold in England, mainly because of its

strong parliament, but during the reign of Eliz-

abeth, decisions were often made by royal de-

cree and within the Privy Counsel without

passing through parliament. This way of ruling

worked during the reign of Elizabeth, as the

nation faced strong and powerful neighbors

like Spain and France, but after the destruction

of the Armada in 1558 and the death of the

queen in 1603, the conflict between the new

Stuart dynasty and the parliament increased.

This would eventually be the catalyst for the

coming civil war.

Richelieu

Country: France

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Statesman

Armand Jean du Plessis, the cardinal Richelieu,

was 39 years old when he was accepted into the

council of ministers through the widowed

queen, Marie de’Medici. Four years later he

was the prime minister of Louis XIII. His

greatest accomplishments in domestic politics

were the elimination of resistance against the

crown among the dukes and princes, and the

abolition of the privileges of the Huguenots,

enjoyed since the religious peace of Henry IV.

He was also a man of progress who supported

colonial expansion, non-European trade, and

the founding of a permanent royal navy. His

best characteristic was perhaps his exceptional

diplomatic skill. The intricate game he played

during the Thirty Years War is a prime example.

With subsidies he managed to maintain an ef-

fective Swedish offensive, which seriously

threatened the power of the Emperor, and

made France finally enter the war against the

Emperor in 1653. France entered as an individ-

ual participant that made it independent of the

fortunes or misfortunes of the other nations.

His goal was to reduce the power of the Haps-

burg dynasty and prevent the surrounding of

France; for the most part, the great cardinal

was successful in this.

Olivares

Country: Spain

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 7


Type: Statesman

The Count of Olivares led the Spanish govern-

ment under the reign of Philip IV between

1621 and 1665. Philip IV ascended the throne

as king at the age of 16. He was a talented

youth and more interested in culture than pol-

itics, which gave Olivares quite a free hand.

Olivares was a brilliant man, a cunning states-

man with a hard grip. Poetry, literature

(Calderon), and art (El Greco, Velasquez, and

Murillo) flourished. Spanish fashion and cus-

toms spread rapidly across Europe. In its poli-

tics Spain fared worse, mainly because the

country no longer had the resources of a few

decades earlier, but also because Olivares tried

to accomplish too much in too short a time.

He quickly involved Spain in the Thirty Years

War on the side of the Emperor and the Span-

ish troops were considered the best in Europe

at the beginning of the war. At the same time

he started a re-conquest of the Netherlands.

When the Holy Alliance started to lose ground

and it was seen that Spain couldn’t retake the

Netherlands the situation turned chaotic.

Spain was paralyzed by rebellion and in 1640

both Catalonia and Portugal broke free of the

kingdom, although Catalonia was recaptured

in 1652. The treasury of Spain was emptied

and the nation was exhausted by the wars. Oli-

vares was dismissed. It should be noted that

86

Europa Universalis


many of the Spanish problems were based on

economic reasons, or depended on the poor

strategic position of Spain, for which Olivares

should not be blamed.

Gustavus II Adolphus

Country: Sweden

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Monarch

Gustavus II Adolphus was crowned in 1611 at

a time when Sweden was in the middle of a rag-

ing war. He was a magnificent and refined, but

slightly choleric, gentleman who had inherited

many of the traits of his grandfather, Gustavus

Vasa. His goal was to bring order to the domes-

tic politics and to stop Russian expansion and

the Danish attempts at recapturing Sweden.

These political goals later developed into a de-

sire to control the sea and to create a Swedish

influence in Protestant Germany. Sweden

reached peace with Denmark in 1613, with

Russia in 1617, and agreed to a cease-fire with

Poland-Lithuania in 1692, all of which provid-

ed Sweden with a political breathing space,

some new provinces, and customs income

from a number of Polish ports. This gave Gus-

tavus II Adolphus a chance to engage in the

Thirty Years War. It was a war that, for a short

period of time, turned Sweden into a great

power, but also resulted in a number of neigh-

bors lusting for revenge. Gustavus II Adolphus

reorganized and made the military more effec-

tive, and thus provided Sweden with one of the

strongest armies of the century. As a man he

was always at the center of events, and died in

battle one foggy morning at Lützen. He was

the last of the Vasa dynasty, as his daughter

Kristina left no heirs, and after a short reign she

abdicated and left Sweden for Rome and

Catholicism.

Axel Oxenstierna

Country: Sweden

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Statesman

Count Axel Oxenstierna was born in 1583 and

started his career in the service of the state as

early as 1602. In 1612 he was appointed lord

high counselor and became the right hand of

Gustavus II Adolphus. In many ways he was al-

so the king’s teacher in economic and diplo-

matic matters, but his influence did have limi-

tations. He did not manage to stop the king

from entering the heavy strife over religion that

developed into the Thirty Years War. After the

death of the king in 1632 he took control over

Sweden and the Protestant Union. He also

managed to get Richelieu’s France to intervene

in the conflict. Initially he also had a strong

grip on domestic politics, but lost everything

when queen Kristina abdicated, something he

was dead set against. He died in 1654, only a

short time after the coronation of Charles X

Gustavus.

Colbert

Country: France

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Statesman

Jean-Baptiste Colbert was born in 1619 and

was appointed counselor of the exchequer in

1661 by Louis XIV. Colbert created a uniform

French economy in the modern sense. His

state-controlled economy resulted in better

systems for taxation, systematic budgeting, and

budget follow-ups. Colbert was also one of the

first economy theorists. By defining the work-

ings of the economy he was able to influence

the economy profitably. In this sense Colbert

created the economic and political theories

87

Europa Universalis


that today are known as mercantilism. In ac-

cordance with this he strove to maintain trade

balance by supporting exports and introducing

tariffs on imports. He encouraged and in-

creased the efficiency of domestic trade by

building roads and canals, by abolishing local

tolls, and the introduction of state monopolies.

He subsidized manufacturing, supported trad-

ing associations, and forbade emigration to ar-

eas other then Canada, etc. He supported the

royal navy, the merchant fleet, and the national

shipbuilding industry. The main weakness of

mercantilism was that it did not strive to en-

courage any increase in production. When

Colbert died in 1683, his son Colbert de

Seignelay took over until 1690. The son was a

good and loyal associate but he lacked the bril-

liance and courtly skills of his father.

Peter I

Country: Russia

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Monarch

Piotr Alexeievitch was the son of Fyodor III

and succeeded him to the throne in 1682, at

the age of 10. His half sister Sophia was not

pleased and through a palace coup she placed

his mentally ill half brother Ivan V as co-re-

gent. She herself ruled Russia from behind the

throne with her lover Vasilij Golitsyn. When

Ivan died in 1689, Peter took over as ruler. His

goal was to expand Russia and to succeed

where his predecessors had failed. He made a

trip to Western Europe in 1697-98 and it

probably gave him the practical ideas needed to

improve the technology of Russia. Through-

out most of his reign he was busily making war.

Before the Great Nordic War he was conquer-

ing lands around the Black Sea. During the

Great Nordic War he conquered the Baltic, and

the battle of Poltava is considered one of the

most important battles in Russian military his-

tory. The victory marked Russia’s position as a

European nation and one of considerable

strength. His reforms were mainly aimed at

creating a powerful and skilled army, but it pro-

vided a number of positive side effects. The re-

forms concerned trade, production, politics,

military organization and the establishment of

a navy. Many are of the opinion that Peter the

Great, as he was called later, was the greatest of

all the Russian czars.

Köprülü


Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 8

Period of reign: 1656-1661 (Mehmet) and

1661-1676 (Ahmed)

Type: Statesman

Mehmet Köprülü was born sometime between

1557 and 1580 in the small village of Radnick in

Albania. His parents were Christian and as a

young boy he was recruited by the devsirm sys-

tem (Christian boys without clan loyalties were

collected at a very young age and brought up as

warriors and good Moslems). He started his ca-

reer as a cook and advanced to the ministry of fi-

nance, where his competence soon made him

pasha of central Anatolia, where he before long he

earned a reputation of being a very fair and disin-

terested administrator. This was relatively un-

heard of in the Ottoman Empire during the peri-

od, as local clans were quite powerful. You need-

ed great integrity and social competence to rule a

province with authority. As governor of Damas-

cus he was brought to Rum on the 15th of

September in 1656 and entered the role as sadr-i

azam (grand vizier) by order of the mother of the

young sultan Mehhmet IV. Köprülü was a warrior

by heart, who fought corruption and introduced

many reforms, balanced the state budget, and led

the nation in war against Venice. After his death in

1661, his son Ahmed the Righteous inherited the

position and ruled until 1676. Other sadr-i

azams, like Kara Mustafa (1676-1683), Mustafa

Pasha (1689-1691) and Hussein Pasha (1697-

1702) were all descendants of Mehmet.

88

Europa Universalis


De Witt

Country: The Netherlands

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Statesman

Jan de Witt became prime minister in 1653,

and the Netherlands experienced a golden age

during his rule. Jan also spent the greatest part

of his life fighting the power of the house of

Orania. This struggle can be viewed in the light

of the battles between parliaments and the roy-

alty of other nations, but the house of Orania

was the "stathoulder," which was more like

supreme commander of the military, rather

than royalty. In 1667 Jan managed to get his

bill of exclusion directed at them, thereby elim-

inating their influence from the affairs of the

state. This would later backlash when the

Netherlands declared war on France, as the

family returned and he himself was imprisoned.

On the 20th of August 1672 Jan and his broth-

er Cornelis were lynched by a mob incited by

de Witt’s political adversaries.

Louis XIV

Country: France

Skill:

Administration: 6

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Monarch

Louis XIV inherited the throne from his re-lative Louis XIII at the age of five. A rebellious

nobility and civil war threatened France during

the early years of his reign. When he personally

came to power he ruled as autocrat. "I am the

State," is an expression that has been attributed

to Louis XIV. The expression "We’ll see,"

which he used systematically to always get the

last word, is more interesting. During the peri-

od the palace at Versailles was completed and

the royal family took residence there. The no-

bles had no alternative but to go there to re-

ceive their orders. Louis XIV was very

pompous; he regarded himself as the Sun King,

and his goal was French hegemony in Europe.

The pomposity had two very real political pur-

poses—to serve as propaganda to trump others

in pomp and flare, and by limiting the influen-

tial power of the nobility on the rule of the na-

tion by the pompous rituals surrounding the

monarch. Louis XIV did not succeed with the

goal of hegemony, but nonetheless managed to

put his grandson on the Spanish throne. It

must also be mentioned that his anti-Protes-

tant domestic politics, which were a conse-

quence of the autocracy, resulted in economic

and humanitarian disaster. The highly industri-

ous Huguenots left France for countries like

England, the Netherlands, and Sweden, where

they provided an economic renaissance. When

his majesty died in 1715 at the age of 78,

France was exhausted and on the verge of

bankruptcy. But at the same time France had

become the leading nation of culture,

renowned for its fine arts, its culture and fash-

ion. Louis XIV is probably the best-known

French king throughout history.

Frederick William I

Country: Prussia

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 7


Type: Monarch

Frederick William I of Prussia was a very com-

petent organizer who shunned all unnecessary

expense, except when it applied to military

matters. It has been said that Frederick William

tried to build a company of guards consisting

of giants (i.e. they were all more than two me-

ters tall) and pairing these with equally giant

ladies, but to his great dismay their offspring

were of normal height. Frederick William is of-

ten called the "soldier king" and more or less

lived with his soldiers, because that was what

he preferred. It’s been said that when he was

sick, he used to order his favorite regiment to

89

Europa Universalis


march through the royal bedchamber in full

parade uniform. This naturally improved his

mood and made him feel better. He built an

army of 80,000 men that was one of the best

organized and trained in Europe. He reorga-

nized the social system, giving the junker class

(the land-owning nobility) priority to the army

in exchange for total obedience. The only time

he used this magnificent war machinery was

when he occupied Swedish Pomerania during

the Great Nordic War. His son, Frederick II,

had greater use of the army.

William Pitt the elder

Country: England

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 9

Period of reign: 1757-1778 (actually a recess

between 1763 and 1765)

Type: Statesman

William Pitt the elder was born in 1708 and

was the grandson of the English governor of

Madras, India. Originally he was meant to have

a military career, but he became member of the

House of Commons as a representative of the

Whig party and a glowing patriot. William

strove to turn England into a global empire

based on the supremacy at sea. He led his coali-

tion government to victory in North America

and India during the Seven Years War, despite

the strong disapproval of king George II.

William was forced to leave his position in

1763, which probably saved France from los-

ing even more land than they did at the peace

of Paris. William regained his power in 1766

despite his failing health and became involved

in a war with France in 1778. William died the

same year and was thereby spared the indepen-

dence of the United States at the end of the war

in 1783.

Hensius

Country: The Netherlands

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Statesman

Antonius Hensius was born in 1640 and en-

joyed the confidence of William II of Orania

throughout his life. He was sent to Versailles

after the peace at Nijemen in 1672 to supervise

the implementation of the clauses and was ap-

pointed prime minister in 1668 when William

became king of England and had to move to

London. Hensius was a tough negotiator and

one of the greatest and most obstinate oppo-

nents of France. He was the mind behind most

of the anti-French coalitions made during the

late 1600s to counter French expansion. He

died in 1720

Kaunitz

Country: Austria

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Statesman

Count Wenzel-Anton of Rittberg-Kaunitz was

born in Bohemia in 1711 and was later ap-

pointed Prince.

He was raised in the spirit of the enlightenment

and he was a dutiful man of the state. Through-

out his career he had the confidence of queen

Maria-Theresia. After his initial diplomatic ca-

reer he became prime minister of Austria, a po-

sition he held until two years prior to his death.

As a specialist in alliance changes and with an

acute sense for new political currents, he built a

strong alliance with France against the Prussia

of Friedrich II. But at the end of the Seven

Years War he turned to Prussia and provided

Austria with large areas of land at the first parti-

tioning of Poland-Lithuania.

90

Europa Universalis


Fleury

Country: France

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Statesman

Hercule de Fleury was born in 1653 and was

the son of a tax collector. He made his way up

in society by means of his own skills. In 1715

he became the teacher of young Louis XV, and

a very great mutual trust developed between

the monarch and his teacher. At the age of 73

Fleury was appointed chief minister in 1726.

He held this position until his death in 1743.

Fleury was loyal and honest and stood above all

the intrigue of the court and strove for peace

for France. During his reign France had its

longest period of peace in more than 300 years.

Guilio Alberoni

Country: Spain

Skill:

Administration: 7

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 6


Type: Statesman

Guilio Alberoni, the son of a simple gardener

in Fiorenzuela of Italy, was born in 1664 and

began his career in the service of a French gen-

eral, the duke of Vendôme. Alberoni advanced

to negotiator to the duke of Parma, when the

duke married Elizabeth Farnese to Philip V of

Spain. As a reward for his services Alberoni en-

tered the center of the Spanish state adminis-

tration and was appointed cardinal in 1717.

Neither his politics nor his diplomatic talents

helped Bourbon Spain to any greater acquisi-

tions of land. His Spanish adventure ended in

1719, when he was banished from this country.

Alberoni was a talented and ambitious politi-

cian, but failed to raise Spain out of its deep re-

cession.

Frederick II ‘the Great’

Country: Prussia

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Monarch

Frederick II had a very harsh childhood under

his tyrannical father Frederick William I, who

regularly whipped his frail son, who was inter-

ested in culture. Eventually he ran away, but

when his tough-skinned father caned his little

sister Wilhelmine, he gave up and reconciled to

the will of his father. Frederick was an enlight-

ened monarch, but also a warrior. He success-

fully led his father’s army during the Austrian

War of Succession (1740-1748) and he thor-

oughly learned the art of war, which gave him

the epithet Frederick the Great. He was one of

the greatest field marshals in history. His quali-

ties on the battlefield were definitely shown

during the Seven Years War (1756-1763),

when he used inner lines and tactical offen-

sives. This gave him many victories and he also

avoided many losses if the war itself was one he

could not win. Frederick was also a skilled

diplomat and among other things he produced

the Machiavellian plan to divide Poland. He al-

so enjoyed culture, was a personal friend of

Voltaire, and a good example of a typical en-

lightened despot.

Robert Walpole

Country: England

Skill:

Administration: 8

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Statesman

Robert Walpole, the count of Orford (1676-

1745), was appointed minister of war in 1708,

but was compromised by a number of scandals,

and he lost his position. When the house of

Hanover came to power in England he re-

91

Europa Universalis


gained his position as minister and pursued a

consequent policy of balance in order to pro-

mote peace in Europe. He dominated politics

in England from 1721 to 1742 as First Lord

and Exchequer, a post that later developed into

the present office of prime minister.

Charles XII

Country: Sweden

Skill:

Administration: 6

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 5


Type: Monarch

Charles XII became king at the age of 15 in

1697. He was a bold and sometimes quite

stubborn ruler. Charles was less skilled as a

diplomat. He liked the simple life of a soldier

and had great problems with the refined flat-

tery and ramblings associated with diplomacy.

To this may be added his strong religious con-

victions, which at times may have swayed his

decisions at certain points. He was an excellent

field marshal who often used the superior tac-

tics of shock, and his greatest victory may very

well have been the one at Narva where his

10,000 Swedish soldiers met 36,000 Russians

and won an overwhelming victory. The defen-

sive battles against Denmark, Poland-Lithua-

nia, and Russia were too great a task in the long

run. The invasion of Russia was a high-risk

campaign, which turned bad. His greatest

chance at maintaining and supporting his

troops was to be found in the Ukraine, but Pe-

ter the Great beat him to it and Charles XII had

to make do with wagons of provisions that

slowly rolled across the almost endless country.

After the battle at Poltava, the greatest victory

of Peter the Great, Charles fled to Bender in

the Ottoman Empire where he tried to gain the

support of the Ottomans, which succeeded in

1711, when the Ottoman Empire attacked

Russia. Nothing was accomplished by the war,

and after peace was signed Charles XII was

banished from the Empire. He returned to

Sweden in 1715, and in 1716 and 1718 respec-

tively, he launched two invasions against Dan-

ish Norway in order to kick Denmark out of

the enemy alliance. On The 30th of November

1718 a bullet from outside the Norwegian for-

tification at Fredrikshald killed him. As Charles

had no brothers the crown went to his

youngest sister, Ulrika Eleonora, who together

with her husband Frederick of Hessen-Cassel

made peace with all of the enemies of Sweden.

The nation lost almost a third of its holdings

and its status, as a great power was lost.

Catherine II

Country: Russia

Skill:

Administration: 7

Military: 7

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Monarch

Jekatrina II, who also was called "the Great,"

was a princess of German origin who married

the czar Piotr III. She managed to win the love

and respect of her people by converting to the

Orthodox faith, by supporting the church and

fighting the pro-Prussian politics of her. He

was probably mentally ill and indulged in a

number of atrocities, which were directly of-

fensive to the people surrounding him. In

1762 Katarina launched a successful coup and

then ruled without hindrance after the execu-

tion of her husband. During her reign Russia

reached its greatest expansion after having con-

quered the Crimea in 1783, Odessa (1774 and

1791), northern Caucasus (1786) and in the

west the three partitions of Poland (1772,

1793 and 1795). The only major threat to

Russia during the period was the Pugatchev re-

volt in 1773-74. Catherine was a typical en-

lightened despot, who exchanged letters with

Voltaire. She turned a major part of the gov-

ernment over to her lover Potemkin.

92

Europa Universalis


Oleg Potemkin

Country: Russia

Skill:

Administration: 9

Military: 8

Diplomacy: 9


Type: Statesman

In the year of 1772 the great prince Oleg

Potemkin became prime minister and the fa-

vorite of Catherine the Great. This happened

immediately after her former favorite, Gregorij

Orlov, had been dismissed from office and was

forced to retire. Potemkin is mostly known for

the conquest of the Crimea and his talents as an

administrator. He increased the development

in the more backward southern parts of the

empire. He was also a highly skilled political

leader and must have been rather loyal and de-

pendable as he held the confidence of the Em-

press, and actually retained his position when

she left him for a younger lover.

Stefan Batory

Country: Poland-Lithuania

Skill:

Administration: 5

Military: 5

Diplomacy: 3


Type: Monarch

In 1574 King Henri de Anjou left the country

and declared it as a republic of nobles with an

elected king. Poland-Lithuania was facing

chaos. Czar Ivan IV of Russia, Emperor Max-

imillian II of Austria, and Johan III of Sweden

all tried to seize the throne, but it was the

Prince of Siebenbürgen (Transylvania) who

eventually claimed it, much to Poland-Lithua-

nia’s joy and fortune. Stefan became an unusu-

ally powerful ruler, who both managed to keep

the nobility at bay and successfully maintained

the interests of Poland-Lithuania on the Baltic.

When he was elected king in 1575 he immedi-

ately made sure that his brother Christopher

could succeed him in Siebenbürgen. He then

launched a quick campaign to pacify Poland.

After reinforcing the army with Cossack units

and sending a suggestion of peace to the Ot-

toman Empire he attacked czar Ivan IV, whose

forces were trying to capture the Baltic hold-

ings of Poland-Lithuania. This war is often

called the Livonian War and ended in 1582

when Russia had to recognize the rightful

holding of Polotsk and Livonia. Stefan had a

very faithful and loyal associate in his statesman

and field marshal, Jan Zamoyski, who helped

him reinforce royal authority and of course aid-

ed in the wars. Stefan Batory was a strong-

willed man and also an ardent Catholic. Per-

sonally he had a very tolerant view of the other

religions of his realm. Nevertheless he gave

some support to the Counter Reformation,

which met with great resistance among the

people. He also had to fight difficult battles of

domestic politics to reinforce royal power, but

he never let these problems stop him from ful-

filling his ambitious plans of expansion. Ste-

fan’s goal was to unite Poland-Lithuania, Rus-

sia and Siebenbürgen under his personal lead-

ership. His advanced plan of a war against Rus-

sia and the Ottoman Empire was stopped only

by his own death. Stefan is regarded as the

most ambitious monarch in the entire history

of Poland-Lithuania.

Wladyslaw IV Vasa


Skill:

Administration: 7

Military: 6

Diplomacy: 4


Type: Monarch

Wladyslaw was born in Krakow on the June 9,

1595, the son of King Sigismund of Poland-

Lithuania and Sweden, and he was the crown

prince of Sweden for almost six years. When he

turned fifteen his father managed to have him

elected czar of Russia, which was a step on the

way to conquering all the Russians by force and

converting them to Catholicism. The throne

was not held for long as the "time of troubles"

in Russia ended shortly after he had ascended,

93

Europa Universalis


and instead Michail Romanov took the throne.

During his youth he participated in many Pol-

ish wars and acquired a lot of military knowl-

edge. His most important meeting was perhaps

the one with the Spanish field marshal Spanio-

la, who taught him the value of having a well-

trained military. The country suffered during

the rule of his father, an obstinate and humor-

less man, with extreme religious politics and

many failed wars. As king, Wladyslaw healed

many of the wounds his father had inflicted on

the society of Poland-Lithuania. He was imme-

diately forced into war against Russia and the

Ottoman Empire, but successfully kept them at

bay. He succeeded with his main goal, which

was to create peace for Poland-Lithuania. The

main solution was his modernization of the

army, and from 1633 and for a long period af-

terward, Poland-Lithuania fought on equal or

better terms than its enemies. Wladyslaw never

managed to regain the Swedish crown, nor did

he manage to stop the "Sejm" (the parliament)

from undermining royal power within the na-

tion. In a final effort in trying to become indis-

pensable, he ordered the Cossacks to attack

targets within the Ottoman Empire, to force

them into attacking Poland-Lithuania in re-

turn, thereby placing him at the center of at-

tention again, but these tactics failed. Broken-

hearted over the recent death of his son, he

himself died in 1648. That same year the Cos-

sacks began the greatest rebellion in the history

of Poland-Lithuania.

Jan III Sobieski


Skill:

Administration: 7

Military: 9

Diplomacy: 8


Type: Monarch

The legends tell that Jan III Sobieski was born

in 1624 in Olesko in present day Ukraine on a

night when the thunder was rolling and the

Tartars were attacking. Jan was a typical war-

rior king with excellent qualities. He never lost

a single battle after being appointed field mar-

shal and crowned as king. He was appointed

field marshal in 1668. During the 1650s he

participated in many battles against Cossacks

and Swedes and did so with great skill. During

the 1670s he won a number of brilliant victo-

ries against the Ottoman Empire. He also ne-

gotiated a secret agreement with France to at-

tack Brandenburg together with Sweden. This

chance never materialized as the war against

the Ottomans could not be interrupted, and

Sweden lost two great battles in Brandenburg.

After the peace with the Ottoman Empire, Jan

made a compact with Austria, and in 1683 he

relieved and rescued Vienna from the Ottoman

armies. In two great campaigns he led his army

of 65,000 men to victory. This gave him a rep-

utation of almost epic proportions and stopped

the Turkish advances in Europe. Unfortunate-

ly, Jan continued his wars against the Ottoman

Empire, which hindered him from seeing the

growing danger of Brandenburg-Prussia and

Russia. He also avoided dealing with the do-

mestic reforms without which Poland-Lithua-

nia would be lost. When he died in 1696 the

commonwealth was on the verge of bankrupt-

cy, and was faced with another chaotic round of

electing a new king. The Polish nobility took of

that chaos during a very brief period of time.

Jan III Sobieski was the last of the great kings

of Poland-Lithuania; afterwards, the nation

was slowly brought under Russian dominance.

Random Events

We have mentioned earlier that random events

may affect your country and its dealings. There

is a function in the game that randomly gener-

ates events of a kind that may affect any of the

areas previously discussed. Exactly what those

events are will not be discussed, as it would de-

stroy the fun of playing the game. Random

events may be of a political, economical, social,

religious, or military nature, and may be either

temporary, i.e. occurring between two dates,

or may become permanent.

94

Europa Universalis


D) The ArchiveTo the player the archive is what the royal secretary

was for the renaissance prince. All the information

you might need is stored systematically in the

archive. As with all other kinds of information it may

initially be hard to see the forest for all the trees, but

by using the archive effectively you will soon realize

what a gold mine it really is. It is the only way you

may see how your country fares in comparison with

your opponents. When you click the icon showing a

small book in the information window the game

pauses and the archive opens on the last page you ac-

cessed.

The archive contains 33 pages organized in the fol-

lowing chapters:

Monarchs and victory points 1-4

Economy 5-16

Diplomacy 17-20

Technology 21-22

Military 23-29

Settlements 30-32

There are three ways of browsing through the pages.

You may either right click on any page to get an in-

dex, where you click on the page you want to view.

Or you may turn one page at a time by using the ar-

row keys on your keyboard. The third way is by click-

ing the arrow icons of the archive. You may also

change chapters by clicking the icons for each chap-

ter, which you will find below the page at which you

are looking. If you do, the archive will open on the

first page of the chosen chapter.

There are two types of pages—those that present da-

ta in tables, and those that display the data in graphs.

To sort data into tables, just click on the correspond-

ing column and it will be sorted according to the label.

For example, if you click on Year of ascension in the

Monarch table you will see the monarchs in chrono-

logical order. You may also add/remove data in the

graphs by checking or unchecking the boxes at the

bottom of the page. Checked boxes will show the da-

ta, unchecked will not. When many lines in the graphs

are very close to each other it is often hard to see which

one is which. A good tip is to check/uncheck the

needed lines several times to make them blink. An ex-

ample of this is the graph for naval military technology

development, where the leading nations may be very

close to each other in the race for new improvements.

Monarchs and Victory PointsThe victory points gained and developed along with

the monarchs of your nation are shown on these four

pages (1-4). One graph (1) shows the victory points

over time, which is also shown in a table (3) broken

down by Battle, Diplomacy, Explorations, Economi-

cal development, Settlements, Missions and Peace

treaties. There is also a separate table (2) showing the

missions you have received and whether you have suc-

ceeded or failed, and of course your rewards in victo-

ry points. Finally there is a table (4) showing the for-

mer and present monarchs of your nation. The table

will show each monarch along with an assessment of

his or her ability to rule the country within the ad-

ministrative, diplomatic, economic, and military ar-

eas. You will also see the year of ascension to power

and the year of death, along with the number of victo-

ry points your country gained during the reign of that

particular monarch.

EconomyThe four first pages contain graphs showing the de-

velopment of your country’s wealth, inflation, infras-

tructure, and trade levels compared with the other

great nations. All the graphs show development over

time. Note that wealth is what is left when your na-

tion’s expenses have been subtracted from your in-

come. Inflation is given as a percentage. Changes in

infrastructure and trade levels are given in levels of

technology levels.

The following four pages (9-12) show the income

and expenses of your country, broken down by entry,

and the income/expense ratio of each entry along

with the figures for these from the previous and the

current year.

The last four pages (13-16) deal with information in

the provinces, trade, and any loans, along with the

maintenance costs of your army and navy units. The

provincial information contains tax revenues, the base

of recruitment, production income, and specifies the

main product of the province. The table may be viewed

as a summary of the province’s financial strength. The

trade information presents a table of all the trade cen-

ters you know of, your activities at each of them, the

level of competition as a percentage, the center’s total

trade value, and the monthly cost associated with keep-

ing a merchant there. The loan information shows

which loans you have, where they come from, the sum,

the interest in absolute numbers, and percentages and

their expiration dates. The table for maintenance costs

shows the number of men and the monthly cost of

95

Europa Universalis


keeping them trained and equipped, branch by branch

(cavalry, infantry, etc.).

DiplomacyThese four tables (17-20) show the other nations

(friend and foe), existing alliances, along with cur-

rent wars, if any. The first two tables (17-18) show

your relations to other nations. The first (17) con-

tains all the countries you know of and specifies who

your vassals are, and describes your alliances. It also

shows where you have dynastic connections in terms

of royal marriages, where you refuse to trade, and

where you have Casus Belli (reason for war). The

other table (18) shows anyone who has a Casus Belli

against you, trade embargos directed at you, and the

nations with which you are at war. The last two tables

(19-20) show both existing alliances, the members of

the alliances, and the expiration dates (month and

year) along with all other current wars, showing the

participants of each.

TechnologyThese two pages (21-22) show the development of

land and naval military technology over time for all

the great nations.

MilitarySeven pages (23-29) showing graphs and tables for

commanders and experts, army and naval units, ship-

building, and army recruitment, along with the total

military losses of your country.

The first page (23) shows each of your comman-

ders and specialists, giving the name, type, rank, and

name of the units under his command, his year of ap-

pointment, along with his skill levels in maneuvering,

battle, shock and sieges.

The following two pages (24-25) show a graph of

the strength of your army in thousands of soldiers

and the strength of your navy in number of ships over

time, and in comparison to the other nations. Note

that each piece of artillery counts as 1000 soldiers.

Following that you will find two tables (26-27)

showing your armies and fleets with their respective

names, provinces or sea zones, regions, and

strengths. Page 28 describes army units under re-

cruitment and naval units under construction, both

in table format. The page shows the number and type

of unit under construction, where it is being assem-

bled, and when the unit will be ready for battle. Fi-

nally table 29 shows your total military losses of men

and equipment up until now. It is divided into

branches showing the amount lost in total, in battle,

by attrition and by disbandment of units.

SettlementsThe first page (30) contains a graph showing how

your entire territory, your provinces, colonies and

trading posts have changed over time, along with the

rest of the nations. The table on page 31 gives infor-

mation about your provinces. Each province is de-

scribed by name, the area and greater region in which

it is located, the provincial capital, its population, its

base of recruitment, and the extensiveness of fortifi-

cations, and whether any other nation has taken con-

trol over it. The third page (32) shows your colonial

holdings in table format. You will find its name,

whether it is a trading post or a colony, and in what

region and on what continent it is located. You will

get information on the size of the holding, the size of

any fortifications, and whether any other nation has

taken control over it.

These tables can be of great help if you use them

correctly. It is easy to see the advantages if you com-

pare the amount of work you have to put in to check

your status by moving around the entire map in or-

der to spot any hostile takeovers among any of your

thirty some holdings. Instead you can just right click

the archive icon, choose page 32, and have all your

holdings listed.

96

Europa Universalis


E) Historic Review

Three Points of Departure

The Year of 1492This is a year more than five hundred years ago. It is a

year imprinted upon our historic consciousness and

collective view of the world. It was the year when

Columbus discovered America. A new world opened

up for Europe, but what constituted Europe?

Europe had experienced a relatively quiet period

for approximately a century. The population was

about 70 or 80 million people. The continent had

not quite recovered from the catastrophic ravages of

the Black Death during the 1350s. The towns had

grown somewhat, but only at the expense of the

countryside.

Today it is difficult to imagine what the long lost

landscapes of that age really looked like, but we may

assume that swamps were more prevalent, covering

vast areas of northern Germany, Russia, and parts of

France. The Italian countryside was very desolate

and not quite as romantic as we may imagine it. The

Slavic name for the Hungarian plains, which consist-

ed of nothing more than grass and ponds, was ‘pusz-

ta’, which means "desolate" or "abandoned" The

Muscovite deciduous forests were beginning to give

way to the vast fields of oats, even if the conquest of

the steppe south of Moscow had not yet begun.

Along the shores of the North Sea the struggle to re-

claim land from the sea had not yet had any notable

success. In the far North of Europe there were vast

areas of pine and spruce and fur-bearing animals,

which turned hunting into an important source of

income, and at the same time farming and raising cat-

tle contributed to the clearcut areas of central Swe-

den. In the Po Valley and on the Spanish plains the

landscape was transformed by irrigation, and the

conquest of distant valleys of the vast Alpine areas

continued.

Europe was still an entity with one foot in the Mid-

dle Ages and one foot in the new era. All of the 15th

century, as well as the Middle Ages, were as one with

Christianity. "The Empire," together with the Pope

and his clerical administration, was and remained a

powerful moral and spiritual force, in which people

still believed, regardless of its laughably small actual

power. It was primarily seen as a Republica Chris-

tianorum, Corpus Christianorum (a Christian Re-

public, a Christian Body), without any special refer-

ence to the holy Roman crown. The idea that all

sovereigns were equal became more and more ac-

cepted, as a result of the previous political power

struggles between Pope and Emperor. Of course the

Emperor had many problems if he chose to work

with any kind of authority within the formal borders

of the Empire.

Diplomacy had its origins in the Papal bureaucracy,

and it developed because a hierarchy of states existed

based on importance and prestige. The political or-

gans of the kings of France, England, Portugal,

Castile, and Aragon had monopolized this diplomat-

ic function. The first important steps toward a cen-

tralized rule were taken in these countries at that

time.

Economically Europe was facing a change of sys-

tem. Poland-Lithuania and the Baltic area were the

main producers of grain. England, Flanders, Bra-

bant, and Northern Italy produced fabric. Northern

Europe provided furs and fish. The Hanseatic

League was the most important transporter of goods

in the Northern half of Europe, but was on the de-

cline. A more differentiated trade was slowly emerg-

ing throughout Europe. Venice and Genoa were the

middlemen in the Southern part of Europe, with

monopolies on the trade with the Levant. Northern

Italy was the strongest economic center of Europe,

with an enormous ability to finance production and

trade. The Ottoman Empire functioned as an inter-

mediary with trade from the Orient. This situation

raised the prices greatly on goods like spices, incense,

dyes, and silk.

The effect of all this meant that rich and strategical-

ly situated countries like Spain and Portugal intensi-

fied their efforts to reach India by sea in order to

avoid the Ottoman middlemen. The Portuguese had

already found the way to India by rounding the Cape

of Good Hope, but the Spaniards wanted to find a

more direct route. Columbus went looking for India

when he left Europe, but instead discovered Ameri-

ca, a continent named after the explorer Amerigo

Vespucci, who was the first to claim that the new con-

tinent could not be a part of Asia. Soon Spaniards

such as Cortez and Pizzaro had conquered the Aztec

and Inca empires. Pedro Alvarez Cabral discovered

Brazil, Diego Diaz discovered Madagascar. Francis-

co de Almeida and Albuquerque conquered impor-

tant coastal provinces in India. These discoveries and

conquests broke the economic power of Venice and

Genoa. Slowly but surely Portugal and Spain

emerged as the economic great powers of Europe,

Portugal through its control of the trade of spices

and silk in India, and Spain through the silver and

97

Europa Universalis


gold mined in America.

Culturally Europe was facing a period of expansion,

and 1492 hints at the great things that were about to

be created. At the court of Ludovico Sforza a 40-

year-old man named Leonardo da Vinci was busily

drawing statues of horsemen, building cannons, and

creating machinery for the theater. At the monastery

at Steyn Geert Geertsz, a 26-year-old monk, was say-

ing his prayers. He would soon leave the monastery

when he no longer felt his calling. We know him as

Erasmus of Rotterdam. The 23-year-old son of a

poor, but well-bred family, was sitting in his study

finishing his exams in Latin. Within two years he was

about to start an undistinguished career as a civil ser-

vant in Florence. As an adult Niccolo Machiavelli was

exiled from his beloved Florence and would write

"The Prince," a study of ‘realpolitik.’ There was a

16-year-old in Florence named Michelangelo

Buonarroti, who was said to be quite talented with a

chisel. The Duke of Ferrara had a commander, whose

17-year-old son was called Ludovico Ariosto. He was

studying law, but would soon begin a literary career

and write "Orlando Furioso," one of the greatest

"bestsellers" of the period. Nine-year-old Rafael

Santi lived in Urbino, the son of the rather mediocre

court painter Giovanni Santi. A Saxon boy by the

name of Martin, son of a miner with the surname of

Luther, was nine years old. As a priest he would cre-

ate the greatest ideological upheaval in Europe since

the advent of Christianity. Ignatius of Loyola had

been born the previous year and was still in his cradle.

As an adult he would provide the Catholic Church

with its greatest rekindling since the Middle Ages.

In 1492 the struggle for supremacy was knocking

at the door. The political arena of Europe was a

hotbed of intrigue, drama, and great personalities. A

few days after Columbus left Seville, the College of

Cardinals had just elected Rodrigo Borgia as pope

under the name of Alexander VI. He was probably

one of the most controversial popes in history. This

pope was rich, both in earthly goods, energy, mis-

tresses, and children. A few years later he hammered

out the Treaty of Tordesillas, which divided the

world between Portugal and Spain. During the later

half of the 15th century Europe’s first federal experi-

ment was carried out—the Duchy of Burgund, con-

sisting of the Netherlands, Lorraine, Franché-

Comte, Bourgogne, and periodically southern Italy.

When this state was dissolved there was a conflict

about how to divide it involving Maximilian I of Aus-

tria, Charles VII of France, and Ferdinand and Is-

abella of Spain, and finally Henry VII of England.

France was most aggressive, and when Charles VII

prepared and carried out an invasion of Naples,

Spain, and Austria closed ranks in a way that led to a

dynastic marriage. France brought the war to the

Netherlands, the Spanish border, and southern Italy,

but no real victor emerged. It was rather the dynastic

union between Spain and Austria that resulted in the

most important shift of power during the entire 16th

century. We should mention that France tried to

counter the union by binding Poland-Lithuania to

France, by making Henri of Anjou elected as king,

but the plan was a total failure.

The transformation of the political structure of Eu-

rope had begun. Both the heritage of Burgundy and

the Spanish-Austrian marriage were to create con-

flicts and tension for years ahead, initially at the

Dutch border and in northern Italy, but it would

soon spread to all of Western Europe.

In the south Portugal was busy with its new colo-

nial empire and did not get involved in the politics to

any greater extent.

In the southeast Venice, Hungary, and Poland-

Lithuania were involved in small clashes with the Ot-

toman Empire, which was definitely on the rise, and

would have conquered all of the Balkans, Hungary,

the realm of the Mamelukes all the way to Egypt,

Iraq, parts of Persia and Austria within 50 years. The

multinational commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania

was in principle the largest country of Europe and

the only one to stop the Ottomans from conquering

Europe from the southeast. Russia was still a mere

babe in arms. Austria had not yet grown strong un-

der the Hapsburg dynasty. Venice was still fighting

the Ottoman Empire, but was too weak to confront

the Ottomans on her own. Hungary was large, but

quite feudal and lagging in development, and would

soon succumb. Russia had just been created when

the Grand Duchy of Moscow conquered the mer-

chant’s republic of Novgorod. The country was still

lagged technologically after having been under the

yoke of the Mongols, but was quite aggressive and

would soon start to expand far in all directions. The

wish of Russia to conquer a window on the oceans,

and the goal of the Ottoman Empire to conquer Vi-

enna, in order for the Imperator at Rum (Con-

stantinople) to become the only legitimate ruler of

Europe, were the main destabilizing forces in eastern

Europe (the sultan regarded himself as a Roman em-

peror).

In the northwest England was licking its wounds

after the War of the Roses, but would soon be em-

broiled in dynastic conflicts with Spain, France, and

98

Europa Universalis


Scotland. The Danish Empire (the Union of Calmar)

was at war with the Hanseatic League over trade in

northern Europe, and would finally quash the

League. Denmark had ambitions south toward the

small German border principalities, but had to leave

that ambition unfulfilled after the much humiliating

battle with the peasant’s republic of the Ditmarch in

1500. Furthermore Denmark was fighting the

movement of independence of the Swedish high no-

bility, which would soon break out of the union. The

inability of Denmark to bring Sweden into the fold

once more was the beginning of the end of Denmark

as a great power. Sweden increased its power mainly

by conquering areas in the Baltic region from the rel-

atively weak Russia, and Poland-Lithuania, which

was busy at another front.

The strongest and most powerful nations during

the next 50 years were probably Spain, the Ottoman

Empire, France, and Poland-Lithuania.

The Year of 1617Exactly one century after Martin Luther’s famous

nailing of his 95 theses on the gate of the church at

Wittenberg is the year when all of Europe was set on

fire. It was a fire that completely changed the view of

politics and religion, but primarily it brought on suf-

fering and violent death to thousands upon thou-

sands of people.

The population of Europe had increased explosive-

ly. From staying at a level of 55-66 million people the

population had grown to about 100 million at

around 1600. It dropped during the Thirty Years

War, but still reached 120 million in 1650. The pop-

ulation of both Asia and Africa was also rising. The

climate was one of the main reasons why the Euro-

peans never seriously tried to colonize Africa during

the period, as it meant diseases to which the Euro-

peans were not resistant. In the Americas the popula-

tion fell even faster than it was rising in Europe. The

natives were killed by measles, flu, leprosy, plague, ty-

phoid fever, and elephantiasis. In Mexico the popula-

tion more or less fell apart through massive epi-

demics. About two million people are said to have

succumbed to disease during 1576 and 1577. A

number of islands in the Caribbean were totally de-

populated.

The large and fast population growth had a number

of consequences to both the landscape and its peo-

ple. Farmland and pastureland were reclaimed from

nature. In certain areas, like the Iberian Peninsula,

France, Germany, and Italy practically all farmland

yielded good crops. In the northern, central and

eastern regions, where nature was more ungovern-

able and the populations smaller, it took more time.

In Russia and Sweden, for example, you could walk

for miles before reaching the next neighbor, but

these were the extremes. When all of the land was

claimed for farming a number of people had to do

without, and instead moved into the cities, were they

became badly paid workers in the quickly growing

production of goods. Others were more or less left

outside of society, and as income differentiation

grew, and open conflict began, these were the first

people to be recruited as mercenaries in the upcom-

ing wars.

In 1617 Europe faced one of the greatest wars in

history since the early Middle Ages. The war was

based on the political and religious differences of the

times. When it boiled down to religion, there had

been reforms and changes within the framework of

the Catholic church constantly until the final break-

up with the Protestants and the Reformists, after

which church officials hoped that it might be possi-

ble to achieve a reconciliation, but this was not to

happen. Both the Protestant and Reformist teach-

ings contained new strong ideas about individualiz-

ing and decentralizing, which many princes, especial-

ly in Germany, found politically useful, especially

when asserting their independence from the emper-

or of the Holy Roman Empire. Thus ideas coming

from religion, universalism vs individualism, had

been transferred to the political arena during the lat-

er half of the 16th century and the beginning of the

17th. You could say that religion and politics became

inseparable, especially since those who advocated re-

ligious universalism (Catholics) also advocated a po-

litical universalism (Austria and Spain), while those

who advocated religious individualism (Protestants

and Reformists) also often advocated political indi-

vidualism and decentralization (the Netherlands and

a number of German principalities). When these

forces started to challenge each other they more or

less ended up in different camps, the Catholic

League and the Protestant Union. The other coun-

tries not directly involved with the chaotic policies of

the Holy Roman Empire could chose sides or remain

outside. Denmark and Sweden were two countries

that chose to side with the Protestants and Re-

formists. Although they were Protestants themselves

they joined more out of self-interest than any real

concern about how the Holy Roman Empire should

be organized. England chose to remain outside, but

got its own "Thirty Years War" in the form of a con-

flict between the Parliament and the sovereign king,

99

Europa Universalis


about freedom of religion. France awaited the out-

come, but finally entered on the side of the Protes-

tant Union, even though it was a Catholic country.

To France it was more a question of balancing the

power of the Hapsburgs rather than a question of re-

ligion. Poland-Lithuania was the only country in the

region that remained completely outside the con-

flict. This was a country whose religious policy was

distinguished by its tolerance. The country had a

number of religious minorities and could not have

functioned politically without this religious toler-

ance, which in itself does not detract from the honor-

able behavior of that country.

Economically the Hapsburg countries, with Spain

at the lead, had been the most important in Europe

during the entire 16th century, with a practical

monopoly on the import of silver, which was the

most important raw material for coins. Spain had al-

so been most successful in using the services of the

Italian bankers. In 1617 change was about to hap-

pen, and shortly thereafter there was an international

reversal. The Italian bankers suffered a heavy loss at

the same time that the Spanish position as European

leader was undermined. The population of the Span-

ish Netherlands had manage to drive the Italians out

of the market in the matter of clothing and laid the

foundations for their position as an exporter of pro-

duce. The result was that the Dutch created an effi-

cient economic sector, which was able to solve the

needs of the merchants, and also took over the posi-

tion as the anchor of European finances. They had al-

so managed to steer all the American silver by way of

Dutch ports, which reinforced the economic influ-

ence of the Dutch. Together with the English, the

Dutch also took over the role as middleman from the

Hanseatic League in northern Europe. This develop-

ment moved the economic center of Europe from

northern Italy to center upon Amsterdam and Lon-

don, which also brought Western Europe into the fo-

cus of historians.

In 1617 Portugal and Spain were no longer the on-

ly colonial powers (note also that Portugal had been

annexed by Spain). The Dutch had colonies and

trading posts in the Far East, which they had estab-

lished during the Spanish era. France had returned to

its colonization of Canada, where they had founded

Quebec, and were on friendly terms with the Huron

nation. England had returned to its colonization of

Virginia and had founded Jamestown. Soon the En-

glish, the Dutch, and the French were to conquer

more and more territories. Countries like Denmark,

Sweden, and Courland also entered the arena of the

colonial powers, but could not manage the competi-

tion.

Culture was a broad and rich river at the turn of the

century. To mention everyone you would need to

write a full volume, but instead we will provide a

small sampling of the culture of 1617. A few years

earlier Christopher Marlowe wrote "Tamerlaine"

and "The Jew of Malta." William Shakespeare died in

1616, but had produced a number of classics first.

Others whose works had just been brought to public

attention were the skeptic Michel de Montaigne, the

artist Peter Paul Rubens, and the writer Miguel de

Cervantes. Hugo Grotius, a professor from the

Dutch university at Leiden, claims in his book "Mare

Librum," that all the seas were free and internation-

al. His later epochal work "De jure belli ac pacis"

(About Law during War and Peace) from 1625

would create the basis for modern international law.

Seven years earlier Galileo Galilei used the first tele-

scope for astronomical computations. He defended

Copernicus’ heliocentric view of the world and end-

ed up in conflict with the Inquisition, who thought

that the concept of the Earth circling the Sun was

ridiculous and preposterous. The scientist Sir Francis

Bacon was the right hand man of the Duke of Buck-

ingham as prime minister, but lost his position after a

few years due to a bribery scandal.

Europe was on the brink of a major war. They knew

nothing about this in 1617. Actually, the planning of

the various countries indicates that they thought

they could continue waging their minor wars.

Spain was preparing to quash the problems in the

rebellious Netherlands once and for all. The inde-

pendence the "United Provinces" had won was seen

as a blemish on the banner of Spain, and an awkward

affair, which must be corrected. Independence was

not in question. Helping Austria with a large scale

German war was not what they had planned for, and

the whole idea had probably been regarded as totally

ridiculous, even if it had been proposed. Austria was

busy with the religious conditions of the country.

Bohemia suffered a very harsh government, but

there were no plans for war, though the emperor

Mathias was well aware of a possible trial of strength

in the near future. France was busy with its own po-

litical matters. On several occasions the high nobility

had rebelled in favor of the odd queen dowager or

duke. As king Louis XIII was still too young to gov-

ern the country, and while various regencies handled

the actual rule, while fighting their own little vendet-

tas with their own personal enemies, making a con-

sistent foreign policy impossible. The situation in

100

Europa Universalis


England was similar, where the struggle between the

Parliament and the king prevented any forceful for-

eign policy.

Northern Europe and Russia had just survived a

period known as the "Time of Troubles," when total

anarchy reigned and Swedes and Poles competed at

putting their royal sons on the throne. Once again

Russia experienced a period of calm and was able to

consolidate both internally and externally. Sweden

wasn’t able to claim the throne through a Swedish

prince, but instead won Ingermania and a good

peace settlement. Sweden had also achieved a hard,

but necessary peace with the stronger Denmark. The

plan was set, expansion was meant to go across

Poland-Lithuania, the main competitor of the area.

Poland-Lithuania, on the other hand, needed peace.

Thankfully they didn’t need to worry about the Ot-

toman Empire, as that nation was busily warring with

Persia. Poland-Lithuania had also failed in putting a

prince on the throne of Russia, but the borders were

secured, which was enormously important, as the

country was very large. Denmark was facing a dan-

gerous situation. It had defeated Sweden, but hadn’t

won very much during the peace negotiations. Fur-

thermore the relations with the Dutch had worsened

dramatically and the alliance between Sweden and

the Netherlands could be a dangerous threat against

Denmark. In order to maintain their superiority

against Sweden they had to do something, but the

course of action was unclear.

1700Three hundred years ago autocracy was at its zenith

and never before had the fate of so many men and

women been in the hands of so few. This fate meant

that two extensive conflicts would ravage Europe

and to a certain extent become the first of all of the

world wars.

In 1700 Europe probably had a population of

about 120-140 million. The increase since 1617 had

not been that great, but one explanation is the great

number of wars and rebellions, and the change of cli-

mate sometimes called "the little ice age." Another

explanation could be that the harvests from farming

had not kept up with the previous increase in popula-

tion, resulting in a lower birth rate, as each family was

not able to support the same number of children.

The epidemics also struck harder than during the

17th century, as germs spread faster in the crowded

cities. Another thing that would contribute to a

change of this trend during the 18th century was the

fact that the brown rat invaded Europe from Asia,

wiping out the black rat, the greatest carrier of the

plague. The lice of the brown rat did not spread dis-

ease to the same extent. More and more areas of the

previously under-populated areas of northern and

eastern Europe now had larger populations, but the

Russian steppes and the Arctic still did not have many

people.

Centralization became a necessary step in order to

achieve a more efficient rule, and also be able to suc-

cessfully wage war. Centralization reached its peak

during the decades around 1700. Countries like

France, Spain, Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Swe-

den all had autocracies; it was only in England and

Poland-Lithuania that Parliament had the real pow-

er. The 1690s saw a violent quarrel over the remains

of Spanish realm, because Charles II was dying, with

no children to ascend to the throne. In 1700 he grew

bitter about the whole issue and named Philip, the

grandson of Louis XIV as heir to the entire Spanish

empire, on condition that Spain would not be united

with France. Louis XIV broke all previous agree-

ments and accepted the agreement. France then be-

came involved in a conflict with everyone who

thought that the Bourbons would become too pow-

erful through the arrangement—the Spanish War of

Succession was ready to be unleashed.

At the same time the Swedish king, Charles XI, had

died, and his young son, Charles XII, had succeeded

him. Sweden’s status as a great power was built on a

rather shaky ground at the expense of its neighbors—

Russia, Poland-Lithuania, and Denmark-Norway.

These now found it suitable to regain all that had

been lost. Early in the year of 1700 Russians, Poles,

and Danes crossed the Swedish borders—the Great

Nordic War had begun.

The Netherlands was the great center of trade in

1700, controlling the most important ports in the el-

der Portuguese empire (India and the Far East). This

situation was about to change, although no one

knew it at the time. It was England, which later

would overtake the Netherlands on the high seas,

but as late as 1712 a distinguished English gentle-

man stated that they were willing to sell even their

last shirt in order to gain the position that the

Netherlands held. England had entered an expansive

phase, which would not end until the 1750s. The el-

ements of expansion were increased production in

the English colonies, innovations in the area of na-

tional financing, and the skill of the merchants. Both

the Netherlands and England were countries with

strong centers of production, and excellent opportu-

nities to trade. France and Spain were both larger,

101

Europa Universalis


but their production was practically in ruin after the

expulsion of the Moors and the Huguenots. The

main product of these two countries was agricultural.

Denmark-Norway basically lived off their income

from the duties from the Sound, while Sweden re-

ceived income from the same duties, and from con-

trolling Riga, where almost all of the trade to and

from Russia had to pass. Production in Poland-

Lithuania was substantial, but because of the almost

paranoid unwillingness of the magnates to provide

the monarch with the necessary funds, the nation

could not profit from the exports. Russia mainly pro-

duced grain, but the country was economically back-

ward. It was only because of its size that it had any-

thing to say politically, but this would change during

the 18th century, when Russia grew much stronger.

In North America, France was holding parts of pre-

sent day Canada, while England was holding parts of

present day United States. Spain was holding on to

Florida and California. The Caribbean was held by

Spain, followed by France, England, and the Nether-

lands. Spain also had almost all of South America, ex-

cept for Brazil, which belonged to Portugal, and two

small areas controlled by France and the Netherlands

(present day French Guyana and Surinam). England,

France, and the Netherlands all had a few trading

posts in Africa controlling the slave trade. The only

colonies were the Cape Province (present day South

Africa), and Angola and Mozambique, which had

belonged to Portugal for quite some time. England,

the Netherlands, Portugal, and France controlled a

few coastal towns in Asia, while the Netherlands had

colonies in present day Indonesia and at Ceylon, and

Spain had the Philippines.

Culturally the French court at Versailles was the

trendsetter for all of the other European courts, and

French was the language of the educated upper class-

es. Tight-fitting coats reaching down to the knees,

long vests, lace ties, full-bottomed wigs, and short

trousers characterized the male fashion of the day.

Draped gowns with trains, lace sleeves, and high coif-

fures characterized female fashion. The Age of En-

lightenment had not yet arrived, but science and phi-

losophy were at a high point regarding clarity and

purity, which would be represented by natural sci-

ence and rationalistic philosophy. Philosophers like

Nicholas Malebranche, John Locke, Christian Wolff,

and Pierre Bayle were active during 1700. The future

bishop of Cloyne, the philosopher George Berkeley,

entered Trinity College at Dublin this year. 1700 ac-

tually stands between two great phases in Western

thinking. A few years earlier the scientist Isaac New-

ton had published his "Principia Mathematica,"

where he explained his mechanics, and would within

a few years publish "Opticks," another classic. Ten

years later the thoughts of Newton would come into

conflict with perhaps the greatest philosopher and

mathematician of the period, G. W. von Leibniz,

who in his "La Monadologie" was to develop anoth-

er way of understanding the universe. This would re-

sult in a harsh correspondence about the nature of

time and space. Their correspondence provides an

understanding of two of the sharpest minds in histo-

ry. Music was also a very expansive area during the

period. Composers such as Handel, Scarlatti, J. S.

Bach, Purcell, Buxtehude, Couperin, Charpentier,

and many others enriched their age with their music.

There were a number of great authors. Molière and

Racine had recently died, but a great number were

still around, and more were to come. Voltaire was

just 6 years old, and Montesquieu was 11 years old.

The most famous writers in the Ottoman Empire

were Yusuf al-Sim’ani and Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi.

Artists and architects of high renown created the

"baroque" style. Fischer von Erlach, von Hilde-

brandt, Falconnet, Neuomann, and Tiepolo were a

few of the artists of the time.

The political situation of 1700 was anything but

clear. People knew the wars to the East and the

North would be long, but the prospects for Western

and Central Europe were more uncertain.

France was preparing for a large-scale conflict, and

allied itself with Spain, Savoy, and Bavaria. Everyone

thought that the war would mainly be taken to the

Netherlands, and France was intent on expanding in

that direction. There was also the hope of striking at

Austria from two directions, from northern Italy and

from Bavaria. The Austrian emperor, who thought

that his son had the greatest claim to the Spanish

throne, also prepared himself for a great conflict. An

alliance between Austria, the Netherlands, and Eng-

land was seen as the natural and obvious course.

France had repeatedly attacked the Netherlands dur-

ing the past half century, and England saw an oppor-

tunity to maintain the balance of the European con-

tinent. Another reassuring thought was that Austria

had recently fought a successful war against the Ot-

toman Empire, and felt satisfyingly secure; no threat

was coming from that direction. For England the sit-

uation was completely unacceptable. To start with

102

Europa Universalis


Louis XIV refused to accept that his grandson would

have to give up his claims to the French throne,

which would result in a drastically compromised

strategic situation both in Europe and in North

America. It was also obvious that France wanted a

war, as they had sent out a number of privateers

against English ships in American waters, and had

started to garrison Spanish Netherlands and north-

ern Italy. The deciding factor came when Louis XIV

recognized James Edward Stuart as the rightful king

of England and Scotland. This was it. The Nether-

lands would rather avoid a war, as it hardly would

benefit trade, and the Netherlands were not at all as

strong as France, but when England was willing to

sign an alliance they did not say no.

Conditions in the north and east were different.

Denmark-Norway was willing to go to war with Swe-

den, but thought the brothers of the alliance were in

too much of a hurry. They simply had not had time

to build their strength. The Danish army was stand-

ing in the duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, which was in

alliance with Sweden. Sweden, England, and the

Netherlands had sworn to protect the independence

of Holstein-Gottorp, and a combined fleet of En-

glish and Dutch ships was on their way, at the same

time Sweden was massing a large army in Scania. For

Poland-Lithuania the situation was anything but

clear. The nobility had accepted the war in order to

retake Livonia and to expand their holdings, but they

also had concerns about the king and were worried

that August of Saxony would use the opportunity to

increase his powers in Poland-Lithuania. This is the

reason why the attack against Livonia went so slowly;

the nobility were simply waiting for king August, as

they wanted to keep him under control. The Rus-

sians, under the leadership of Czar Peter, attacked as

well as they could in Ingermania. The goal was clear:

they wanted to take the Baltic provinces belonging to

Sweden. The view was that the "Germans" had with-

held the Russians’ rightful place at sea for too long.

The time of reckoning had arrived. There was also

some concern in the circles around Peter regarding

the Russian army. Was it good enough, or would his-

tory repeat itself? For Sweden the situation was polit-

ically just so much simpler. This was a war of defense,

they thought. The strategic difficulties were to be

found in the size of the kingdom. Where should they

attack? Charles XII had decided—he would start by

kicking Denmark-Norway out of the war, and Swe-

den had England and the Netherlands to assist

them—this was a chance that could not be missed.

The Great Powers of

1492-1792

Denmark-Norway

1492-1588The double kingdom of Denmark-Norway was a

great power in Europe in 1492. Its greatest enemy

was the Hanseatic League, whose political and mili-

tary power was waning, but still had a formidable

economic power. Norway was not a problem during

the period, and was safe and secure. Sweden, on the

other hand, was an irritating problem. It was run by

headstrong nobility, which opposed every effort of

the Danish king to increase his control.

The first half of the period is characterized by the

war against the Hanseatic League. Each war weak-

ened the role of the League, until it was completely

erased during the feud of the counts during the

1530s. Denmark-Norway was successful, but to

great cost during later periods. One effect of the nu-

merous wars between Denmark-Norway and the

League was that Sweden was finally able to win its

war of independence. During the period of 1492-

1521 there had been a veritable civil war between

unionists and secessionists, but when Christian II ex-

ecuted a number of obstinate Swedish nobles the

whole country turned against him. The Danish

monarch was no longer able to hold on to the

Swedish crown, and Sweden went its own way. An-

other problem for Denmark-Norway was the perpet-

ual lack of money, and the crown had entered into al-

liances with Russia, the Netherlands and England in

order to crush the Hanseatic League. One of the

clauses of the alliance was that the Dutch and the En-

glish got the same trading privileges that the League

used to have, which in the long run would mean that

Denmark-Norway did not gain anything in the way

of trade.

During the second half of the period Denmark-

Norway and Sweden grew a bit closer by delivering

the deathblow to the League, but relations heated up

after 1560. Denmark-Norway thought it was time to

bring the obstinate sheep back into the fold. Den-

mark-Norway won the war, but without any conclu-

sive victories. No land was ceded, but instead the in-

dependence of Sweden was confirmed. Denmark-

Norway had a professional army of mercenaries

throughout the period, which repeatedly defeated

the Swedish peasant armies, but it turned out to be

103

Europa Universalis


almost impossible to hold onto the conquered terri-

tories in the barren lands of the north. Even if they

had to let Sweden go for a while, they were the

strongest power in the north. They had taken Dagö

and Ösel and thus secured a network of ports and to-

tal control of the Baltic Sea. Even though Sweden

had taken Estonia, it also got a longer border with

the neighbor to the east. There was no longer any

threat from the south. There was just the willful Swe-

den.

1589-1648Denmark-Norway began the period with a long peri-

od of peace lasting for two decades, when the coun-

try recovered and improved its financial situation.

When Sweden was busy with a war against Poland-

Lithuania and Russia the country decided to declare

war. The idea was that they would be able to crush

the Swedish rebels. During the Calmar War (16111-

1613) the fighting was extremely mobile, but once

again they were disabled by the difficult supply situa-

tion in the barren north. The Danish fleet was supe-

rior at sea, but the Danish army was not able to get

that decisive victory which could crush Swedish

morale. The war resulted in a Danish victory, and the

Swedes had to pay a huge tribute for defying king

Christian IV, but there no land was ceded, to the

great disappointment of the king. After the war Den-

mark-Norway was in a peculiar situation. It could

not expand to the south, without facing very strong

alliances, and the route across Sweden was closed for

the moment. Christian IV was worriedly regarding

Swedish expansion in the Baltic area. The power base

of Denmark-Norway was far too weak in the area

(only consisting of Ösel) in order to really compete

with Swedes, Russians, and Poles.

When the Thirty Years War had been in progress

for some time, Denmark-Norway found an opening.

A triple alliance between Denmark-Norway, Eng-

land, and the Netherlands was signed in December

1625, and Christian IV took command of the army

of the alliance. Soon thereafter, in 1626, Christian IV

was forced into battle against Tilly at Lutter am

Barenberge. Denmark-Norway lost the battle, main-

ly because the imperial troops were veterans. Chris-

tian IV lost his support with the North German

princes, and the conflict developed into a defensive

war. When Jutland was completely occupied by the

enemy in 1629 there was a cheap peace without any

cessation of land, primarily because the Austrian

commander feared an alliance between Denmark-

Norway and Sweden. During the latter part of the

Thirty Years War, Denmark-Norway was attacked by

Sweden (1643-1645), and although the Danish fleet

commanded by the naval hero Niels Juel was victori-

ous and Christian IV besieged the Swedish town of

Gothenburg, they were forced into peace and had to

cede Jämtland, Härjedalen, Gotland, Ösel, and Hal-

land for 30 years. The main reasons were the Swedish

weapons, the superior Swedish commanders, and the

support from the Netherlands. The great power sta-

tus of Denmark-Norway was questionable at the end

of the period, and great changes were needed if that

position were to be regained.

1649-1721Denmark-Norway experienced a brief breathing

space before catastrophe again cast its long shadows

across the country. The government of the country

was strongly in favor of peace, but they manage to

provoke the Dutch by raising the customs at the

Sound and trying to force trade into the Baltic Sea.

When the Swedish warrior king Charles X Gustavus

was found himself in an impossible situation in

Poland he turned and marched toward Denmark.

Denmark-Norway raised army units, but they were

not veterans, and the willfulness of the nobility

meant that there were not enough funds for the pur-

pose. Through a combination of daring and luck the

Swedish army marched across the ice to Copen-

hagen, when a large portion of the sound between

Zealand and Jutland froze during the winter of

1657. The situation was impossible, because all of

the Danish units had to fight in isolation against the

superior Swedish force. The peace treaty took a

heavy toll on Denmark-Norway, as the country lost

Halland, Blekinge, Scania, Bohuslän, Bornholm, and

Trondheim, which meant the loss of a third of the

entire country. The Swedish king was not satisfied,

though, and attacked again, but this time Denmark-

Norway was saved by a number of countries that did

not accept that the country would cease to exist, and

Denmark-Norway regained Trondheim and Born-

holm. During the war of alliances on the continent in

1672-1679 Denmark-Norway tried to regain what

was lost. The war was extremely even and could have

ended up either way, but Lady Luck smiled on Swe-

den, and Denmark-Norway received nothing for its

efforts.

In 1700, the year before the Spanish War of Succes-

sion broke out, the Great Nordic War began. Russia,

Denmark-Norway, and Poland-Lithuania-Saxony

had decided to regain everything that had been lost

and possibly divide Sweden among them. Initially

104

Europa Universalis


things went awry for Denmark-Norway, as a quick

Swedish landing the same year forced Denmark-

Norway into signing a peace treaty. The Swedes had

been too fast, and the Danish armament was not fin-

ished. Denmark-Norway attacked once more in

1710, but was once again forced into an ignominious

retreat after having landed in Scania. From now on

Denmark-Norway decided to wait it out, as Sweden

had gained almost a dozen enemies. Around 1716-

1717 a Russian-Danish-Saxon landing was planned,

in order to retake the former north-eastern provinces

of Denmark-Norway, but because of fatigue and the

stubbornness of the allies the invasion never took

place, and Denmark-Norway only received some

money as tribute. When the period ended Denmark-

Norway was a rather weak country, but the only

country that had been a threat had been utterly

crushed and no longer posed any threat.

1722-1792The foreign policy situation of Denmark-Norway

changed completely in the wake of the Great Nordic

War and the Spanish War of Succession. Sweden was

no longer any real threat, and the Silesian part of

Holstein-Gottorp was fully annexed in 1721, and the

Holstein part in 1773. England and Russia had,

however, become the winners of both of the wars and

had a decisive influence on Danish-Norwegian for-

eign policy. Russia was used as support against Swe-

den, while the country had to stay on good terms

with England for trade reasons. This was a rather dif-

ficult situation, as Russia and England had very little

in common.

The relationship with Sweden, however, was more

important. About 1740 Swedish succession was

brought to the fore and the Danish crown prince fig-

ured as pretender, which could have restored the

Calmar Union. There was further talk about Danish-

Norwegian help in the Swedish war against Russia in

1741-1743, but as the war was turning out badly for

Sweden, the Swedes chose a Russian pretender,

Adolphus Frederick of Kiel, to lessen the losses at the

peace treaty. The government of Denmark-Norway

was on the verge of a breakdown because of this de-

ceit, but had to comply, as they could not get any

great power to join them in a war of conquest against

Sweden. In contrast to Sweden, Denmark-Norway

always managed to end up well in the perpetually

changing alliances, and always succeeded in gaining

subsidies from one great power or the other without

having to do anything in return. The Danish-Nor-

wegian armed forces were stronger than the Swedish

forces after Sweden’s war with Russia in 1741-43,

which was of some consolation. During the Austrian

War of Succession Denmark-Norway declared itself

neutral for the first time ever, and was able to watch

the outcome of Sweden’s Russian adventure.

During the period of 1650-1750 the demand for

grain and timber in Europe had been gradually de-

creasing, which had severe economic consequences

for Denmark-Norway. Perhaps this was the cause of

the downfall of Denmark-Norway as a great power.

In the wake of the Austrian War of Succession, from

1750 and onwards, the demand for such goods in-

creased anew, giving the Danish-Norwegian econo-

my a boost. This in turn set a number of reforms in

motion, and the long period of peace gave Denmark-

Norway a late economic golden age.

When the Seven Years War of 1756-1763 broke out

Denmark-Norway again declared itself neutral and

got away with it. The country had subsidy deals both

with England and France and could not choose to

support either of them without loss of credibility. In-

stead the country chose peace and prosperity. How-

ever, the country had to act against Sweden in 1788

when it was fighting against Russia. If the Danish-

Norwegian government had wanted to enter the

war, they would probably have been able to regain

lost provinces from Sweden, but the government was

also well aware of the risk associated with a weakened

Sweden, as the Russians would soon be knocking on

the doors of Copenhagen otherwise. With its active

policy of peace and its healthy economy Denmark-

Norway was able to preserve its position as a second

rank power, although that position would be lost

during the Napoleonic wars, but that was in another

age.

England

1492-1588England in 1492 was a very weak country. It had not

only lived through the Hundred Years War with

France and had lost all of its French possessions, but

it had also fought a very bloody and destructive civil

war (the War of the Roses 1455-1485). It was true

that the power of the high nobility was weaker and

the power of the king stronger than before, but the

country was in ruins. Recovery would take a long

time. During the first half of the period English ship-

ping was increasing. England had a good geographi-

cal position and the Spanish and Portuguese colonies

in America meant trade with these people. Further-

105

Europa Universalis


more, traveling in these waters brought a good idea

about the North American coast, which the English

were to start colonizing during the next period. Dur-

ing the second half production increased, chiefly in

the areas of textiles and metals.

For England the period was problematical. During

the first half the Catholics were in the majority, while

king Henry VIII broke with the Pope in order to

have his divorces in peace. Under Mary (married to

Philip II of Spain) England had a policy of reac-

tionary Catholicism, which created ill feelings

among all types of Protestants. When Elizabeth I

then came to power the Anglican Church was creat-

ed as a unique Protestant state church. Catholics and

Puritans (Reformed faith) did not like it at all, and in

principle no one was satisfied with any of the reli-

gious solutions. There was another tricky problem

that had to be solved, and this came from Scotland.

The problem was that Mary Stuart, the Queen of

Scotland, had legal claims to the throne of England,

and quite literally attracted all of the dissatisfied

Catholics. For different reasons Mary Stuart ended

up in an English prison and was later beheaded for

plotting against the life of queen Elizabeth. This put

the Spaniards in motion. There were a number of

reasons for the conflict between England and Spain.

One was the English support of the rebellious

Netherlands, another that Elizabeth had refused to

marry Philip II, a third that English pirates had start-

ed to harass the Spanish merchant ships, and finally

the execution of Mary Stuart. Spain, the leading

power of Europe, dispatched the Great Armada, the

greatest collection of ships seen in the north for ages.

The attack against England failed completely and

turned into a catastrophe for Spain. England was

saved and had shown the world that it could be victo-

rious against a naval power at sea. The Netherlands

continued to receive English support in their strug-

gle for independence from Spain.

1589-1648The struggle for independence in the Netherlands

continued more or less unbroken until 1648, and

England’s foreign policy had been to support this

country. There were several reasons, but the most

important was that the Netherlands was a thorn in

the side of the great power of Spain, and therefore

right in the path of expansion of the great power of

France. Furthermore both England and the Nether-

lands were non-Catholic countries and shared a com-

mon ideological base, and both of these countries to-

gether were the expanding central point of European

economy. This would in part change. During the

reign of the Stuarts, who had come to power in

1603, support for the Protestants was somewhat

toned down, and relations to France and Spain had

improved, as England never really actively participat-

ed in the Thirty Years War. This foreign policy was

not very popular, and in combination with the power

struggle between the Stuarts and Parliament, Eng-

land became embroiled in another civil war between

royalists and roundheads (1642-1649). The Parlia-

ment was victorious and the king was executed, but

the struggle for freedom took a wrong turn. When

the bells of peace started tolling in Germany the Par-

liament had just gotten the upper hand in the civil

war. Economically the country had slipped behind

the Dutch, but they now had a top class army, and

England was a country that would play an important

role in the future.

1649-1721Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Parliament already in

1653 and ruled the country as dictator. Meanwhile

the Dutch had established themselves as the great

economic power of Europe. England managed to

capture that position through several naval wars

against the Netherlands, but was not fully secure un-

til the 1670s. In 1660 the Stuarts were restored to

the throne, but these had not given up their plans to

return Catholicism to the country, crushing the Par-

liament and introducing autocracy. Initially coopera-

tion between the king and Parliament functioned,

but the Parliament under-financed each and every

one of the king’s projects, which pushed him into the

hands of the king of France, Louis XIV, during the

1670s. The Stuart kings received subsidies from

France in order to have any sort of efficient opera-

tions, but in return, of course, they were expected to

have a pro-French foreign policy, which aroused the

wrath of the Parliament. In 1688 the powerful men

of the kingdom had had enough. The last Stuart,

James II, had been exposed. His extensive plan of re-

turning Catholicism to England and the French

bribes became his downfall in "the Glorious Revolu-

tion" A side branch was brought in, and England and

the Netherlands became united under William.

When the century was nearing its end England had

become involved in the discussions about what to do

at the death of Charles II of Spain. A number of plans

had flourished and England had invested a lot of

prestige in trying to prevent a large-scale war when

the crown of Spain passed on to other hands, or up-

set the balance of power. This failed completely, as

106

Europa Universalis


the dying Charles bequeathed the entire Spanish

realm to Philip, the grandson of Louis XIV, if he re-

nounced all claim to the French throne. England did

not want to go to war, but was more or less forced in-

to it, when Louis XIV announced that his grandson

was also to inherit France, and that James Stuart was

the only lawful king of England. The Spanish War of

Succession in 1701-1714 had no clear winners, but

England gained the most at the peace of Utrecht in

1713, perhaps due to the brilliant victories of the

Duke of Marlborough. England gained Gibraltar,

Menorca, New Foundland, Nova Scotia, and the

Hudson Bay area. Almost immediately after the

peace had been signed England entered the Great

Nordic War by declaring war on Sweden. This coun-

try was in all practical matters already defeated, and

the king of England was able to add Bremen-Verden

to the realm of his German native land of Hanover af-

ter the peace of Stockholm in 1718. In all relevant

matters England was without threats at sea, and a

European great power together with France, Russia

and Austria.

1722-1792When the house of Hanover gained the throne of

England and Scotland the power of the king de-

creased in favor of the Parliament, and the modern

parliamentary government developed during the

first half of the period, which means that the majority

of the Parliament creates the conditions for the gov-

ernment. England’s foreign policy position after the

Spanish War of Succession was delicate, to say the

least. The country was a great naval power with large

but scattered colonial possessions. However, it

lacked an army that could really challenge any of the

continental great powers. This would lead to a two-

pronged foreign policy. On the one hand England

worked to preserve peace and to maintain the bal-

ance of power in Europe, and on the other hand they

worked aggressively in America and India to expand

at the cost of the other colonial powers, which was a

very difficult balancing act.

In 1739 the colonial conflicts had reached crisis

level, and England and Spain went to war, the "War

of Captain Jenkin’s Ear." Spain defended itself well,

and England was not able to gain much. The next

year the Austrian War of Succession broke out, where

Austria and Russia were fighting against Prussia,

Spain, France, and a number of smaller states. Eng-

land did not get involved until 1742, when the king’s

German principality of Hanover was drawn into the

conflict on the side of Austria and Russia. Right in

the middle of the war, in 1745, "Bonnie Prince

Charlie," the son of the Stuart pretender to the

throne, landed in England and tried to retake the

country in a lightning campaign. The Stuarts won

battles at Prestonpans, Penrith, and Falkirk Moor

but suffered a devastating defeat at Culloden. This

was the last attempt of the Stuarts to regain the

throne.

In 1748 the peace was signed at Aachen without

any major changes, other than Frederick of Prussia

gaining Silesia from Austria. The war managed to

keep the balance of power in Europe, but the con-

flicts in the colonies continued to simmer. The 1750s

saw a number of serious border conflicts in North

America and India between the French and the En-

glish. England was in fear of a large-scale war and be-

gan to increase the armies in America and India.

When the Seven Years War of 1756-1763 broke out

England had seven times more troops in North

America than France, and with the advantage also in

India. The war began with an exchange of letters be-

tween England and France, which quickly escalated

into war. Prussia, the ally of England, declared war

on France. Austria and Russia had long wanted to ex-

pand at the expense of Prussia and decided to side

with the French. The double strategy of England in

principle meant that they would fight France and

Spain (from 1762) at sea and in the colonies, while

militarily abandoning Europe. However, England fi-

nanced the Prussian army with enormous subsidies,

without which the country would have succumbed

in no time at all. The Prussians very skillfully waged a

defensive war, which also included tactical offensives,

and managed to keep the armies of the three great

powers at bay. In 1762, when Prussia was on the

verge of extinction, the country was saved by a

change of ruler in Russia, when the new Czar, who

was a great admirer of Prussia, immediately signed a

separate peace treaty. The balance shifted in such a

way that the enemies of England had to accept peace

negotiations, and the peace treaty was signed in

1763. England gained Florida from Spain, and

Canada and all of the territories east of the Mississip-

pi, and Senegal in Africa from France. France also

had to leave the Louisiana Territory to Spain as com-

pensation for Florida. The French trading posts in

India were returned, but France had still lost all pow-

er in the area, as its alliance with the local Indian

princes was broken indefinitely. There were no

changes in Europe, which meant that Prussia kept

Silesia and its status as a great power. England was

the great winner of the war and became the most im-

107

Europa Universalis


portant colonial power. The struggle was not over,

though. The Seven Years War had created a sense of

self-determination with the American colonists, and

as England’s policy in America was harsh and humil-

iating, the American War of Independence started in

1775 and continued until 1783. Initially England

did well, but when France entered the war in 1778,

everything turned around, and in 1783 they were

forced into negotiating peace. The end result was an

independent United States, and France regained a

few islands in the West Indies and Senegal. Spain re-

gained Menorca and Florida. After the War of Inde-

pendence England turned to a more peace-oriented

foreign policy and became busy with interior im-

provement. During the period from 1780 to 1792

the country was right in the middle of the process,

which would lead to industrialization. This would be

followed by an economic and technological strength

which would turn England into the most powerful

nation on Earth, but that would happen in another

age.

France

1492-1588In 1492 France was a strong but divided country. It

was large with a relatively large population, but a

hundred years of war and strong feudalism com-

prised a difficult inheritance to overcome. Recovery

did happen, but at the same time France was chal-

lenged by all of the countries surrounding it. Spain,

Austria, and England all wanted a place in the sun.

Strategically France was not ready for the task, and

the neglect of the interior problems would create

harsh after-effects during the later half of the period.

A few years before, a terrible war began between

France on one side, and Spain and Austria on the

other. This was to be the first settlement of the "Bur-

gundy Inheritance"—the remains of the Duchy of

Burgundy, whose ruling house had died out on the

male side. In all practical matters France won the first

in a series of wars for these provinces in the Nether-

lands and Franché-Comte, but they definitely lost

when it came to peace, which resulted in a status quo

peace, in which the young French king believed he

was given a free hand in southern Italy. When France

attacked southern Italy, Spain declared war on

France, and France became involved in an evil spiral

of wars with Spain and Austria. These were wars

without any real victors, as Spain and Austria man-

aged to defend their provinces.

England was also an opponent. The Hundred Years

War (1339-1453) was fresh in minds on both sides of

the Channel. France had very good connections with

Scotland, and this country behaved as a front for

France, threatening England from behind. France it-

self never tried to attack England during the period,

as it was busy with the fight over the Netherlands and

Italy, and during the second half of the period with a

civil war for both dynastic and religious reasons. In

the middle of the 16th century France was highly in-

tolerant in religious matters, as the country tried to

remain Catholic. The policy rebounded in a series of

bloody civil wars with dynastic allusions. The strug-

gle continued unceasingly and French foreign policy

was paralyzed. The fighting did not stop until 1594,

when France was seriously exhausted and tolerance

was victorious. The Huguenots received great reli-

gious freedom, but the state religion remained

Catholicism, or to quote Henry IV: "Paris could be

worth a mass or two."

1589-1648During the greater part of the period France was too

weak to really want to challenge its neighbors. The

earlier wars against the Hapsburgs and the internal

religious wars had undermined the economic

strength and self-confidence of France. Diplomati-

cally France was also seen as the biggest robber baron

of Europe. Under Henry IV, Sully, and later under

the leadership of Cardinal Richelieu, France recov-

ered and laid the foundation for the later autocracy

under Louis XIV. The country was at peace, both in-

ternally and externally, and the country’s foreign pol-

icy was to improve relations to any possible partners.

The goal had never changed, as Spain and Austria

were the enemies, only the means had changed.

Until 1635 France only took part in limited wars

with little or no gains. The only war of any conse-

quence was an isolated conflict with Spain concern-

ing the existence of the Duchy of Mantua, but the af-

fair was resolved to the satisfaction of France in 1659.

In 1636 France had waited a long time for an oppor-

tunity to attack its enemies, Spain and Austria, and

now everything was right. Both of them were ex-

hausted, as were all potential rivals, while France had

enjoyed peace and prosperity. France stepping onto

the scene provided the turning point of the war.

French weapons and ducats cut the Hapsburgs down

to size during the last decade of the war. Comman-

ders such as the prince of Condé and Turenne defeat-

ed Spaniards, Austrians, and Bavarians in battles such

as those at Rocroi, Freiburg, and Zumarhausen. In

1643 Richelieu was succeeded by Mazarin, who con-

108

Europa Universalis


tinued the reforms of centralization and in 1648 ne-

gotiated an excellent peace treaty for France in the

Westphalian towns of Osnabrück and Münster. As a

consequence of the Peace of Westphalia France be-

came the most powerful nation of Europe.

1649-1721The period started with a violent uprising among the

nobles and burghers called "The Frond," which con-

tinued for twelve years. The civil war was a reaction

to the work to centralize government performed by

Sully, Richelieu, and Mazarin during the past fifty

years. When the Frond had been beaten completely

(in 1661) France could once more have an active for-

eign policy under the rule of Louis XIV, the Sun

King. During the remainder of the period France was

more or less continually at war. The goals were

twofold: the first was breaking the Hapsburg band

encircling of France, and the second was increasing

the honor of the king, and honor was not the less im-

portant of the two. Louis XIV had excellent men at

his command. Louvois, the minister of war, created a

war machine the likes of which had never been seen

before; Colbert, the minister of finance, created a

navy that was equal to the navies of England or the

Netherlands; and marshal Vauban built a chain of de-

fensive works along the border to the Spanish

Netherlands and the Rhine. Until 1696 there were

almost a dozen wars against the Netherlands, Spain,

and Austria, where France managed to push its posi-

tions forward further and further. Once again

Turenne was one of the greatest commanders.

And then suddenly the world became aware of the

curious position of Spain. The Spanish king was dy-

ing and without heirs, and a violent bickering of how

to divide the inheritance ensued. The dying Spanish

king, Charles II, decided to leave the entire kingdom

undivided to the grandson of Louis XIV, if he re-

nounced all claims to the French throne. Louis XIV

broke all previous agreements and accepted the tes-

tament. This in turn resulted in France entering into

a war of alliances. France, Bavaria, Cologne, Spain,

and Savoy went to war against Austria, England, the

Netherlands, and most of the small kingdoms and

principalities of the Holy Roman Empire. The

French army was definitely the best, but the allies had

better commanders. The duke of Marlborough

(England) and prince Eugene of Savoy (Austria) beat

French generals such as Villeroi, Villars, Boufflers,

and Catinat, and only the brilliant Vendôme lived up

to expectations. The war could be said to have ended

in a draw due to exhaustion. It is difficult to say who

actually won, but history shows that England gained

the most. France was able to keep Spain and its

provinces in the New World, but the French and the

Spanish crowns were to be kept apart. This meant

that the goals of Louis XIV could not be met. France

was still the most powerful nation in Europe, but was

not immune to wars of alliances, which the Spanish

War of Succession had demonstrated. The French

navy could no longer compete with either the En-

glish or the Dutch navies when the period neared its

end.

1722-1792The aftermath of the Spanish War of Succession was

severe. The national finances were in disarray and the

national debt was astronomical. To top it all off the

state carried out a highly insecure banking operation,

which crashed totally, and the population lost all con-

fidence in the administrative abilities of the govern-

ment.

In 1726 the peace-mongering reformist Fleury was

appointed prime minister and began a series of

changes. Foreign policy changed focus to that of

keeping the balance in Europe instead of a policy of

aggression, and the finances of the country were

drastically improved. Certain things could not be

avoided, though. Politics had become more convo-

luted after the Spanish War of Succession, which was

primarily due to a leveling of power between the ma-

jor powers of Europe. This led to a delicate game of

diplomacy, where the clever ones won small victories,

while the dull ones received nothing. The inappro-

priate mistake of annulling a Spanish royal marriage

in 1725 and instead marrying the daughter of the

lord of Lorraine had serious consequences in 1733,

when the father of the bride, Stanislaus Leszczynski,

was elected king of Poland-Lithuania. Austria and

Russia wanted to see the son of August the Strong as

king of Poland-Lithuania, and this led to the Polish

War of Succession of 1733-1738. The war was quite

successful for France in Germany, the Austrian

Netherlands, and in northern Italy, but not in

Poland-Lithuania, where Russia was in control. Be-

cause of this France’s demands were quite modest.

The son of August became king of Poland-Lithuania

and Austria had to accept certain small adjustments

to its borders. However, the Kingdom of the Two

Sicily’s was created out of the Austrian provinces of

Naples and Sicily, under the rule of a Spanish prince.

In the last years of his life, quarrelsome nobility

forced Fleury into war. For France this war, the Aus-

trian War of Succession of 1740-1748, meant only a

109

Europa Universalis


chance of lessening the power of Austria on behalf of

its own. In an alliance with Prussia, Spain and a num-

ber of smaller German states France fought with Aus-

tria, England and Russia. The war did not solve any

problems and the only real change was that the rob-

ber baron Frederick II was able to keep Silesia, which

he had taken from Austria. The real explosion came

after the death of Fleury. The battle for the world

outside of Europe combined with the classical conti-

nental conflict. The Seven Years War of 1756-1763,

as it came to be called, had its origins in the American

border conflicts between England and France, but

also turned out to be about a revision of the previous

war of succession. France promoted a continental

strategy and invested all its strength into crushing

Prussia, England’s ally. England promoted a global

strategy and quickly occupied all of France’s non-Eu-

ropean possessions. The war against Prussia went

frighteningly badly, if one considers the fact that for

all practical purposes Prussia stood alone against

France, Russia, and Austria. When the war-torn and

exhausted Europe signed the peace treaty in 1763

England had become Europe's strongest power,

even if the country needed alliances in order to make

any impact on the continent. France had to cede all

its colonies in North America and Senegal in Africa.

After the war France was ravaged, and there was re-

covery, as the country was expanding economically.

In 1775 the first battles of the American War of Inde-

pendence started and in 1778 France saw a chance to

lessen the colonial power of England by aiding the

freedom fighters. French money and troops helped

the way to independence, but the French gains at the

peace treaty of Paris in 1783 were small. The

Louisiana Territory was restored, and a few islands.

Afterwards the French economy was in total sham-

bles, requiring some public participation to solve it.

This political participation in conjunction with a

heavy discontent with the government, with its

source in the liberal ideas of the age of enlighten-

ment, were a few of the basic reasons for the revolu-

tion of 1789. France became a Nation, and then the

wars of the revolution began, but all of that hap-

pened in another age.

The Ottoman Empire

1492-1588At the close of the 15th century the Ottoman Em-

pire consisted of practically all of the former Byzan-

tine Empire, which it had totally crushed and then

annexed. Constantinople fell in 1453. The popula-

tion consisted mainly of Turks, Greeks, and Arabs,

but also of various southern Slavs. The first ruler of

the Turkish tribal confederation that had crossed the

border into Byzantium was named Osman (Arabic:

Uthman), which is why the nation was called the Ot-

toman Empire. The Turks were warlike in nature,

but skillfully mixed the Byzantine and Arabic her-

itage with Turkish culture. The result was a political-

ly harmonious country with Islam as the uniting ide-

ology. The political system had three interwoven

parts, the tribal system, the old imperial system from

the old Roman Empire, and the Turkish custom of

the ruler more or less governing from the back of his

horse. This created a flexible system, which worked

as long as the sultan and the administration had

enough of competence and diplomatic skills. Reli-

giously the Ottoman Empire was the most tolerant

of all of Europe, and only Poland-Lithuania was able

to compete in any way.

During the first years of the 16th century a Persian

dynasty had risen to power in Persia and had kicked

out the former Mongol rulers. The rulers were Shiite

Moslems and inevitably came into conflict with the

Sunni Moslems of the Ottoman Empire. When the

Ottoman Empire became embroiled in a civil war be-

tween two brothers during the 1510s, the Persians

had supported the losing brother. The victor, Selim I

Yavuz turned against Persia in a bloody war and con-

quered places including Kurdistan and Armenia.

Soon Egypt joined with the enemies of the Ottoman

Empire, but Selim rode out the storm and con-

quered Syria. The Mamelukes of Egypt refused to

make peace, and the next year Selim renewed his of-

fensive, which brought him all the way to Cairo, and

Egypt was annexed. A short time later he united with

Chair-Eddin (Barbarossa), a pirate chief in Tunis.

The chief was appointed Ottoman pasha and grand

admiral, which turned the Ottoman Empire into the

strongest naval power of the Mediterranean. In 1520

Suleyman the Magnificent was put on the throne,

and he immediately reformed both the army and the

financial system. Suleyman then started an offensive

against Christian southeast Europe, and conquered

Rhodes from the Knights of Saint John (1522). The

great offensive was directed against enormous Hun-

gary, which was defeated at Mohacs in 1526. Ludvig

II, the king of Hungary, was slain in the battle. The

Ottomans took Budapest and annexed most of Hun-

gary. Following a war of succession concerning the

remaining parts of Hungary between the Austrian

emperor and the prince of Siebenbürgen, Suleyman

launched another great offensive, which carried him

110

Europa Universalis


all the way to the gates of Vienna. After a few months

of siege he was forced to retreat, as his supply lines

were in shambles, but Christianity had firmly learned

to fear the Ottoman Empire. In 1533 Ferdinand of

Austria signed a peace treaty with Suleyman and Jo-

han Zapolya of Siebenbürgen. Siebenbürgen became

an Ottoman vassal and Austria had to pay an annual

tribute to Rum (Constantinople). The Ottoman

Empire was probably the most powerful force in Eu-

rope at this time. During the 1530s and 1540s Suley-

man continued his offensive in the Mediterranean.

All of Northern Africa all the way to Morocco was

conquered, and all of southern Italy was plundered

and destroyed, and the Ottomans held several Italian

towns for many years. The Pope was lived in fear in

Rome. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Venice

and conquered Cyprus and Crete. The Ottoman

fleets continued to win victories until the catastroph-

ic defeat at Lepanto in 1571, and then things went

downhill. There are several reasons why the Ot-

toman navy never recovered after Lepanto. The naval

shipyards were simply not effective enough, but also

Ottoman naval warfare had centered on ‘boarding’,

where courage and skill with the sword were the de-

cisive factors. The development of weapons technol-

ogy never reached the Ottoman navy, and it re-

mained a pale shadow of its former greatness. The

failed storming of Malta is another example. The art

of fortifications had evolved during the period, and

warfare turned more and more into the art of besieg-

ing. The Christian neighbors of the Ottoman Em-

pire built numerous forts and avoided pitched battles

until the Ottoman armies wore out due to attrition.

1589-1648There were a lot of changes in the Ottoman Empire

during this period. The ruling system becomes more

of an oligarchy than an autocracy and in the future

the power was residing in the hands of a small num-

ber of ministers and advisors in the circle around the

grand vizier. On the other hand the Empire had

grown so large that power had to be decentralized.

The provincial governors had to take the clans and

the powerful families living in each province into

consideration. The ability to wage war with any

grand strategies and clear-cut goals became compro-

mised when the country grew too large.

The Christian nations started to pass the Ottoman

regarding tactics. The relationship with Spain be-

came surprisingly good from the 1580s, and there

were no more wars between the countries. The two

great enemies were instead Austria, Venice, Poland-

Lithuania, and Persia, particularly the latter. Even

though wars were quite common during the period,

the greatest blow against the technological and mili-

tary development of the Ottoman Empire came from

the numerous rebellions. Between 1596 and 1604

three very extensive rebellions started in three sepa-

rate parts of the country, and the last one was not

crushed until 1635. At the same time the Ottoman

Empire got in a war with Austria and Poland-Lithua-

nia (The Long War of 1593-1606), which ended

with some minor Ottoman victories, and Austria had

to pay a tribute to the sultan. At the same time Persia

had attacked in the Far East (1603-1611). Except for

a war with Poland-Lithuania in 1615-1621, in which

nothing was gained, the country continued the

struggle against Persian in 1616-1618 and once

again in 1623-1629, which resulted in rendering

Persia harmless for all eternity and putting Georgia

and Azerbaidjan under Ottoman rule. Considering

the sultan murders during the 1620s and the

Mameluke uprisings during the 1630s, the Ottoman

Empire had kept and defended its empire well, al-

though they were not able to expand to any greater

extent. When the period neared its end the Ottoman

Empire was more the equal of its neighbors, and no

longer as superior as it once was.

1649-1721When the Christian world had ended its Thirty Years

War a new wave of sultan murders swept over the Ot-

toman Empire. The professional army of the Empire

was no longer of any use in real warfare, but occupied

themselves with trade, manufacture, and politics. As

the Ottoman navy slowly degenerated, the Ottoman

Empire gradually lost control over the Barbary States

(Tripolis, Tunis, and Alger), which became au-

tonomous in the 1650s, and fully independent in the

early 18th century. The country suffered subversive

rebellions during the 1660s and during the first

decade of the 18th century, and these occurred at the

same time as major wars. During the period the

country was constantly at war with two or more

countries at the same time, and the fact that they

managed to defend the country as well as they did

was a miracle. The Ottoman Empire was at war with

Venice in 1645-1670 and regained Crete, which they

had lost during the wave of sultan murders. Sieben-

bürgen was fought successfully in 1658-1660, and

Austria in 1663-1664, without any loss of land. Then

the struggle became more and more unequal. The

Ottoman Empire lost a war with the Polish-Lithua-

nian warrior king Jan Sobieski in 1672-1676, and

111

Europa Universalis


lost the few provinces they had initially gained. When

they later attacked Austria and besieged Vienna for a

few months, for the second time in history, Poland-

Lithuania, Venice, the Papal State, and Russia came

to the aid of the Hapsburgs. This was a war that

could not be won in the long run, even if they man-

aged to pull off some excellent counter offensives in

1690 and 1695. The war ended with the Ottoman

Empire ceding Kaminiecz to Poland, Azov to Russia

and Hungary, Siebenbürgen and Croatia all the way

to the river Sava to Austria, and Morea to Venice.

The Ottoman Empire lost about a third of its Euro-

pean territory. Palace revolts ran rampant, but the

country still managed to take Russia by surprise in a

short war in 1711-1712 and regain Azov. And when

Christianity had been fighting over the inheritance of

Charles II, the Ottoman Empire was attacked by

Austria and Venice in 1716-1718. The country was

no longer able to defend itself after the recent catas-

trophic war, and Austria gained the Banate, northern

Serbia, and parts of Wallachia in the peace of Pas-

sorowitz in 1718. The return of Morea from Venice

was small consolation. When the period was nearing

the end the Ottoman Empire was still a great power,

but a power on the decline. Without some quick

changes everything would be lost.

1722-1792During the 18th century the Ottoman Empire

lagged more and more behind the Christian coun-

tries economically. Efficiency of production in-

creased much faster in Western Europe than in the

Ottoman Empire, which struck at the manufacturing

of goods when the country’s competitiveness de-

creased. There was also an explosive population

growth, which doubled the population. The country

could no longer feed the people, who flocked to the

cities. When the industrial sector stagnated an enor-

mous proletariat was created, which in turn led to vi-

olent uprisings during the century. The Ottoman

Empire was not able to avoid wars. Russia in particu-

lar had decided to expand at the expense of the Ot-

toman Empire. During the first half of the period the

Ottoman army performed fairly well against its

Christian neighbors, but during the second half the

armed forces were hopelessly backward. The main

reason for the military decline was the rigid political

system. When the wars went badly this was interpret-

ed in religious terms, explaining that the leadership

was not righteous enough and was lacking in the

confidence of God, and did not want to see the tech-

nological backwardness of the country. Naturally the

government understood the problem, but did not

dare do anything about it, fearing that any reforms

would break up the social system of the country.

Persia was fought in 1723-1727, leading to a con-

quest of the Tabriz area. In the footsteps of the Pol-

ish War of Succession of 1735 the Ottoman Empire

attacked Russia, Persia, and Austria. The Ottomans

were victorious everywhere, except against the Rus-

sians, particularly because of the long supply lines to

the Crimea. In 1739 there was peace and the Ot-

toman Empire regained everything that had been

lost to Austria at the peace of Passorowitz in 1718,

which was a great victory. The Ottoman Empire,

however, again lost Azov to Russia. Four years later

Persia attacked and the war in the east went badly, es-

pecially since it was impossible to send reinforce-

ments to the front because of numerous rebellions.

The war lasted between 1743-1747, and Persia re-

gained the Tabriz area, but Persia was then threat-

ened by dissolution and Russian influence. Russia at-

tacked the Ottoman Empire in 1768-1774 in the

middle of a serious civil war in which Egypt became

an independent nation for a few years. The peace did

not result in any greater ceding of land, but the

Crimea Khanate became a Russian protectorate and

was annexed together with Georgia in the 1780s.

Russia was also recognized as the protector of all of

the Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia, which

meant that the country could intervene in the interi-

or affairs of the country. Austria grabbed Bukovina.

The Ottoman Empire had fallen far, but the worst

had yet to come, when Russia and Austria again at-

tacked during the period from 1787 to 1792. The

Ottomans lost all of the pitched battles, but were

saved by the Polish nationalist rebellion, and only

had to cede the area between Dniepr and Bug. The

existence of the Ottoman Empire was as threatened

as that of Poland-Lithuania at this time, but the

Napoleonic wars and the resulting politics of balanc-

ing the powers saved the Ottoman Empire. The

country’s economy and technological development

never caught up with the Christian speed of develop-

ment, and in another 123 years the country was dis-

solved, but all of that happened during another age.

Poland-Lithuania

1492-1588In 1492 the Jagellonian dynasty ruled one of the

largest areas of Europe, namely Poland-Lithuania,

Bohemia and Hungary. This period has often been

called the "golden age" of Poland-Lithuania, with

112

Europa Universalis


the country stretching from Danzig in the north, to

Smolensk in the east, and Odessa in the south by way

of the Black Sea. The land was rich, the army skillful,

and culture was flowering, but the weakness of the

political system was also established in this period.

The Jagellonian dynasty died out in 1572, which

turned Poland-Lithuania into an elected kingdom.

This would not have been a problem, if the country

at the same time had not been a republic of nobles

(since the union at Lublin in 1569), which was gov-

erned completely by shortsighted rationality. The

freedom and privileges of the nobility quickly affect-

ed the welfare of the general populace. This was also

one of the reasons why the Polish-Lithuanian

monarchs always were lacking adequate funds.

Militarily the country was definitely a great power.

The Polish-Lithuanian army combined the best of

both western and eastern European war craft and

tactics, which meant that the country was able to

beat opponents from both spheres. Bohemia and

Hungary were lost already in 1526, when the Jagel-

lonic federation lost the battle of Mohacs. This was

not a question of Polish-Lithuanian weakness, but

rather a question about the right of inheritance after

king Ludwig II, who was killed in the battle. For

Poland-Lithuania there were primarily two fronts

during the period - north and south. To the north

the country used the breakdown of the Teutonic or-

der and took on East Prussia and Courland as vassals.

Poland-Lithuania also annexed Livonia and Polotsk,

and for many years the country fought a war of attri-

tion with Russia, and was also engaged in battle with

the Ottomans along the Hungarian border.

If the Spaniards and Ottomans had the best in-

fantry of the period, then Poland-Lithuania had the

best cavalry. Approximately two-thirds of the army

consisted of cavalry and the rest of firearm equipped

infantry providing fire support when the heavy ar-

mored units of hussars swept across the battlefields.

Some of the best commanders in Europe of the time

worked in the country and improved the Polish-

Lithuanian army and its tactics. The army was the

most flexible war machine in all of Europe and it

could be fighting on the steppes outside Moscow,

while at the same time it could be fighting in the

mountains of Transylvania. Poland-Lithuania was

the strongest country in northern and eastern Eu-

rope during the period.

1589-1648In 1587 Sigismund was elected king and in 1592 he

succeeded his father as king of Sweden. This did not

solve any of the problems in the Baltic region. Pretty

soon Sigismund was deposed as king of Sweden and

a long and violent war started in 1598 between

Poland-Lithuania and Sweden, and lasted until

1629. At the same time the great unrest began in

Russia, and both Sweden and Poland-Lithuania tried

to put their own princes on the throne of Russia

without success. The fortune of war varied. During

the first two decades of the war Poland-Lithuania

was victorious, but the odds evened out at the end,

and in 1629 Poland-Lithuania needed peace, as it

had been attacked from several directions, by Crimea

Tartars and Ottomans (1615-1621) among others,

and it had suffered a civil war in 1606-1608. Sweden

was able to keep Livonia and received custom pay-

ments from a number of Polish ports. The ports re-

turned to Polish ownership in 1635.

During the war the Russians had unsuccessfully

tried to penetrate the border and a number of rebel-

lions broke out and were squelched. During the en-

tire period there was a protracted contest between

the king and the Sejm about the division of power.

Even if Sigismund, and his son Vladislav, managed to

gain some small advantages, the power of the nobili-

ty was strengthened, to the great sorrow of Poland-

Lithuania. In 1632-1634 Poland-Lithuania was

again attacked by Russia, but they failed to take

Smolensk and the Polish-Lithuanian army was victo-

rious. After two decades of peace and reforms

Poland-Lithuania would once again be shaken at its

very foundations. A huge uprising started among the

Zaporogian Tartars under the leadership of the infa-

mous Bogdan Chmelnicki, heavily supported by the

Russian Czar. At the end of the period Poland-

Lithuania was a great power under siege, attacked

from all directions by countries wishing to expand at

her expense.

1649-1721In 1649 a period in the history of Poland-Lithuania

known as the "Deluge" began, when the entire

country was shaken by rebellion, civil war, and inva-

sions. The aforementioned Chmelnicki rebelled in

the Ukraine in 1649-1667, and a few years later Rus-

sia attacked (1654-1667). The opportunity was

seized by Sweden, Prussia, and Siebenbürgen, all of

them attacking in 1655. Add to this the serious

Lubomirski rebellion in 1665-1667, which forced an

expensive peace with Russia in Andrusovo in 1667,

where Russia gains the Ukraine south of Dniepr, and

the Smolensk area. Poland-Lithuania endured,

stamped out the rebellions, and finally expelled all of

113

Europa Universalis


its enemies, but at a very high cost. Large parts of the

country were depopulated, the total population of

the country went from 11 to 8 million people, and

towns and fields were burned. The important grain

trade had been damaged in such a serious way that it

never really recovered. Prussia had also become an

independent nation, which would lead to very un-

comfortable consequences for Poland-Lithuania lat-

er on. The magnates had also managed to receive a

"Liberum Veto," which meant that a single senator

could sink any suggestion, even if all of the rest ap-

proved of it. This paralyzed the ability of the

monarch and the government to renew and reform

anything as long as the republic existed.

In the 1670s another war with the Ottoman Em-

pire started, which meant great victories for Poland-

Lithuania, and the country regained what had been

lost at beginning of the war. The country was slowly

recovering from the "deluge," both economically

and in terms of population, but it would take a very

long time before the lost years had been regained.

Early on during the 1680s the Ottoman Empire car-

ried out its last great offensive and laid siege to Vien-

na. Jan Sobieski, the warrior king, came to the aid of

the Austrians with a large army. As commander of the

armies of the allies he totally crushed the Ottomans.

His name flew across Europe as "the man who saved

Europe." Unfortunately Jan Sobieski continued to

wage war against the Ottoman Empire as comman-

der of the Holy League. The war went well, but

Poland-Lithuania gained very little. At the same time

the northern and eastern parts of the kingdom were

neglected, which would bring serious consequences

later on. Sobieski is seen as the last great king of

Poland-Lithuania, and carried out a number of re-

forms throughout the country, but when he tried po-

litical reforms the nobility immediately stopped him.

The military reforms made the army strong and effi-

cient again, but with the anarchistic form of govern-

ment that he neither could nor had the strength to

fight, Poland-Lithuania would face serious problems

when competing with its neighbors. This would be-

come obvious after the death of Jan Sobieski in 1696.


sion began, the Great Nordic War started. Russia,

Denmark-Norway, and Poland-Lithuania-Saxony

had decided to regain what had been lost and, if pos-

sible, divide Sweden among themselves. In principle

it was king August of Saxony, who had managed to

persuade the parliament of Poland-Lithuania to go

to war, using all kinds of bribes and threats. The war

went very badly for Poland-Lithuania. August was

unpopular and a number of the nobility supported

the Swedes. August was expelled, but returned when

Sweden could not handle the might of the allies.

When peace was signed Poland-Lithuania gained

nothing. August’s rule of Poland-Lithuania was

maintained only through Russia’s support, and from

1717 the "silent parliament" came into being, which

meant that bribed senators made sure that no issues

of harm to Russia could be handled by the govern-

ment of the country. This war was a catastrophe for

the country, which lost much of its independence.

1722-1792After the Great Nordic War, August the Strong – and

in turn Poland-Lithuania – was dancing to the Rus-

sian tune. Russian weapons and Russian money were

already infiltrating the already quite decentralized

parliamentary rule. The Russian goal was to totally

obliterate all non-Russian influence and turn Poland-

Lithuania into a Russian protectorate, which was the

goal also in Sweden and Persia. When August II died

in 1733 the Polish War of Succession began and end-

ed in 1738. Russia and Austria wanted to put the son

of August II on the throne, while France wanted to

put the former king Stanislaus Leszczynski there.

France’s war was successful, but it still could not

threaten the Russian position in Poland-Lithuania,

so August III was crowned king. The Polish-Lithua-

nian army fell into disarray and the body of officers

was transformed from proud warriors to cunning

cabinet politicians. A dozen magnate families be-

came powerful enough to decide the future of

Poland-Lithuania through their own bartering. Dur-

ing the Austrian War of Succession in 1740-1748

and the Seven Years War of 1756-1763 August

milked the country of as much money as possible in

order to carry out his own Saxon politics. Poland-

Lithuania became a deployment and supply area for

the Russian and Prussian armies. The situation was

catastrophic. Economically Poland-Lithuania had a

great time, with an increase in production, with the

establishment of a number of factories. Culturally

Poland-Lithuania was flowering and a number of

Polish thinkers made important advances. In 1763

the former lover of Catherine the Great of Russia,

Stanislaus Poniatowski, was elected king. The Czari-

na had expected a very obedient slave in Warsaw, but

instead found a reformer who was intelligent, ener-

getic, and incorruptible. The king and sections of the

nobility initiated a political process with the goal of

reforming and modernizing Poland-Lithuania.

Three times they voted to remove the Liberum Veto,

114

Europa Universalis


and finally the vote was carried through, but by then

it was too late. From the 1760s Russia had increasing

difficulties in keeping its control of Poland-Lithua-

nia. The cooperation between the king and a large

party of nobles, and a growing Polish nationalism re-

sulted in several efforts at reforming the country, and

a number of rebellions and civil wars. This was used

by the Ottoman Empire, Austria, but primarily by

Prussia. That country saw an opportunity to gain

several large territories, which were controlled by

Russia, and using every means of persuasion man-

aged to talk Russia into dividing Poland-Lithuania

between them. "A nation which cannot defend itself

has no right to exist," the Prussian ambassador ‘von

Eschl’ said. This was of course an effective form of

propaganda. The whole issue really boiled down to

the fact that no one wanted to see a reawakened

Poland-Lithuania based on the liberal new ideas of

the times, like an eastern European version of the

United States. The reforms were implemented at a

very fast pace, which prompted quick action. The

country was divided and obliterated on three differ-

ent occasions, in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Poland-

Lithuania then ceased to exist as an independent

country, but would reappear 123 years later in anoth-

er age entirely.

Portugal

1492-1588In 1492 Portugal was not one of the great powers,

but rather a country of quite subordinate impor-

tance. The wars for the crown of Castile had failed in

the 1470s, and Portugal stood in the shadow of

Spain. The geographical position of Portugal totally

prevented any expansion in Europe. Its position,

however, was perfect for expansion outside of Eu-

rope, which Portugal turned to during the period.

The Portuguese had reached the Cape of Good

Hope and had colonized several important stops

along the route to India, like the Azores and Cap

Verde and had also established a trading post in

Guinea. In 1494 the Pope Alexander VI arranged the

Tordesillas treaty, which divided the non-European

world between Portugal and Spain.

Then came a wave of discoveries and conquests un-

til the 1530s. In the years between 1497 and 1503

Madagascar, Brazil, and India were discovered. A

support base in India, Cochin, was established, and

Zanzibar was annexed, which meant that the Por-

tuguese now had bases along the entire naval route.

In 1504 Portugal slashed the price of pepper in half,

which resulted in a heavy increase in European con-

sumption of spices, from which the Portuguese mer-

chants made a tidy profit. This was a blow in the trade

war against Venice and Genoa, and the decisive rea-

son why the trade across the Levant was crushed.

Under the leadership of the admirals Almeida and Al-

buquerque in 1505-1515 a number of areas around

the Indian Ocean were conquered. Goa, the Malayan

peninsula, Hormuz, and Mombasa were conquered

after gaining total naval superiority in the Indian

Ocean in 1509. The Portuguese also discovered the

Moluccans, China, and the Philippines, and Fernão

de Magelhães sailed completely around the globe in

1519-1522. The circumnavigation of the Earth

meant enormous prestige, but was not of any practi-

cal use, as the "new western route to India" was not

financially viable. During the 1520s and 1530s Por-

tugal gained footholds on Java, conquered Diu in In-

dia, sighted the Australian continent, and started to

colonize Brazil in earnest. In 1529 East Asia was di-

vided between Spain and Portugal as an extension of

the Tordesillas treaty. The border was set between

the Philippines and the Moluccans. During the

1550s Portugal bought Macao from China and, as

the first European nation, had started to trade with

Japan.

At this point Portugal had been transformed into the

richest nation of Europe, and Lisbon was the most

important center of trade in Europe. Unfortunately

enough Portugal never managed to strengthen its

position. The strict social system of Portugal never

changed, and almost all of the contacts with the

colonies went through state monopolies. These two

factors explains why the country never developed the

necessary large middle classes, which could handle

trade and create a vigorous production of goods. The

government of the country and its colonies stood

and fell with the quality of the monarch, and the Aviz

dynasty was not able to produce kings as able as João

II and Manuel the Great. When João III died in

1557, Sebastião inherited the throne. This king was

not mentally sound and developed a manic dream of

a crusade against the Moslems of Northern Africa, a

dream that was realized in 1578, when the 24 year

old king led an army of 24,000 men to certain doom

in the Moroccan sand dunes. After the war Portugal

was without leadership, had an empty treasury, and

had almost all of its nobility wiped out. An older rel-

ative of Sebastião, Henrique, was put on the throne,

but he died already in 1580. At this time there were

many pretenders to the throne, but no one could

compete with Félipe II of Spain, and no one had any

115

Europa Universalis


better arguments than the duke of Alba, and an army

to match. Portugal was simply annexed to Spain.

1589-1648When Filipe I (Félipe II of Spain) had been appoint-

ed king, the country was ruled by a council with six

members. Everything else was kept intact, the mili-

tary, the legal system, et cetera. Filipe I relied on the

Jesuits and the Inquisition to unite the two king-

doms naturally. The Portuguese nobility accepted

the incorporation of Portugal in the "Iberian

Union," but the countryside saw a growing resis-

tance to Spanish rule, centered in a cult of Messianic

character around "the lost prince." The members of

the cult were of the opinion that Sebastião had not

died in Morocco, but would return and liberate Por-

tugal from the Spanish grip. The cult spread wide

and far and was the basis many years later for the nu-

merous rebellions against the presence of the Spanish

crown in Portugal.

After the death of Filipe his sons carried out an an-

ti-Portuguese policy in Portugal. Spaniards were

placed in the council, and the Portuguese were treat-

ed like second-rate citizens. The Thirty Years War re-

sulted in heavy taxation and levies on the army in

Portugal, making the Spanish crown lose the final

shreds of credibility in the country. In 1637 Portugal

rebelled and duke João of Bragança was elected king

as João IV (1641-1656). Spain was at war in the

Netherlands, in Germany, against France, and a seri-

ous rebellion in Catalonia, and had no real strength

to deal with Portugal, but had to accept the new con-

ditions. An important problem with the "Spanish

imprisonment" had been the English and the Dutch,

who had both declared war on Spain and had taken a

number of Portuguese colonies and trading posts.

When its independence was restored Portugal had

lost a third of its possessions. A time of reconstruc-

tion was at hand, and Portugal allied itself immedi-

ately with France, and created better relations with

England and the Netherlands.

1649-1721When João IV died in 1656 the monarchy was re-

stored and the country was at peace. It was no longer

any great power, however, and was solidly among the

second rank and had to fight to keep its colonies. In

the long run it turned out to be impossible, but they

had temporarily regained some of the lost posses-

sions, and they had prevented Spain from retaking

Portugal. But the country still had a few dark years

ahead. The king, Alfonso VI (1662-1667) was ill and

could not rule the country properly, and they were

again attacked by Spain. The independence was skill-

fully defended and the battle of Ameixial decided the

matter. Spain recognized the independence of Por-

tugal three years later.

In 1667 Alfonso abdicated in favor of his brother,

who was crowned as Pedro II. Under his firm leader-

ship Portugal developed and under his minister of fi-

nance, Ericeira, mercantilism was introduced to Por-

tugal. Ericeira reformed the economy and stimulated

production of primarily wool and silk. Portugal’s ma-

jor problem remained the lack of a broad production

base. After losing most of its possession in Asia, Por-

tugal focused on developing vast Brazil. They took

control over all of the colonies along the coast and

sent explorers to discover the interior of the country.

At the end of the 1660s gold and diamonds were dis-

covered in Brazil, which created a gold rush. The

population grew, but farming was suffering. The

Portuguese crown could use the income, though, to

maintain its balance of trade, as Portugal needed to

import a large number of finished products from pri-

marily England. Militarily and politically the country

had reached the very bottom. In 1698 all of the sup-

port bases in East Africa were lost, except Moçam-

bique, to the sultan of Oman.

And then suddenly the world became aware of the

peculiar position of Spain. The Spanish king was dy-

ing without any heirs, and a wild bartering for the di-

vision of the inheritance started. The dying Spanish

king Charles II chose to leave the crown undivided

to the grandson of Louis XIV, but only if he re-

nounced all claims to the French throne. Louis XIV

broke all previous agreements and accepted the

agreement. This in turn put France into a war of al-

liances. France, Bavaria, Cologne, Spain and Savoy

went to war against Austria, England, the Nether-

lands, and most of the small principalities of the Holy

Roman Empire. In 1703, after having been the ally

of France, Portugal entered the game on the side of

England. The fortunes of war varied, but Portuguese

and English troops took Madrid, which showed that

the armed forces of Portugal still had some bite.

Originally the allied goal had been to divide the non-

Iberian provinces of Spain, but when Portugal en-

tered the war they wanted to protect the country and

tried to put a younger Austrian prince on the throne.

This did not come about, when the same prince was

elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and a

restored Hapsburg empire was not what either Lis-

bon or London wanted to see. Portugal did not win

anything for its part in the war, but its relations to

116

Europa Universalis


England were strengthened enormously, to the great

benefit of Portugal. At the end of the period it was

quite clear that Portugal had dropped even further,

relatively speaking, and was now merely a third rate

power.

1722-1792During the years after the Spanish War of Succession

Portugal was a country with potential, and could

have taken a few steps up the ladder of power if it had

made the right investments. The opportunity was

wasted on needless luxuries and shortsighted profits.

One after the other the country lost its possessions

and for a while it had only Brazil left. During the first

half of the period enormous sums were spent build-

ing palaces and centers of culture. João V (1706-

1750) was an energetic and classically autocratic

monarch, who copied the ideology and the style of

the court of Louis XIV. The period of João V has

been called "the second renaissance" in the history of

Portugal.

When João V was nearing the end of his life he

turned his power over to the marquis of Pombal. He

was a reformer of great measure, and was imbued

with the ideas of the enlightenment. His goal was to

develop Portugal, a backward, third rate power, into

a "modern," secularized nation. Economic, political,

and social reforms were initiated. In 1755 Portugal

suffered a terrible disaster, when an earthquake laid

waste to the all of Lisbon, and thousands of people

perished in the fires and the tidal wave. Pombal im-

mediately went to work and directed the relief work

and later the recovery. He quickly became very pop-

ular when, after a failed attempt on his life, he exiled

all of the Jesuits and imprisoned the nobility, many of

whom were executed. Pombal had become a dicta-

tor. His economic reforms were slowly beginning to

take effect, and a sector of production without the

privileges of the nobility started to appear. After the

death of the king his daughter Maria I came into

power. She was favored the clerical and was conserva-

tive, and exiled Pombal. Soon the old society was

back in the reins and the nobility once more ran the

country inefficiently. When the French Revolution

broke out Maria immediately joined with the allies.

The queen was mortally terrified of new ideas.

There had once been a time when the Portuguese

proudly proclaimed that: "God gave the Portuguese

a small country to live in, but a whole world in which

to die." The day would soon arrive when the Por-

tuguese no longer had a whole world to die in, but all

of that happened in another age.

Russia

1492-1588In 1492 Russia was a weak country. Actually it was

not called Russia, but the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

It was not until 1547 that Ivan IV could style himself

as "Czar of all the Russians" During the first half of

the period Russia was a weak country. They had re-

cently conquered Novgorod, but were lacking in

technology and able warriors. The country had the

resources in both money and men, but the great

problem was being located too far from Germany to

effectively recruit mercenaries, and it had not yet

fought enough wars against its European neighbors

in order to learn the most modern tactics. The coun-

try was also totally feudal, and there was a violent

struggle between the grand dukes of Moscow and

their vassals. The vassals fell, one after the other. This

did not prevent them from fighting wars with Swe-

den along the Finnish border and against Poland-

Lithuania along the entire border between the two

countries. The wars against these two countries went

badly, but they only had to cede land to the Poles.

Russia was also at war with the Kazan Khanate, which

they also failed to subdue. The goals during the en-

tire period were to expand in all directions, but they

did not manage that during the period. During the

second half of the period Ivan IV came into power,

and the first modernization of Russia began, which

was largely made possible by crushing the political

basis of the feudal army. The army and the judicial

system were modernized, the political rule was cen-

tralized, and the powerful nobles were forced to ac-

knowledge the Czar. At the end of the 16th century

there was also an ideological change. The Czar took

control over the Orthodox Church and proclaimed

Moscow the "Third Rome," which meant that all

Orthodox confessors were subordinated under him

and the patriarch of Moscow. Orthodox confessors,

which did not submit to the authority of the czar,

were seen as traitors. The borders between an Ortho-

dox confessor, a Russian, and a subject of the Czar

started to blur. Naturally Poland-Lithuania did not

accept the situation, as it had a number of Orthodox

subjects, and antagonism increased tremendously. At

the beginning the Russian wars went fairly well. They

managed to keep the Swedes at bay, and annexed the

Kazan Khanate, crushed the remains of the Golden

Horde and annexed the Astrakhan Khanate. Then

Sweden, Poland-Lithuania, and the Crimea Khanate

attacked them from three directions. They suffered a

terrible defeat, which stopped Russian expansion for

117

Europa Universalis


a long time. At the close of the period Ivan IV died

and the autocracy lost its heart. Various political

groups fighting for power broke the land into pieces.

"The Time of Troubles" had begun.

1598-1648His son Theodor followed Czar Ivan IV on the

throne, but he died in 1598, starting a period of vio-

lent civil war, which totally paralyzed the country.

Russia had never been closer to being obliterated as a

nation. The period has been called "the time of trou-

bles" (1598-1613) and was characterized by fighting

between various groups of nobles, between Swedes

and Poles in Russia, and by rebellions and bandits.

Both Poland-Lithuania and Sweden tried to put their

own princes on the throne, but never succeeded, and

in 1613 Michail Romanov sat himself on the throne.

The aftermath led to the cessation of land during the

wars of the subsequent years. Sweden was given In-

germania and Kexholm, and Poland-Lithuania re-

ceived Smolensk and Livonia. Then a thorough re-

form work was initiated. The interior political order

was organized, the economy was reformed, and the

power of the Czar was strengthened. In 1632 they

thought they were strong enough to attack Poland-

Lithuania in order to retake the Smolensk area, but

the Polish-Lithuanian forces were far better, forcing

the Russians to retreat. Instead they were biding

their time, looking for their opponent’s weaknesses.

At the end of the period, when the rest of Europe was

busy with the peace treaties at Münster and Os-

nabrück, Russia was a country on the rise. It was not

quite yet ready to start competing with great powers

like Sweden and Poland-Lithuania, but that time

would come.

1649-1721In 1645 Alexis replaced his father on the throne of

the Czars, and the rulers saw an opening for change.

A few years later a violent Zaporogian Cossack upris-

ing took place in Polish-Lithuanian Ukraine, which

was closely watched. When these Cossacks then

turned to Russia for help they attacked Poland-

Lithuania from the east. The next year Sweden,

Brandenburg-Prussia, and Siebenbürgen attacked

the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and chaos

soon spread far and wide. Czar Alexis saw an oppor-

tunity when the entire Swedish army was deeply in-

volved in Poland and marched toward Ingermania,

Estonia, and Finland with a large army. This two-

front war did not turn out quite as expected, and

they also suffered internal problems. Because of an

initiative of the patriarch of Moscow the Orthodox

Church was split and a large number of peasant up-

risings occurred throughout the country. Peace was

signed with Sweden in 1661 with no gains, but the

peace with Poland-Lithuania in 1667 gave Russia the

Ukraine east of Dniepr and the Smolensk area, which

was plentiful booty. But Russia had something new

to think about. A violent Cossack uprising under

Stephan Rasin (1667-1671) broke out and at times

threatened Russian control over the entire southern

part of the realm. In 1677 Russia became involved in

a war with the Ottoman Empire for the first time.

Russia won a number of victories, although the

country had the disadvantage of numbers. Peace was

signed in 1681, which gave Russia the Ottoman (or

rather the Crimean) part of the Ukraine. In 1695 the

Ottoman Empire was at war with Poland-Lithuania,

Venice, and Austria, which Czar Peter, who came to

power in 1685, used to his advantage by declaring

war on the Ottomans. The war (1695-1699) was not

very fortunate, but because of the fatigue of the Ot-

tomans, Russia was given the town of Azov and the

surrounding area, which gave Russia its first port, al-

though on the coast of the Black Sea.

In 1700, the year before the start of the Spanish

War of Succession, the Great Nordic War began.

Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Poland-Lithuania-

Saxony had decided to retake everything that had

been lost, and if possible to cut up Sweden among

themselves. The war began in a badly for Russia. At

first the brothers of the alliance were kicked out of

the war one by one, which was followed by an inva-

sion of the Ukraine. The winds of war turned after

the glorious victory against the Swedes at Poltava in

1709. Russia quickly occupied all of the Baltic region

and Finland and at the end forced Sweden into sign-

ing a peace treaty, even if war fatigue was also high in

Russia. The results were fabulous. The country had

its own modern army and an excellent navy in the

Baltic Sea. Russia gained the entire Baltic area and

Kexholm. The best thing of all was the fact that nei-

ther Sweden nor Poland-Lithuania were great pow-

ers anymore, and that Russia’s influence over

Poland-Lithuania through August the Strong meant

that they had in effect chained the Polish-Lithuanian

throne. When the peace was signed in 1721 Russia

was the only great power in the eastern and northern

part of Europe, and all its borders were secured.

1722-1792During this period Russia pursued a highly skillful

and well planned foreign policy. Both Sweden and

118

Europa Universalis


Poland-Lithuania were governed by parliaments

dominated by the nobility, and by bribing members

they created parties friendly to the Russians in each

country, striving to decentralize all decision-making

even more. In 1733 the French pretender, Stanislaus

Leszczynski, was elected king of Poland-Lithuania.

This was unacceptable to Russia, which initiated the

Polish War of Succession in 1733-1738. The war

turned into a major conflict, but for Russia it was on-

ly a question of Poland-Lithuania. They quickly

gained control of the kingdom and put their own

pretender, August III, on the throne. At the same

time Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire. The goal

was the Balkans, but after heavy fighting the Austrian

ally pulled out, and Russia only received Azov in the

peace of 1739. The next year the great Austrian War

of Succession started in 1740-1748, and Russia

fought alongside Austria and England against Prus-

sia, France, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and Sardinia. In

1741, Russia was betrayed by Sweden, but Elizabeth,

the daughter of Peter the Great, used this opportuni-

ty to grab power and defeat the Swedes. From the

Swedes she received a couple of provinces in the east-

ern part of Finland, but she also prevented Denmark-

Norway and Sweden from restoring the Calmar

Union, by forcing the Russian pretender Adolphus

Fredrik of Kiel onto the throne. The war on the con-

tinent went badly, and Russia was not able to prevent

Prussia from increasing its power in Germany. The

revenge was thought to arrive during the Seven Years

War in 1756-1763, when Russia, together with

France, Austria, Saxony, and Sweden once again

fought it out with Prussia. They failed to crush Prus-

sia, and in 1762 Russia pulled out of the war, because

the new Czar, Peter III, was a fanatical friend of Prus-

sia. Shortly afterwards he was murdered by his wife,

who took over the throne under the name of Cather-

ine the Great. In 1763 the former lover of Catherine

the Great, Stanislaus Poniatowski, was elected king

of Poland-Lithuania. The Czarina had expected an

obedient slave in Warsaw, but found a reformer in-

stead, who was not at all very obedient. The king im-

mediately began a process of reformation and mod-

ernization of Poland-Lithuania, and Russia had to

send its troops into the country on several occasions

to retain control, which among other things meant

direct involvement in a regular civil war in 1768. This

also turned into a domestic problem, as real reforms

in Russia also could legitimate the independence

movement in Poland-Lithuania. From the 1760s

Russian control of Poland-Lithuania was slowly be-

ginning to slip. When Frederick II of Prussia then

suggested dividing the country Catherine the Great

was quite accommodating. The first partitioning

happened in 1772, and large parts of the country

were given to Russia, Prussia, and Austria. At the

same time Russia totally lost its grip on Sweden,

when Gustavus III, with some French financial aid,

succeeded with a non-bloody coup when Russia was

busy dividing Poland-Lithuania. The problems with

Poland-Lithuania did not end with the first parti-

tioning. Instead the country continued with its com-

petently implemented political and economic re-

forms. When the country then abolished the Librum

Veto, which had paralyzed the country for nearly 200

years, the neighbors acted immediately. Russia, Prus-

sia, and Austria divided and obliterated the country

on two occasions in 1793 and 1795. The Ottoman

Empire, the third neighbor of Russia, was attacked in

the two great wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1792.

Russia was clearly superior, but did not manage well

at the peace treaties, because the country always had

other wars or violent rebellions to handle.

In 1773-1774 Russia was shaken by the greatest

uprising of the century, the Pugachov Uprising,

which was extremely serious and difficult to quash.

Sweden waged war against Russia in 1788-1790, giv-

ing Russia a two front war. Russia managed to secure

its southern border by annexing the Crimea

Khanate, Georgia and large parts of the Caucasus.

The country also had a great influence on the Chris-

tians on the Balkan. When the period was nearing its

end Russia was one of the most powerful of all of the

nations of Europe, but was not able to free itself from

the new politics of alliances, blocking expansion.

They could not even prevent the ideas of the French

Revolution from spreading. Russia became the most

reactionary of all nations and struck at every manifes-

tation of equality. Finally the people became liberat-

ed from its shackles and yokes, but that story belongs

to another age.

Spain

1492-1588In January of 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella entered

Granada. The age of the Moors of Spain had passed.

Spain was the union of Castile and Aragon, which al-

so included the Netherlands, Franché-Comte, Sar-

dinia, Malta, Sicily, and southern Italy. The country

was facing a constitutional upheaval, but was clearly

the strongest power of Europe. During the 16th cen-

tury the attention of Spain was divided between its

European grand politics and expansion in the New

119

Europa Universalis


World discovered by Christopher Columbus the

night of the 11th and 12th of October 1492.

A dynastic alliance between Spain and Austria was

created at the beginning of the 16th century, which

gave the two countries the same monarch, but they

were still two different countries. This relationship

gave both countries a shared foreign policy, resulting

in serious military tests with both France and the Ot-

toman Empire. The struggle with the Ottoman Em-

pire resulted in a victory against the Ottomans, when

naval superiority in the Mediterranean was wrested

from the hands of the Ottomans forever at the battle

of Lepanto. The Austrian ally had to bow in part to

the power of the Ottomans on land, as Spain was not

involved on that front.

The wars against France provided great victories,

and France was also prevented from conquering

southern Italy, and instead had to withdraw in order

to secure its northern provinces and the Spanish bor-

der. The war against France gave a meager result, as

both countries had great resources. Spain definitely

had the best soldiers of the period, and this may have

been the result of the country constantly being at war

somewhere, which gave the troops lots of experience

and ample opportunities to hone their tactics. Every-

thing was not bright and golden, though. Spain had

a very intolerant religious policy and regarded itself

as the protector of Catholicism at a time when

Protestantism and the Reformist teachings appeared.

They expelled the Spanish Jews from the country,

which would seriously damage the Spanish economy

during later periods. In the Netherlands they fought

a general uprising, which they never were able to

crush. Spain also got into fights with England be-

cause of religious matters, and the failed invasion

when the Armada went under in 1588 hinted at

Spain’s military limitations. The attempt of the Span-

ish monarchs to keep the European Catholic church

intact also failed, and the country was forced to ac-

cept the religious peace at Augsburg in 1556. In

1580 Portugal was annexed, and at the end of the pe-

riod Spain had crushed the Aztecs and the Incas and

had conquered all of Central America and Florida, all

of South America (Brazil was ruled by the annexed

Portuguese), as well as the Philippines in the Far

East. Spain was the country where the Sun never set,

and it was also the strongest country in western and

southern Europe at the end of the period.

1589-1648At the end of the 16th century the inner strength of

Spain was beginning to wane. Spain was lacking a

strong, productive middle class, the Moors and the

Jews had been exiled, and crises in farming and the

failures in investing in production undermined the

economic power of the country. The state went

bankrupt on a number of occasions and it became

more and more difficult to obtain international

loans. To top it all off the production of gold and sil-

ver in America dropped, and exports to America

dropped by 60% toward the end of the period. Spain

was viewed as one of the major powers, contributing

to its costly and not particularly victorious wars,

which in time undermined its position in Europe.

Spain was waging war almost continuously against

the rebellious Netherlands up until 1648, without

winning. Spain waged another prolonged and catas-

trophic war against France in 1628-1659, which def-

initely marked the end of the Spanish era as a major

power. During the same time as the war with France,

Spain was drawn into the Thirty Years War on the

side of Austria, and the country was not victorious

here either. All of these wars, combined with gradual

economic destitution, created a wave of serious re-

bellions in both Portugal and Catalonia in 1640. The

Catalonian rebellion was put down, but in Portugal

they failed and the country could once again become

independent. In many ways the nobility lived in the

past. The same strategies that had been successful in

the 16th century were still used in the 17th, and the

idea that Spain was the most powerful nation in the

world, even though it lost battle after battle and

could not even put down rebellions within its own

borders, had not died. The rulers also refused to in-

troduce new mercantile ideas and scientific method-

ology, as they were inventions of heretic nations. Af-

ter the peace of Westphalia, Spain had definitely lost

the Netherlands and Portugal and Portugal’s over-

seas possessions. Spanish weapons were no longer

the best in Europe, and Spain was passed by France in

terms of power, and by the Netherlands economical-

ly.

1649-17211The peace of Westphalia did not bring peace to

Spain, nor was it a time of much needed domestic re-

forms and development. Instead, the weak monarchs

of Spain let their favorites run the country. Politics

was characterized by party feuds and intrigue, which

brought neither peace and order nor continuity. The

government kept abusing the economy, and no seri-

ous reforms were made in the area of the military. In-

stead culture was flourishing, although it did not im-

prove the political situation. France was the greatest

120

Europa Universalis


victor of the Thirty Years War, and was not only

stronger than Spain was; it also tried to continue its

expansion, and this time at the expense of Spain. The

entire period was marked by a prolonged defensive

war, where France conquered the remaining part of

the Spanish Netherlands and Franché-Comte, in-

cluding some borderland along the Pyrenees. In

1700 the last Hapsburg on the throne, Charles II,

died childless. He had willed the whole Spanish

realm to Philip, the grandson of Louis XIV, on the

condition that Philip renounced all claim to the

French throne. This was probably the most intelli-

gent move Charles could have done. This would

keep Spain intact, and it ensured that Spain would

not become a French vassal, and also that the French

wars of conquest would end with a Bourbon on the

throne. Things did not turn out exactly as Charles in-

tended, since Louis XIV refused to let his grandson

renounce the French crown. The result was the

Spanish War of Succession of 1701-1714, where

Spain fought on the side of France against England,

the Netherlands, and Austria. France did not win the

war, and instead the whole issue was settled in the

peace treaty. Spain did not get a very good deal. Eng-

land took Gibraltar and Menorca, and Naples, Sar-

dinia, Sicily, Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands

were ceded to Austria. This was difficult to swallow,

and in 1717 the Spanish government under Alberoni

launched an offensive against southern Italy. It began

fairly well, but Spain had Austria, England, and

France as enemies, and in1720 they signed a treaty,

where Spain received nothing back, although the

map was slightly redrawn. Following this peace treaty

Spain became a second rate power in the politics of

Europe.

1722-1792The aftermath of the Spanish War of Succession was

not entirely negative for Spain. Of course, Spain was

no longer one of the great powers of the continent,

but her colonial realm consisted primarily of one

large connected area, which was easy to defend. The

country also developed close political cooperation

with France, as there were Bourbons on both

thrones. The main enemy of Spain during the period

was without doubt England. Spain was a relatively

poor country at the beginning of the epoch. The pre-

vious economic policy had been disastrously inhibit-

ing and had caused the economic center of Europe to

move from Seville–Cadiz–Barcelona to

London–Amsterdam–Antwerp. The centralized

control of colonial production also inhibited produc-

tion at home and trade profits from America. In two

sweeping reforms, the first in the form of trading

companies at the beginning of the 1720s to the

1750s, and the second regulating free trade of 1767,

the economic situation in both Spain and its colonies

changed. They simply stimulated each other. As a

consequence Spain was able to hang on to its

colonies during the entire 18th century, and also able

to give a good bite whenever any of the colonies were

"besieged" by the English economic and territorial

lust for expansion. From 1726 to 1729 there was a

sort of "pretend war" between Spain and England,

which was expressed in the form of naval operations.

The origin of the conflict was England’s unlawful

trade with the Spanish colonies, including capturing

of Spanish ships. The economy of Spain naturally suf-

fered, which made the colonies partly dependent on

England, which could not be allowed.

Following some diplomatic complications France

managed to get its representative elected Polish king,

which neither Austria nor Russia could accept. Spain

fought on the side of France in the Polish War of Suc-

cession (1733-1738), and managed to assert itself on

the continent. The Russian pretender was finally put

on the throne, but a Spanish prince, Don Charles, re-

ceived the Two Sicily’s, consisting of Naples and Sici-

ly, as his own kingdom, which in a way meant that the

former Spanish domain had been returned to the

family. In 1739 the "War of Captain Jenkin’s Ear"

between England and Spain broke out, and soon be-

came a part of the Austrian War of Succession, which

started the following year. The conflict consisted of a

totally failed English attack on the Spanish colonies.

Although England ruled the high seas, the Spaniards

easily won each battle on land. The war did not solve

any of the existing conflicts, and there was peace in

1748 based on the status quo. After the war Spain

was quite exhausted. The costs for the two wars

could not be recovered for a long time. When the re-

al discharge came, the Seven Years War of 1756-

1763, the main players were England and France,

and Spain did what it could to stay out of it, but with

little success. In 1762 England attacked Spain in a

lightning offensive that Spain was not able to

counter. At the peace of 1763 Spain had to cede

Florida, but received all of the former French land

west of the Mississippi as compensation. The most

important effect of the war was the realization that

Spain was no longer a great power, but a country that

had to act defensively in order to preserve the nation.

This is why the government under the marquis of

Floridablanca initiated the previously mentioned

121

Europa Universalis


"second program of reformation" in order to unite

the European and non-European parts of Spain eco-

nomically. During this period Spain also brings order

to its empire by creating a structured political hierar-

chy. In 1775 the American Revolution began, and

Spain’s joined the rebels, primarily to expel the En-

glish from Gibraltar. As England acquired more ene-

mies they were forced to sign a peace treaty in 1783.

Spain received Florida and Menorca, but not the

coveted Gibraltar. Spain was saved and you could say

that this was a small victory even for the normally in-

ferior weapons of Spain. But the independence of the

United States would soon provide the Spanish

colonies with a dangerous example, and they would

soon rise in rebellion against the Spanish crown, but

that story belongs to another age.

Sweden

1492-1588In 1492 Sweden was a poor and backward little

country on the outskirts of Europe. Sweden consist-

ed of two integrated parts: Sweden and Finland. The

population spoke two different languages, but had a

lot in common regarding both religion and culture.

The real power in Sweden was in the hands of the

high nobility, who either ruled in the name of a Dan-

ish or a Swedish king. On several occasions during

the period of 1492 to 1521 the nobility had re-

nounced the Danish king and had elected a king of its

own, only to return to the Danish king after a few

years. Between each occasion a few royal mansions

naturally switched ownership, but when Christian

the Tyrant executed a number of Swedish nobles

Gustavus Eriksson Vasa started a rebellion, which

created an independent Sweden.

During the first half of the period Sweden tried to

recover from the civil wars and create a functioning

government. The foreign policy was tentative, but

not isolationist. A small but victorious war against

the Hanseatic League on the side of Denmark-Nor-

way resulted in Sweden being able to write off the

enormous debt that was created during the struggle

for independence.

During the second half of the period problems

were heaped on the country. The Danish-Norwegian

effort to re-conquer Sweden was a constant danger,

and Sweden was not strong enough for any strategic

offensives. War came anyway and resulted in a plun-

dered country and empty coffers, although the peace

was fortunate. Sweden was still a free and indepen-

dent country.

Russia, or the Grand Duchy of Moscow had oblit-

erated the old rival in the East, the Republic of Nov-

gorod, as it was sometimes called. Sweden had also

managed to annex Estonia after the fall of the Teu-

tonic order in the area. The situation did not im-

prove much, as the Russians just inherited the old

claim of Novgorod on the eastern parts of Finland

and of Estonia. Beginning in 1570 Sweden fought a

25-year long war with Russia over these areas.

Gustavus Vasa, founder of the Vasa dynasty, drew

up a rather anachronistic will leaving large areas of

land to each of his four sons. These areas then be-

came a strong source of conflict, but also resources

for the sons in conflict with the oldest. The whole af-

fair led to a limited civil war and eventually three of

the four sons sat on the throne at one time or the

other. There was also a dynastic alliance with Poland-

Lithuania, which later on turned out to be more of a

problem than an asset during the next period. When

this period approached its end Sweden was still a fair-

ly weak country in Europe, but no longer just a terri-

tory defended by peasant levies.

1589-1648The economy improved gradually under the Vasa

sons, and large areas of the forested expanses were

populated and farmed. Initially Sweden waged war

against Russia, which resulted in a border being draw

up and confirmed between the countries. In 1592

Sigismund, the son of Johan III, came into power.

Sigismund was a Catholic and had been raised in

Poland-Lithuania. A very unpleasant struggle quick-

ly developed between Sigismund and the Catholic

nobility on the one hand and his uncle duke Charles

and the Protestant part of the nobility on the other.

The fight was primarily about religious intolerance,

as both king Sigismund and duke Charles were quite

intolerant. The struggle developed into a short war,

in which Sigismund lost and then returned to

Poland-Lithuania. The fighting did not end there, as

both Sweden and Poland-Lithuania had expanded

into the Baltic region, and a violent war between

them and Russia erupted in a triangular drama with

the Baltic ports as the great prize.

These wars continued almost unceasingly until

1629, and the fortune of war varied immensely.

Poland-Lithuania was the most victorious country

initially, but Sweden got the upper hand at the end.

During these wars the Great Mess engulfed Russia,

which resulted in interventions from both Poland-

Lithuania and Sweden, when they tried to put their

own puppets on the throne for short periods. During

122

Europa Universalis


the fighting Sweden also became involved in a war

with Denmark-Norway, which Sweden lost, al-

though no provinces were ceded. When the fighting

slowed down in 1629 both Poland-Lithuania and

Russia went into a slow period of recovery, but Swe-

den rushed headlong into the Thirty Years War. Dur-

ing the wars in the northeastern corner of Europe

Sweden had managed to rake Ingermania, Kexholm,

and Livonia out of the fire. Sweden was also able to

finance its "German war" with the income from

eight Polish ports. Sweden entered the Thirty Years

War in 1630. Its fortunes varied, but Sweden man-

aged to retain the initiative, in order to make it one of

the main players during the entire period, much the

result of having an excellent army and brilliant com-

manders like Gustavus II Adolphus, Banér, Torstens-

son, Bernhard of Weimar, Königsmarck, and

Wrangel. In conjunction with this war Sweden at-

tacked Denmark-Norway and defeated the country

in a quick and fairly risky campaign in 1643-1645.

Sweden gained Jämtland, Härjedalen, Gotland,

Ösel, and Halland for 30 years. At the peace of West-

phalia the Swedish negotiators also managed to grab

Vorpommern, Bremen-Verden, Stettin, and Wilde-

shausen, turning it into a brilliant peace. This marked

Sweden as a major power, and its star rose above that

of Denmark-Norway on the Nordic sky.

1649-1721The newly gained status as a great power forced Swe-

den to expand in order to keep that position, just like

Spain half a century earlier. During the 1650s the

warrior king Charles X Gustavus attacked Poland-

Lithuania. The war went well initially, but resistance

increased, and finally Brandenburg, the Swedish ally,

joined the opposition. The king was practically ex-

pelled from the country and the best retreat would

be across Denmark, a country Sweden wanted to cas-

tigate once more. Following a quick march across all

of northern Germany the army took Jutland from

the south, and then performed a daring march across

the frozen sound to Zealand. Denmark-Norway

faced disaster. In the ensuing peace the country was

forced to cede Halland, Blekinge, Scania, Bohuslän,

Bornholm, and Trondheim. The king was not satis-

fied and struck once more, but not as successfully, as

the neighbors of Denmark-Norway did not like

avaricious robber barons, and Sweden lost Bornholm

and Trondheim. Somewhat later, during the French

war against Spain and the Netherlands (1672-1679),

Sweden once again went to war against Denmark-

Norway. No adjustments were made, but it became

clear that the empire of Sweden was threatened.


sion, the Great Nordic War began. Russia, Denmark-

Norway, and Poland-Lithuania-Saxony had decided

to retake everything that had been lost, and if possi-

ble, divide Sweden among them. Sweden began the

war brilliantly, defeating the Russian army, kicking

Denmark-Norway out of the war, occupying all of

Poland-Lithuania and Saxony, and finally marching

to the Ukraine. But the Swedish resources and lack of

allies resulted in its victories resting on a shaky

ground. After the loss at Poltava the fortunes of war

changed, and countries like England-Hanover, Prus-

sia-Brandenburg, and Austria declared war on Swe-

den. In 1721, after a number of peace treaties, Swe-

den lost all of the Baltic part of the country, all the

German provinces except Vorpommern, and the

Russian navy ruled the Baltic Sea. The short period

when Sweden was a great power had ended.

1722-1792Sweden’s position after the end of the Great Nordic

War was not enviable. Sweden’s status as a great pow-

er had been broken and all of the neighbors of Russia

were going down the drain. Economically Sweden

prospered during the period and a basic tradition of

manufacturing was founded, which would develop

later into an export industry. For its foreign policy

Sweden had to rely on one of the major powers in or-

der to wage war successfully. Arvid Horn, the presi-

dent of the parliament, governed Sweden until 1738.

He had focused on peace and domestic develop-

ment, but in 1740 the pro-French party came to

power and immediately went to war with Russia. The

war was disastrous and Sweden had to cede a strip of

land in eastern Finland to Russia. Sweden suffered

very little when it accepted the Russian Czarina’s

candidate for the Swedish throne. Sweden did not

elect its kings, but the previous king, Frederick I, was

childless. They had actually wanted the Danish

crown prince as heir to the throne, but the unfortu-

nate war dictated otherwise. As a result of the peace

Sweden found itself in a very awkward position. Swe-

den was almost regarded as a third rate power, and it

was close to turning into a Russian vassal, or at least a

nation whose politics were completely affected by

foreign bribes. The two parties, one pro-French, and

the other pro-Russian, struggled for power. The situ-

ation was quite similar to the one in Poland-Lithua-

nia. In 1757 it was again time for another ill-con-

ceived Swedish war, the Seven Years War of 1756-

1763. This time Prussia was attacked, and Sweden

123

Europa Universalis


fulfilled its obligations as an ally to France, and for a

change Sweden was actually on the same side as Rus-

sia. The war went badly for several reasons, primarily

because of a lack of funds, the old-fashioned army,

and the fact that most of the officers were dilettantes,

spending more time at parliament than at the front.

Still the Swedes won more skirmishes than the Prus-

sians, but no real battles took place. When the pro-

Prussian Peter III succeeded Elizabeth of Russia,

Sweden was immediately forced into signing a peace

treaty based on the status quo.

The 1760s was a terrible time for Sweden. The pro-

French party wanted to restore royal power, while

the pro-Russian party wanted to decrease executive

power, and would preferably drive Sweden in the

same direction as Poland-Lithuania. The Czarina

went as far as to encourage separatism in Finland. In

1772-1773 Gustavus III carried out a bloodless

coup and became an enlightened despot. Russia was

fully occupied with the Pugachev uprising, a war

against the Ottoman Empire, and the first partition-

ing of Poland-Lithuania, and so let the action pass.

In 1788 Gustavus III had managed to ruin the fi-

nances of the country, although the navy and the

army had been reformed, and culture was flourish-

ing. Large sections of the nobility were also in rebel-

lion, as they remembered the previous years as "the

Age of Freedom." Gustavus III needed to increase

his popularity and attacked Russia in 1788-1790.

The war went very well on the tactical level, but there

was absolutely no strategic leadership, and the ma-

jority of the officers were rebellious dilettantes who

wanted to be politicians rather than soldiers. The vic-

tories at land and at sea lead nowhere, and the peace

was signed as a matter of status quo. Sweden’s inde-

pendence from Russia was secured and the country

was intact, but during the Napoleonic wars people

learned that the Swedish officers was not up to par

with their continental counterparts, and Finland

would be lost; however, all of that happened in an-

other age.

Austria

1492-1588Austria began the period as a relatively weak power.

In 1492 Austria was at war with Spain against France.

The major advantage and disadvantage of Austria

was its strategic location in the middle of Europe.

The advantage was that the country could exert in-

fluence and could expand in any direction, but the

disadvantage was that the country was subjected to

attacks from every direction. During this period the

country was fortunate to have its dynastic alliance

with Spain. Austria became involved fairly early in the

conflict with France and the Ottoman Empire, and

the smaller states of the Holy Roman Empire. The

wars with France were primarily handled by Spain,

but Austria often had to support the efforts in north-

ern Italy, the "back pocket of Vienna."

During the 1510s the Ottoman Empire directed a

huge offensive against the core of Christian Europe.

The Ottomans were almost impossible to stop. They

were better organized; they had better equipment,

morale, and greater numbers. Within a few decades

they had conquered all of Hungary and swept the

armies of Christianity off the floor, and were sudden-

ly standing outside the walls of Vienna. Earlier at

Mohacs the Hungarian-Bohemian crown army had

been wiped out and the Hungarian-Bohemian king

fell in battle. Austria inherited Bohemia and Hun-

gary, although there was precious little left of Hun-

gary, just a small strip of land. Anyway they had to be

satisfied with this, and try to make peace with the Ot-

toman sultan. The Ottoman offensives did not stop,

but they were not as successful toward the end of the

period, as the Austrians and Venetians had heavily

fortified their borders. The Austrian archduke and

emperor still had to keep an eye on that direction.

At the same time the Austrian monarch tried to se-

cure his position in the Holy Roman Empire. The

goal was to transform it into a universal realm with a

hereditary emperor, preferably himself. This goal

went counter to the interest of the numerous princi-

palities, resulting in a violent civil war. Austria could

not win it even with the aid of Spain, and had to ac-

cept the religious peace at Augsburg, which severely

restricted the powers of the emperor. Later Austria

tried to put a Hapsburg prince on the throne of

Poland-Lithuania, as the kingdom elected its kings,

but too many of the Polish and Lithuanian magnates

opposed the effort, which failed.

Everything was not bad, though. The situation was

actually pretty good. In 1556 Austria and Spain went

separate ways. Their alliance was still intact and the

ties of kinship were still very strong, but the almost

bombastically grandiose plans of European domin-

ion were gone, as they had encountered such heavy

opposition. Austria had also seen to it that France

had vainly butted against the Hapsburg walls with

very little success, at the same time that Austria had

more than doubled because of the annexation of Bo-

hemia and "Little Hungary." Finally, Austria and

124

Europa Universalis


Venice had been able to keep the Ottoman army at

bay, even though it was only a temporary situation.

1589-1648After stopping the Ottoman grand offensive, the

Austrian emperors turned their attention north-

wards. Consolidating the political hold on Bohemia

and Hungary became an important political goal,

which they tried to achieve through efforts of spread-

ing Catholicism. Another goal was to achieve domin-

ion over the confusion of small semi-independent

states of the Holy Roman Empire. The goal was sim-

ply to create a universal power right in the middle of

Europe.

Already during the first decade of the 17th century

the Austrian emperor became involved in a conflict

with both the native Protestant population of Bo-

hemia and the Protestant principalities of the Em-

pire. The principalities created the "Union," a loose

confederation opposing the efforts at spreading

Catholicism, and the ambitions of the emperor. The

Catholic League was created in opposition to the

Union, and this in turn supported the emperor. In

connection with a local uprising in Bohemia, where

they elected Philip of Pfalz as king, the Thirty Years

War began. The conflict quickly developed into a

major war, which primarily was fought on German

soil. Austria and Spain fought on one side against

countries such as the Netherlands, Sweden, Den-

mark-Norway, and France. The German principali-

ties were divided and often changed allegiances due

to the shifting fortunes of war. The conflict was a war

of attrition with no real victors. Although Austria

had won a great number of victories under comman-

ders such as Tilly, Wallenstein, Gallas, and Piccolomi-

ni, the peace at Westphalia made several things clear:

Protestant Sweden had become a major power;

France was the strongest country in all of Europe;

Spain was no longer a contender in the struggle for

European hegemony; and finally the emperor had for

all time lost his power over the Holy Roman Empire.

For Austria the war was naturally a setback, but it still

had managed to consolidate its inherited provinces

and had begun a process of reforms and investments,

which would make the country quite powerful in the

future.

1649-1721In 1649 the Austrian kingdom was devastated, but

after a decade of peace the country recovered. The

consolidation process aimed at gaining full control of

Austria, Styria, Tyrolia, Moravia, Silesia, and Bo-

hemia, and only Hungary was left to humble. During

the entire period Austria waged a war of low intensi-

ty against France and Sweden in order to prevent

them from expanding. Things started to move along

the southern border around 1660. The Ottoman

Empire had returned in full force after a century and

a half of chaos and stagnation and was about to un-

leash a number of offensives against its neighbors.

Except for a short war in 1663-1664 the Ottomans

attacked Austria on a broad front in 1682. Austria

had been trying to quash the Protestants of Hun-

gary, but had failed, and they then turned to the Ot-

tomans for help. In 1683 Vienna was once again un-

der siege, but help arrived in no time, as Bavaria,

Baden, Lothringen, and even France sided with Aus-

tria, although the most important trump on hand

turned out to be Jan Sobieski of Poland-Lithuania.

He was one of the most brilliant commanders of the

period, and arrived with a very large relief force. He

was given the command of all of the forces and drove

out the Ottomans in the terribly bloody battle of

Kahlenberge, breaking the power of the Ottoman

Empire. An offensive was mounted, in which the

Austrian troops went all the way to Bulgaria, Serbia,

and Siebenbürgen, but the Austrians were repelled.

At the same time Austria went to war with France in

Western Europe and had to fight with a divided

force. In 1697 Austria and France signed a peace

treaty, which made it possible for Austria to strike out

properly against the Ottomans. The war went well

and at the peace of Karlowitz in 1699 Austria gained

Hungary, Siebenbürgen, and Croatia all the way to

the Sava River. The Ottoman Empire had lost more

than a third of its European territory.

At the same time the Spanish king was dying and

had no heirs to the throne. A violent bickering of the

inheritance started. The dying Spanish king Charles

II decided to leave the entire realm undivided to the

grandson of Louis XIV, if he would renounce all

claims to the French crown. Louis XIV broke all pre-

vious agreements and accepted the terms of the will.

Austria opposed, partly because it thought the

throne should go to a Hapsburg, and also because it

was unacceptable that France would become even

more powerful. In the Spanish War of Succession of

1701-1714, Austria sided with England and the

Netherlands against France and Spain. No one was

able to win any decisive victories, resulting in a peace

of compromises. Austria gained the Spanish Nether-

lands, Milan, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily, but it also

inherited Spain’s previous problems with the French

desire for expansion. At the very end of the period

125

Europa Universalis


Austria attacked the Ottoman Empire, winning a

couple of decisive victories, letting Austria gain the

Banate, Northern Serbia, and parts of Wallachia at

the peace of Passorowitz in 1718. When the period

ended Austria was a major power in both western and

eastern Europe.

1722-1792Regardless of its status as a major power, Austria had

problems as soon as the 18th century began. All of

the newly conquered provinces provided a stronger

economy, but the country had no real population

majority to base its rule on; instead, Austria was a

country of minorities, making it difficult to govern

and heterogeneous. Austria constantly had to wage

defensive wars. In the 1730s it became embroiled in

the Polish War of Succession (1733-1738) with Rus-

sia against France, Spain, and other countries. The

war did not go very well. Although the Russian pre-

tender, August, was elected king of Poland-Lithua-

nia, Austria lost Naples and Sicily, which became an

independent kingdom under a Spanish prince. One

reason for the poor fortunes was the fact that they

had to fight a war against the Ottoman Empire at the

same time (1735-1739), in which they lost every-

thing that had been gained by the peace of Pas-

sorowitz in 1718. In 1740 emperor Charles VI died

and turned the country over to his daughter Maria

Theresia. Frederick II of Prussia, who immediately

attacked and seized Silesia, leading to the Austrian

War of Succession in 1740-1748, seized the oppor-

tunity. The fortunes of war varied, but after many

years of fighting Austria was forced to cede Silesia to

Prussia, which then became stronger at the expense

of Austria. A few years of recovery was all that Austria

was given, and then it was time for the great global

explosion called the Seven Years War from 1756 to

1763. Together with Russia, France, Saxony, and

Sweden, Austria attacked Prussia and later England.

In spite of the great superiority of its enemies Prussia

was not defeated, and when the Russian throne was

passed on, the country signed a separate peace treaty

with Prussia. Austria’s situation became disastrous

and the country had to sign a status quo peace agree-

ment, and Prussia kept Silesia. After the war Austria

turned to domestic reforms and concentrated on

strategic defense militarily. They watched with some

concern how the Russian influence over Poland-

Lithuania and against the Ottoman Empire was in-

creasing. In 1774, after the Russian war against the

Ottoman Empire, they annexed Bukovina, which the

Ottomans had to accept. Following a Polish-Lithua-

nian attempt at reforming the country in 1772 Rus-

sia quickly intervened with troops. Austria quickly

sided with Prussia and managed to convince Russia

to divide Poland-Lithuania among them, which led

to the first partitioning of Poland-Lithuania. IN

1778-1779 the Bavarian War of Succession was

fought between Prussia and Austria. The conflict was

resolved at the negotiating tables and Austria had to

be satisfied with a narrow strip of land in Bavaria, not

the entire area, as the plan had been.

In 1789 the French Revolution started, which

united Austria, Prussia and Russia ideologically. Aus-

tria had to attend to nationalistic problems in the

Austrian Netherlands, but the uprising was effective-

ly quashed. From 1789 to 1791 Austria and Russia

waged a successful war against the Ottoman Empire,

but they only gained a narrow strip of land in Serbia,

as they quickly had to re-deploy the army for the sec-

ond partitioning of Poland-Lithuania the next year.

Soon Europe would be shaken by the revolutionary

wars and the rise of nationalism, which would seri-

ously undermine Austria’s status as a great power.

Nationalism made Austria carry on a careful defen-

sive policy aimed at keeping the status quo through-

out Europe, but that story belongs to another age.

126

Europa Universalis


Index15th century, 97–98, 11016th century, 98–100, 108, 110, 119–12017th century, 99, 101, 120, 12518th century, 101–102, 111–112, 121, 12695 Theses, 32, 99

AAachen, 107abbreviated, 8abdicated, 84, 87abilities, 25, 77ability, 23, 25, 32, 35–36, 40, 43, 45, 48, 58, 61,

66–67, 69, 73, 75, 77, 80, 82, 95abolished, 65abolishing, 88abolition, 86abroad, 12, 71, 74, 79absolute, 95absolutely, 77abstract, 22, 56abused, 68academics, 82academies, 82academy, 82accept, 15, 29, 32, 38, 46–47, 67, 71acceptable, 3, 37accepted, 40, 47, 64, 86accepts, 39–40, 47access, 5, 8, 25, 35, 37, 73, 76accessed, 95accessing, 49accomplish, 86accomplished, 92accomplishments, 86accordance, 76, 88account, 63, 79accounting, 71accredited, 35accurate, 3accused, 85achieve, 15, 55, 82achieved, 52, 58, 60, 71–73achieves, 62acquire, 71, 75–76acquired, 85, 94acquisitions, 91act, 3, 16, 37–41acted, 31–32action, 47, 55actions, 7, 24, 37, 46active, 39, 85activities, 10, 17, 32, 45, 59, 83, 95activity, 4actor, 48acts, 23, 36–37, 40actual, 3, 11, 31, 34, 37, 46, 49, 56, 76acute, 90add, 22, 50, 95added, 68, 72, 76, 83, 92addition, 9, 21, 23, 25, 35–36, 48, 55, 57, 72additional, 8–9, 22–23, 29–32, 36, 41, 56, 73

adequate, 64adjacent, 12–13, 27, 54, 75–76administration, 83–94administrative, 25, 44, 71, 73, 79–80, 83, 95administrator, 83–85, 88, 93administrators, 25admiral, grand, 110admirals, 50admittedly, 46Adolphus Frederick of Kiel, 105, 119Adolphus (see Gustavus II Adolphus)advance, 80advanced, 3, 22, 51, 56, 69–70, 80, 82, 88, 91, 93advancement, 49, 79advancements, 80advances, 71, 80, 94advantage, 6, 11, 16, 19, 38, 48–50, 52, 55, 75–77advantages, 8, 11, 19, 22, 31, 42–43, 51–52, 58, 63,

75, 82, 96adventure, 43, 91adventurers, 85adversaries, 28, 89adverse, 20, 41adversely, 41, 49–50advertising, 63advisable, 4, 54affair, 44affairs, 34, 67, 89Africa, 21, 61, 64–65, 70, 75–77, 79, 99, 102, 110,

116African, 20age, 8, 45, 74, 83, 86, 88–89, 91–92Age of Enlightenment, 29, 102, 110agenda, 32ages, 22, 28, 39, 42, 79aggression, 76–77aggressive, 74aggressively, 41agreed, 87agreement, 60, 94agreements, 23agricultural, 102Ahmed the Righteous, 88aid, 8, 37aided, 93aimed, 36, 60, 88Alba, Duke of, 116Albania, 88Alberoni, Guilio, 91, 121Albuquerque, admiral, 97, 115alcohol, 66alcoholic, 82Alexander VI, Pope, 98Alexandria, 65Alexeievitch, Piotr, 88 (see also Peter I of Russia)Alexis of Russia, 118Alfonso VI of Portugal, 116Alger, 111Algeria, 84alleged, 65allegiance(s), 57, 125alliance, 15–16, 23, 28, 36, 38–44, 47, 86, 90, 92,

102–104, 120, 122, 124alliances, 15, 36, 38–39, 41, 44, 46–47, 84, 96, 105,

109, 119

allied, 18, 22, 50, 53, 84allies, 6, 14, 16, 33, 41, 50, 56–57, 114, 123allocate, 8allocated, 8allow, 38, 41, 58allowed, 9, 17, 27, 31, 51, 60, 74alloys, 64ally, 55, 119–120Almeida,Admiral Francisco de, 97, 115alpine, 97al-Nabulsi, Abd al-Ghani, 102al-Sim’ani, Yusuf, 102alternate, 3alternative, 35, 46–47, 68, 73, 76, 89Alvarez (see Pedro Alvarez Cabral)always, 3, 9, 11, 15, 26, 36, 38, 43–47, 49–50, 52, 58,

62, 64, 67, 75, 78, 87, 89ambassadors, 35ambition, 46ambitious, 91, 93Ameixial, battle of, 116America, 3–4, 12, 63–65, 68, 70, 77, 79, 90, 97, 105,

107–108, 120–121American, 39, 64–65, 71, 100, 103, 108, 110American War of Independence, 108, 110, 122Americas, 99Amerigo Vespucci, 97ammunition, 45amortized, 67amount, 9, 11, 13, 34–35, 61–62, 68, 96amounts, 35amplifying, 68Amsterdam, 100, 121amuck, 56anarchic, 38anarchistic, 114anarchy, 85Anastasia, 85Anatolia, 88ancient, 42Andrea Doria, 83Andrusovo, peace of, 113anew, 23Anglican Church, 106Angola, 102Angoulème (see de Valois-Angoulème)animals, 64animosity, 84Anjou, King Henri de, 93, 98Ann Boleyn, 85annex, 24, 47, 68, 122annexation, 24, 36, 38–40, 42, 46–47, 124annexations, 36, 40–41, 47annexed, 28, 39–40, 42, 44, 47, 110, 113, 115–117,

120, 126annexing, 28, 41, 119annual, 11, 24–25, 30–32, 41, 43–44, 59–61, 66,

75–76annually, 43annul, 38annulling, 23anti-Catholic, 32anti-French, 90anti-Portuguese, 116anti-Protestant, 89

127

Europa Universalis


antibiotics, 65antiquity, 64–65Anton (see Wenzel-Anton)Antonius Hensius, 90Antwerp, 40, 121anxiety, 82apart, 46, 64, 70appear, 9–10, 60, 76appearance, 8, 32appeared, 28appearing, 75appears, 26, 60appease, 23applied, 36, 44, 89applies, 19, 23, 36, 39, 43, 69apply, 27, 41, 47applying, 80appoint, 9, 12, 17, 64–65, 69appointed, 8, 26, 42, 69, 87, 90–91, 94appointing, 11, 18, 26, 44, 60, 69appointment, 29, 69, 96appointments, 11approach, 4, 46appropriate, 77, 79approve, 69Arabic, 110Arabs, 110Aragon, 28, 97, 119arbitrarily, 45arbitrary, 35arbitrator, 83archduke, 124archenemies, 40arches, 82architects, 102archive, 67, 95–96Arctic, 101ardent, 93area, 4, 9, 12, 14, 19–20, 37, 40, 51, 75, 79, 82–83,

96areas, 6, 8, 11, 19, 21, 28, 32, 40, 56, 60–61, 69–71,

77, 79–80, 83, 88, 90, 94, 95argument, 35arid, 64Ariosto, Ludovico, 98Armada, Spanish, 48, 86, 106, 120armament, 49, 105Armand Jean du Plessis (Cardinal Richelieu), 86armed, 6, 11, 44–45, 49, 80Armenia, 110armies, 15, 45, 48, 50, 55, 75, 79, 83, 87, 94, 96, 111armor, 64armored, 79, 113arms, 8, 15army, 4–9, 12–13, 16–21, 26–27, 30–31, 40, 42–45,

47–51, 54–58, 60–61, 67, 68–69, 76–80, 88,90–91, 93–96, 106–107, 109, 111–114,116–118, 124

arrange, 33, 37arranging, 39arrays, 80arrival, 66arrives, 55arrow, 9, 95art, 39, 59, 64, 86, 91

artillery, 13, 44, 48–51, 56, 80, 96artists, 82, 102arts, 64, 82, 85, 89Arvid Horn, 123ascended, 85–86, 93ascension, 95ashore, 77Asia, 64, 66, 75, 79, 97, 99, 101–102, 116Asia, East, 115ask, 46, 76asked, 39aspect, 22assault, 16, 55–56, 61assaulted, 55assaulting, 56assaults, 55–56, 58, 66assembled, 19, 58, 96assembly, 45assessed, 59assessment, 46, 95assets, 12, 60, 63, 67–68assign, 56assigned, 50–51associate, 88, 93associated, 22, 45, 92, 95associations, 88assume, 31, 42, 50Astrakhan Khanate, 117astronomical, 64atmosphere, 82atrocities, 92attack, 12, 15, 22, 51, 58, 75, 84, 94attacked, 15–16, 39, 42, 53–55, 75, 92–93attacker, 39attacking, 38, 41, 55, 75, 94attacks, 23, 75, 124attempt, 44, 51, 56, 68, 76–78attempted, 52, 56, 59attempting, 60attempts, 75–77, 87attend, 32attention, 6, 94attitude, 40attitudes, 81attract, 82attributed, 89attrition, 7, 9, 13, 16, 18, 40, 45, 47, 50, 54, 56–58,

75, 77–79, 96, 111, 113, 125Augsburg, 120, 124August II "the Strong" of Saxony and Poland-Lithuania,

103, 114, 118August III of Poland-Lithuania-Saxony, 114, 119, 126Australia, 21Australian continent, 115Austria, 36, 40, 42, 45, 83–84, 90, 93–94, 98–100,

102, 107–112, 115–116, 118–121, 123–126Austrian(s), 83, 91, 102, 104, 108, 114, 116, 119,

124–125Austrian Netherlands, 109, 126Austrian War of Succession, 105, 107, 114, 119, 121,

126autarchies, 71authority, 12, 30, 69, 86, 88, 93, 97authors, 102autocracies, 86, 101

autocracy, 86, 89, 101, 106, 108, 111, 118autocrat, 89automatic, 23, 46–47, 79automatically, 8, 13, 15, 19, 26, 28, 31–32, 46, 50,

54–55, 60, 63, 67, 72, 74–75, 83autonomous, 75, 111available, 8, 11–12, 14, 25, 35, 40, 42, 44, 76Aviz dynasty, 115avoid, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 38, 67–69avoided, 67, 91, 94avoiding, 28Axel Oxenstierna, Count, 87azam, 85, 88azams, 88Azerbaijan (Azerbaidjan), 83, 111Azores, 77, 115Azov, 112, 118–119Aztec empire, 97Aztecs, 120

BBach, J. S., 102background, 8backlash, 89backward, 85, 93backwards, 3Bacon, Sir Francis, 100bad, 11, 24–25, 34, 36, 44, 92Baden, 125badly, 37, 44, 47Baghdad, Caliphate of, 28bailiff, 26, 69bailiffs, 24–25balance, 31, 46, 60, 67–69, 71, 78, 88, 92balance of power, 22, 36, 106–107balanced, 62, 88balancing, 6Balkans, 5, 98, 119Baltic, 13, 48–49, 58, 85, 88, 93, 97, 99, 103–104,

113, 118, 122–123Banate, the, 112, 126band, 54bandit(s), 118bands, 18Banér, 123banished, 91–92bank, 6, 67–68banking, 80bankrupt, 23, 60, 67–68, 120bankruptcy, 23, 67–68, 89, 94bans, 15Baptiste (see Jean-Baptiste Colbert)Barbarossa (Chair-Eddin), 110Barbary States, 84, 111Barcelona, 121barley, 64baroque, 79, 102barter, 67–68base, 9–10, 25, 44, 56, 58, 63, 71, 76, 79, 95–96based, 49, 59–60, 68, 71, 73, 87, 90bases, 19, 57, 74–75, 115–116basic, 18–19, 23, 48, 55, 64, 79basics, 4basis, 12, 38, 48, 64, 78–79

128

Europa Universalis


Batory, Stefan, 93batteries, 48battery, 51battle, 9, 13, 16, 27, 43, 47–48, 50–56, 58, 71, 75,

80, 83, 85, 87–88, 92, 94–96, 121battlefield, 48, 79–80, 82–84, 91battlefields, 5–6battleground, 48battles, 3, 7, 9, 16, 19, 43, 46–48, 50, 52, 54, 58, 77,

80, 88–89, 92–94battling, 50, 52Bavaria, 102, 109, 116, 119, 125–126Bavarian War of Succession, 126Bavarians, 108bay, 93–94Bayard, 84Bayle, Pierre, 102bear, 64beat, 92beautiful, 36bedchamber, 90beer, 65–66beginning, 3–4, 6, 9, 23, 34, 37, 48, 74, 86behave, 22, 40behavior, 3, 22, 35, 85beheaded, 106Belgium, 84beliefs, 77, 81belong, 5, 12, 14–15, 17–18, 26, 51, 57, 59, 75, 77belonged, 16–17, 26belonging, 9, 16–18, 20, 46, 56, 77belongs, 9, 12–13, 18–19, 71, 75, 81beloved, 84–85Bender, 92benefit, 71Berkeley, George, 102Bernhard of Weimar, 123besiege, 56besieged, 56, 61besieging, 111best, 11, 15, 31, 43, 63, 67, 78, 86, 89–90better, 4–5, 11, 13, 15, 18, 26, 41, 43, 63, 75–77, 80,

87, 90, 94beverages, 66, 82big, 24, 32, 75, 84biggest, 39bill, 89binding, 23, 47bindings, 38birth rate, 101bit, 37, 67, 71bitter, 84Black Death, 97Black Sea, 13, 48–49, 58, 88, 113, 118blamed, 87Bleckinge, 104, 123blink, 95blockade, 52–54, 57, 74blockaded, 51, 53–54blockades, 51, 53–54blockading, 54blood, 38bloody, 56, 83blows, 52blue, 10

board, 5boarding, 50, 53, 111boastful, 63bodied, 44body, 50Bogdan Chmelnicki, 113Bohemia, 40, 42, 47, 84, 90, 100, 112, 124–125Bohuslän, 104, 123bold, 92Boleyn,Ann, 85bone, 10, 14"Bonnie Prince Charlie", 107bonus, 30–31, 40–41, 50–55, 58, 77, 79, 82–83book, 95bookkeeping, 80boost, 36–37, 65border, 8, 17, 40, 51, 58, 104, 107, 110, 113, 115,

117, 120, 122bordering, 50, 54borders, 5, 18, 31, 33, 42, 68, 72–73, 75, 77, 118Borgia, Rodrigo (Pope Alexander VI), 98born, 85, 87–88, 90–91, 93–94Bornholm, 104, 123borrow, 60borrowed, 60, 67borrower, 67borrowing, 67Bosphorus, 52botanical, 82bothered, 34Boufflers, 109bought, 37boundaries, 6boundary, 45Bourbon, 91, 121Bourbons, 101Bourgogne, 98boxes, 95boy, 88boys, 88Brabant, 97Bragança, duke João of (= João IV of Portugal), 116branch, 48, 50, 96branches, 48–49, 51, 96Brandenburg, 31, 94, 123Brandenburg-Prussia, 118, 123brass, 64Brazil, 65, 77, 97, 102, 115–117, 120breaches, 22bread, 64break, 3, 32, 56, 68breaking, 23, 38, 43, 46–47breaks, 39, 44breathing, 87Bremen-Verden, 107, 123breweries, 65bribes, 123bribing, 119brief, 94brilliance, 88brilliant, 86, 94bring, 43, 87bringing, 64brings, 11British, 65

Brittany, 28broad, 25, 68broaden, 10broke, 22, 86broken, 70, 95brokenhearted, 94brother, 23, 44, 84–85, 88–89, 93brotherhood, 45brothers, 36, 83, 92browsing, 95Buckingham, Duke of, 100Budapest, 110budget, 4, 8, 11–12, 23, 87–88budgeting, 87Bug, 112build, 4, 8, 10, 14, 17–18, 20, 44–45, 49, 68–69,

75–76, 79, 81–82, 89building, 8, 44–45, 49, 56, 60, 69, 75, 82, 88buildings, 8–9, 11, 20, 64, 81builds, 49built, 26, 49, 64–66, 69, 82, 90Bukovina, 112, 126Bulgaria, 125bull, 58bullet, 92bulwark, 83burdens, 23bureaucracies, 39bureaucracy, 80, 83burghers, 109Burgundy, Duchy of, 98, 108"Burgundy Inheritance", 108burn trading post, 76burned, 20, 44burning, 45busily, 88business, 14, 25, 39, 41, 59busy, 44button, 7–10, 12–15, 33, 51, 56, 76Buxtehude, 102buy, 69buying, 60Byzantine (Empire), 28, 110Byzantium, 110

CCabots, 85Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 97Cadiz, 121Cairo, 110calculate, 72Calderon, 86caliber, 76California, 102Caliphate of Baghdad, 28–29Calmar, Union of, 99, 105, 119Calmar War, 104calming, 82Calvin, Jean [John], 31–32, 34campaign, 3, 47, 92–93campaigns, 83, 94Canada, 88, 100, 102, 107canalizing, 51canals, 88cane, 65

129

Europa Universalis


caned, 91cannons, 48, 64, 98canvas, 64capacity, 12–13, 32, 44–45, 50Cape of Good Hope, 97, 115Cape Province, 102Cape Verde, 77, 115capital, 8, 11, 20, 24, 26, 46–47, 61, 72, 76–77, 82,

96capitalism, 70, 82capitalist, 68capitals, 20captains, 64capture, 16, 19, 93capturing, 16, 75caravan, 56cardinal, 86, 91Cardinal Richelieu, 86, 108–109care, 9, 12, 43, 57, 84career, 58, 87–88, 90–91careful, 11, 67carefully, 34Carelia, 34, 43Caribbean, 65, 99, 102Carl von Clausewitz, 35carpets, 64carrack, 51carriage, 11, 37carries, 59, 69, 74carry, 15, 55carrying, 26, 72cases, 64cash, 60Cassel (see Hessen-Cassel)Castile, 28, 97, 115, 119castles, 82casualties, 55Casus Belli, 16–17, 22–23, 36, 39, 41–42, 67, 96Catalonia, 28, 86, 116, 120catalyst, 82, 86catastrophes, 12catastrophic, 41, 58catastrophically, 41Catherine II "the Great" of Russia, 36, 92–93, 114, 119Catholic (Church), 23, 28–29, 32–34, 41, 84, 93,

98–100, 108, 120, 122Catholic League, 99, 125Catholicism, 23, 28–32, 34, 36, 42, 87, 93, 106, 108,

120, 125Catholics, 31–33, 76, 106Catinat, 109Caucasus, 92, 119cause, 16–17, 23, 37, 42causes, 23, 26, 68causing, 25cavalry, 13, 44, 48–51, 55–56, 96, 113cease, 3, 21, 87ceases, 47, 67, 77cede, 46–47, 68, 104, 117, 121–123, 126ceded, 31, 103–104, 123ceding, 20celebrate, 23, 66Census Tax, 59center, 44, 61

center of trade, 12–13, 40–41, 61, 71–76, 95, 101,115

centers, 44, 64–66centers of trade, 7, 12, 23, 25, 40–41, 43, 59–60, 69,

71–73, 75, 79, 95central, 64, 88Central America, 39, 64, 70, 120Central Europe, 102centralization, 101, 109centralize, 71centralized, 39, 69, 117, 121centuries, 25, 41century, 3, 22, 26, 34, 45, 48, 63–65, 70, 75, 87cereals, 64Cervantes, Miguel de, 100Ceylon, 102Chair-Eddin (Barbarossa), 110challenge, 69challenging, 5, 69chambers, 38chance, 3, 23, 26–27, 46, 52, 57, 75–78, 83, 87, 92,

94chances, 8, 19, 44change, 3–4, 8, 23, 25, 27, 31–34, 36, 43, 45–46, 49,

52, 62, 67, 80–81, 95changed, 27, 37, 68, 70, 81, 96changes, 4, 10, 25, 32–34, 37, 39, 52, 54–55, 61, 80,

90, 95changing, 5, 8, 12, 23–24, 34, 81Channel, the English, 51channeling, 59chaos, 85, 93–94chaotic, 86, 94chapter, 95chapters, 95characteristic, 63, 86charged, 59Charles II of Spain, 101, 106–107, 109, 112, 116, 121,

125Charles V of Austria (= Charles I of Spain), 30, 84–85Charles VI of Austria, 126Charles VII of France, 98Charles X Gustavus of Sweden, 56, 87, 104, 123Charles XI of Sweden, 83, 101Charles XII of Sweden, 92, 101, 103Charles, Don, 121Charles, Duke, 122Charles the Great [Charlemagne], 42Charpentier, 102chart, 63chased, 52cheap, 75, 78cheaper, 14, 49–50, 76, 80cheapest, 48–49cheaply, 47check, 16, 76–77, 95–96checked, 56–57, 95checking, 25, 95cheese, 63chess, 5chest, 14chief judges, 64–65, 69chief minister, 91childhood, 91China, 64–65, 115

chinaware, 63–64chivalrous, 84Chmelnicki, Bogdan, 113choice, 3–5, 38, 76choices, 3, 15, 39, 76choleric, 87choose, 3–4, 8–11, 13, 33, 37–38, 41, 49, 53, 67–68,

72, 78–79, 96chooses, 39, 46choosing, 3, 8–9, 45–46, 49, 68chose, 22, 33, 41–42, 49, 55, 68chosen, 9, 30, 77, 95Christian, 22, 28, 31, 33, 37–38, 42, 81, 83, 88, 97,

110–111, 124Christian II "the Tyrant", king of Denmark-Norway, 103,

122Christian IV of Denmark-Norway, 104Christian Wolff, 102Christianity, 22, 28–29, 97–98, 111–112, 124Christianize, 70Christians, 31, 33, 41, 76, 112, 119Christopher [Batory], 93Christopher Columbus, 120Christopher Marlowe, 100chronological, 31, 95church, 8–9, 23, 25, 29–32, 34, 40, 57, 61, 77, 92churches, 29, 82cinnamon, 65circle, 9circling, 9circulating, 68circumnavigation of the Earth, 115cities, 6, 10, 17, 19–20, 24–25, 47, 59, 61, 64–65, 84,

99, 101, 112citizens, 11, 40city, 8, 10–11, 17–21, 26, 56, 62, 68, 76civil, 89civil war(s), 108–109, 110, 112–113, 115, 118–119,

122, 124Civil War, English, 86, 99, 106civilization, 22civilized, 22, 35, 56, 79claim, 37, 75, 78claimed, 37, 93claims, 37clan, 17, 88clans, 10, 88, 111class, 64, 90classes, 25, 65classic, 35classical, 9classified, 11clauses, 90Clausewitz, Carl von, 35click, 7–10, 12–16, 25, 33, 51, 56–57, 95–96clickable, 7clicked, 9clicking, 5, 7–9, 15, 25, 61, 71, 77, 95climate, 58, 77, 99, 101climates, 75clock, 3–4, 8close, 19, 40, 74–75, 95closed, 40closing of Japan, 74cloth, 63, 82, 84

130

Europa Universalis


clothes, 63clothing, 64, 66, 100, 102Cloyne, 102co-operate, 3co-regent, 88coalition, 90coalitions, 45, 90coast, 19, 48, 51–52, 58, 65, 106coastal, 7, 18–19, 30, 49, 52–53, 57–58, 72, 75–76coastlines, 51coasts, 75, 79coat of arms, 15coats of arms, 8Cochin, 115coin, 45coinage, 68coins, 11, 16, 64, 68Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 40, 87–88, 109cold, 77collapse, 44, 58collected, 88College, Trinity, 102Cologne, 28, 109, 116colonial, 6–7, 10, 20, 62, 76–78, 86, 96, 100, 107,

121colonial power(s), 74, 76–77, 107–108, 110Colonial map, 7, 10colonies, 6–7, 10, 12, 14, 19–21, 24–25, 32, 44, 47,

59, 64–65, 71, 75–79, 82, 96, 101–102, 105,107, 115–116, 121–122

colonist, 10–11, 30–31, 34, 45, 61, 75–76colonists, 8, 10–12, 14, 18, 21, 30–31, 34, 60–62,

75–78colonization, 10–11, 14, 34, 70, 75–78, 100colonization button, 10, 14colonizations, 14colonize, 10, 18, 68, 76, 78, 99, 115colonized, 14, 64–65, 115colonizing, 4, 34, 69, 76, 106colony, 10–11, 13–14, 16–21, 45, 54, 57, 61–62,

75–79, 96color, 14, 17, 52, 54colored, 14, 45colors, 9, 58Columbus, 97–98, 120column, 95combat, 31, 55, 58, 67, 70combatants, 52combination, 37combined, 31command, 50, 96commander, 9, 50, 52–53, 55–56, 58, 83, 89, 125commanders, 43, 50, 52, 58, 77, 83, 96, 125commanding, 55commerce, 80commodity, 64–65common cold, 77commonwealth, 48, 94, 98, 118communication, 36communications, 25community, 30compact, 94companies, 80–81, 86, 121company, 12, 89comparative, 63

compare, 15, 39, 96compared, 7, 14, 26, 44–45, 49, 52, 75–78, 80, 95comparison, 95–96compensation, 39compensations, 45compete, 25, 71competence, 23, 88competent, 89competing, 73competition, 72–73, 95competitive, 11–12, 71, 73, 75competitiveness, 12, 73, 80competitors, 46complement, 64complete, 11, 51components, 47composition, 9, 49, 60comprised, 82comprises, 21, 59–60, 80compromised, 91compromises, 125computed, 44computer, 72computerized, 79concentrate, 78concept, 22, 39, 57, 71concessions, 24, 28Condé, prince of, 108conditions, 4–5, 20, 25, 33–34, 39, 53–55, 76, 79, 82confederation(s), 10, 110, 125confessed, 28confessors, 117confidence, 23, 68, 90, 93confiscated, 32conflict, 31, 86–87, 102conflicts, 84, 101conforms, 46conjunction, 39connected, 12, 35, 69connecting, 12connection, 13, 25, 84connections, 23, 96conquer, 3, 5, 9, 27, 68conquered, 27, 32, 34, 42, 44, 83, 88, 92conquering, 5, 28, 43, 88, 93conqueror, 42, 70, 83conquerors, 70conquers, 33, 61conquest, 5, 86, 93conquests, 97, 115Corpus Christianorum (Christian Body), 97Conquistador, 9, 21, 76–78Conquistadors, 50, 58, 65, 77conscription center(s), 44consecutive, 80consequence, 34, 56, 89consequences, 32, 34, 43, 45, 51, 67, 69, 74, 78consequent, 92consider, 6, 16, 22, 36, 44–46, 76considerable, 41, 52, 64, 88considered, 18, 34, 41, 57, 64–65, 86, 88considering, 58consistent, 74consolidation, 125Constantinople (Rum), 98, 110, 111

constituted, 22, 64, 66constitutional, 119constricted, 52construct, 5, 18constructing, 44construction, 9, 96consulting, 39consume, 61consumption, 11–12, 25, 60, 63, 68contact, 70contain, 53, 82, 95containing, 8–9, 54–56, 80contains, 3, 6–8, 61, 76–77, 81–82, 95–96context, 52continent, 12, 78, 86, 96–97continents, 18continuation, 35continuous, 83contrast, 4contribute, 45contributed, 40, 64contributes, 44, 61contribution, 45contributions, 45, 80control, 7, 16–20, 26–29, 31, 33–34, 40, 46–47,

50–51, 53–57, 59, 62, 68–69, 71, 71–72, 77,83, 87, 96

controlled, 17–19, 24, 26–27, 30, 46, 55–57, 61, 75,87

controlling, 4, 19, 46, 51–52controls, 19, 32, 47, 53, 55, 71conversion, 33–34convert, 30, 32–34"convert" button, 33converted, 63converting, 32–34, 92–93convictions, 92convince, 85cook, 88coordinating, 80Copenhagen, 56, 104Copernicus, 100copper, 63–64, 68, 82core, 17–18, 24, 26, 42, 72corn, 64, 70Cornelis de Witt, 89corners, 66cornerstones, 10coronation, 87corporate, 71corporations, 71corps, 36corruption, 88Cortez, 97Cossack(s), 93–94, 118cost, 23–25, 36–37, 45, 48–50, 55, 58, 60, 68, 73,

76–77, 79–80, 95costlier, 49costly, 6, 85costs, 8, 12, 23, 36–37, 49, 51, 60, 67, 71, 76, 95cotton, 63–66, 82council, 86, 116Council of Trent, 31–32counsel, 69, 86counselor, 87

131

Europa Universalis


Count, 86–87, 90–91counts, 103counter, 3, 23, 30, 32–34, 36, 42, 90, 93counterattack, 55countering, 80counterpart, 67counties, 85countries, 3, 5–7, 11–12, 14–15, 17–19, 21–24, 28,

30–44, 46–47, 49–50, 53, 56, 58, 60, 64,67–69, 71–73, 75–76, 78–80, 82, 89, 96

country, 3–8, 10–12, 14–51, 53–55, 57–61, 66–69,71–80, 83–96

county, 5, 46coup, 83, 88, 92, 124Couperin, 102courage, 77Courland, 100, 113course, 12, 19, 31, 40–41, 45–46, 52, 56–57, 59, 63,

66, 93, 95court, 24–25, 84, 91, 102courtly, 88courts, 35cousin, 84cover, 3, 24, 60, 67covered, 6–7, 9, 45, 48covering, 12, 80covers, 6coveted, 64cowardice, 39crafts, 64craftsmen, 64create, 15, 23, 32, 38–39, 76, 79, 87, 94created, 32, 38, 40, 63, 87creating, 19, 41, 69, 79, 88credit, 71, 80Crete, 111crews, 19Crimea, 92–93, 112–113, 118Crimea Khanate, 117, 119Croatia, 112, 125Cromwell, Oliver, 106crop, 80crossbows, 79crosses, 37crown, 37, 39, 42, 86, 92–94, 115crown prince, 93, 105, 123crowned, 84, 87, 94cruise, 51–53cruising, 52, 75Culloden, 107cult, 116cultivated, 65cultural, 77, 81culturally, 98, 102, 114culture, 22, 85–86, 89, 91, 100, 113, 117, 120, 122,

124cumulative, 23cunning, 86cure, 11Curia, 32Curland, 73–74, 76currencies, 8, 64currency, 68current, 13, 95–96currents, 90

cushions, 36custom, 83, 113customize, 9customs, 86–87cut, 51, 67–68cynical, 37Cyprus, 111czar, 85, 92–93, 107, 113, 118–119"Czar of all the Russians" (Ivan IV), 117czarina, 114, 119, 123–124czars, 85, 88

DDagö, 104daily, 65dally, 64damages, 17, 20, 34, 46damaging, 41Damascus, 88Danes, 37, 101danger, 94dangerous, 34, 41Danish, 87, 92, 99, 103–105, 122–123Danzig, 113dark, 10, 14darker, 25dashing, 48data, 95date, 8, 38, 67dates, 94–96daughter, 85, 87day, 69, 84, 94days, 84de Anjou, 93de facto, 40de Fleury, 91, 110de’Medici, 86de Seignelay, 88de Valois-Angoulème, 84de Witt, 89dead, 84, 87deal, 4, 19, 25, 95dealing, 27, 47, 94dealings, 94death, 83, 85–88, 90–91, 93–95decade, 28, 66, 85decades, 86decentralize, 119decentralized, 29–30, 32, 42, 69, 71, 111, 114decentralizing, 99decide, 5, 11, 23, 28, 34, 67decided, 78decides, 74deciding, 15decision, 15decisions, 3, 23, 40, 86, 92decisive, 48, 52, 70deck, 51decker, 51declaration, 16, 22, 36–37, 41, 43, 45declarations, 15, 22, 41–44declare, 15–16, 22–23, 25, 35–36, 39–42, 44, 67, 75declared, 16, 19, 41, 60, 67, 89, 93declares, 28, 36, 38–39, 47, 66–67declaring, 16, 43, 68

decline, 46–47, 67declines, 25, 78decrease, 16, 25, 27, 30, 62, 68decreased, 58decreases, 24, 27, 58, 61decreasing, 24–25, 45decree, 77, 86deducted, 60, 67, 72deep, 15, 48, 91defeat, 74defeated, 48, 55, 84defeating, 16, 27, 75defeats, 32defend, 3, 6, 15, 35, 38, 43, 51, 69, 78–79defended, 6, 122defending, 52, 56, 78defends, 54defense, 39, 69, 103, 126defenses, 6, 56defensive, 38, 92, 126defined, 22, 38–39defines, 17defining, 44, 87definite, 82definitely, 22, 33, 91degenerate, 22degree, 11, 41degrees, 35deliver, 35"Deluge", the, 113, 114demand, 12, 17, 32, 44, 46–47, 62–66, 69, 71, 81–82demanded, 48demands, 27, 46–47dementia, 85democratic, 33Denmark, 4, 38, 47, 76, 87, 92, 99–101Denmark-Norway, 101–105, 114, 118–119, 122–123,

125debt, 122depend, 37dependable, 93depended, 87dependence, 40dependent, 18, 39, 49, 60, 62, 69, 77, 85depending, 3, 9, 12, 49–50, 55, 72, 76, 78depends, 19, 26, 36, 43, 46, 48–49, 52, 58–59, 63,

71–73, 76–78deployed, 79deploying, 12depopulated, 25deposit, 6deposits, 64depots, 56derived, 60descendants, 88described, 8, 10, 22, 38, 66, 74, 83, 96describes, 96description, 23, 63, 83desert, 7, 51, 57designs, 49desirable, 64desire, 87desired, 35desperate, 45despite, 90

132

Europa Universalis


despot, 91–92, 124destabilize, 15destabilizing forces, 98destination, 50destroy, 76, 94destroyed, 55destroying, 39destruction, 86detach, 51detaching, 51detail, 4–5, 37, 56detailed, 63details, 46deteriorate, 22, 33, 36–37, 40–41deteriorated, 25, 37, 40deteriorates, 33deteriorating, 41deterioration, 34determine, 5, 25, 31determined, 81determines, 10, 53, 55determining, 49deterred, 43deterrent, 38devastated, 44develop, 8, 11, 21, 27–28, 76, 78–79developed, 14, 17, 21–22, 29, 34, 38–39, 44, 62,

85–87, 91–92, 95developing, 37, 77development, 6, 11, 20, 25, 33, 39, 43–44, 60, 62, 67,

69, 78–80, 83, 93, 95–96, 123developments, 80develops, 10, 20, 76devsirm, 88diamonds, 116Diaz, Diego, 97dictator, 106, 117die, 50, 83died, 84, 87–90, 94Diego Diaz, 97dies, 50diet, 57, 64–65differ, 49difference, 17–18, 20, 37, 41, 51, 53, 55–56, 60, 63,

67, 70, 78, 81differences, 11, 31, 37–38, 75different, 3, 7, 20, 25–26, 28–29, 31, 35–37, 39,

45–46, 48–49, 51, 57, 59, 63–64, 66, 68–69,71, 73, 81–82, 86

differentiated, 49, 68differently, 3, 49, 67difficult, 4–5, 15, 33, 44, 46, 62–63, 93difficulties, 4, 25diminishes, 49diplomacy, 11, 14–16, 32, 34–35, 38, 40, 46, 67, 79,

83–96, 97diplomat, 5, 15, 30, 33–37, 42, 84, 91–92diplomatic, 4, 7, 15, 17, 23, 25, 31–40, 83, 86–87,

90–91, 95, 121diplomatically, 108diplomatic corps, 36diplomats, 8, 14–15, 29–30, 32–33, 35–37direct, 4, 25–26, 48, 61, 68, 79directed, 89, 96direction, 9, 23

directly, 36, 39–40, 43, 46, 61, 71, 75, 79, 84, 92disability, 34disadvantage, 38disadvantages, 15, 31, 43, 75disappear, 27, 67, 76–77disappeared, 85disappears, 40–41disapproval, 90disaster, 89disastrous, 51disband, 9, 49–50disbanded, 56disbandment, 96discipline, 48disclosed, 9discover, 8–9, 14, 21, 66, 76–77discovered, 9, 19, 21, 51, 70discoverers, 70discoveries, 37, 97, 115discovering, 6discovery, 6, 12, 64discuss, 4, 33, 35discussed, 4–5, 66, 81, 94discussion, 32discussions, 36, 38disease, 77, 99diseases, 57, 99disembarking, 55disinterested, 88dislike, 75dismay, 89dismissed, 86, 93display, 36, 95disposable, 68disposal, 37, 59disproportionately, 68dissoluble, 40dissolve, 39, 76dissolves, 27dissolving, 13, 23distance, 72, 77, 79distant, 43, 66distasteful, 39distillery, 82distinguish, 59distinguished, 50distributed, 43, 60, 71, 73distribution, 80disturb, 36Ditmarch, republic of the, 99Diu, 115diverse, 84divide, 69, 80, 91, 126divided, 3, 8, 12, 19, 22, 29, 42, 52, 55, 73, 77, 96,

115, 119dividing, 33, 77, 115, 119divine, 38division, 22Dniepr, 112–113, 118documents, 37dogma, 85dollars, 6domestic, 22, 25, 33, 86–89, 93–94domesticated, 64dominance, 94

dominated, 92domination, 51dominion, 85, 125Don Charles, 121door, 74Doria,Andrea, 83dragoon, 80drags, 15Drake, Sir Francis, 85drastically, 64drawbacks, 75drill, 48, 79drilled, 79drive, 72driven, 72driving, 34, 70drop, 20, 22–23, 39, 44, 68dropped, 68dropping, 67drops, 28, 34, 43, 67, 72drought, 70drug, 69dry, 57du Plessis, 86dubbed, 84dubious, 23Dublin, 102ducats, 8, 12, 17, 24, 32, 36–37, 43, 46–47, 55, 59,

67, 72, 74–75, 79–80Duchy of Burgundy, 98, 108Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, 103Duchy of Mantua, 108due, 23, 67–68duke, 91, 98, 100, 107dukes, 86duration, 42, 44Dutch, 26, 40, 84, 98, 100–101, 103, 106, 116duties, 102dutiful, 90duty, 35, 52dwellers, 68dyed, 84dyes, 97dynamic, 6, 71dynamics, 76, 83dynastic, 96, 98, 120, 122, 124dynasties, 37dynasty, 42, 84, 86–87

Eearliest, 39early, 25, 48, 64, 70, 85, 87, 89earthquake, 117earn, 60, 72earned, 88easier, 12, 14, 33, 42, 44, 48, 75–76easiest, 12, 76easily, 15, 41east, 29, 48, 64–65, 77, 85–86East Asia, 115East Africa, 116eastern, 28, 65, 77Eastern Europe, 126eastward, 65

133

Europa Universalis


easy, 3, 5, 41, 43, 78–79, 96eating, 64ebony, 64economic, 3, 6–8, 10–11, 44, 51, 58, 60, 65–66,

69–71, 74, 78, 81, 84, 87, 89, 95, 108, 117,120–121

Economic map, 7economical, 12, 48, 94–95economically, 15, 97, 100, 102, 110, 112, 114,

122–123economics, 3economies, 12, 71, 76economy, 9–12, 59–60, 63, 66–71, 75–76, 80, 83,

87, 95, 106, 110, 116, 118, 120, 122, 126Edict of Tolerance, 31–32, 77edicts, 32Edward VI of England, 85effect, 22, 32, 38, 41–44, 48, 50, 55, 57, 67, 71, 77,

80effective, 13, 25, 34–35, 41, 47, 55, 67–68, 70, 80,

86–87effectively, 67, 95effectiveness, 11, 81effects, 7, 12, 23, 32–33, 41, 43–44, 66, 68–69, 80,

82, 88efficiency, 48, 80, 88efficient, 20, 26, 48, 69efficiently, 48, 53effort, 40, 44, 94efforts, 42Egypt, 31, 98, 110, 112eight, 23, 85El Greco, 86elder, 90elected, 29, 42, 93electing, 94election, 42elector, 42electors, 42element, 57Elena, mother of Ivan IV of Russia, 85Eleonora, Ulrika, 92eligible, 42eliminate, 75eliminating, 89elimination, 86elite, 47Elizabeth I of England, 85–86, 106Elizabeth of Russia, 119, 124Elizabeth Farnese, 91elongated, 9embargo, 40–41, 72–74, 79embargoes, 96embellished, 8embroidered, 36embryos, 39emerged, 29, 39emerging, 64emigration, 88eminence, 3, 83Emperor (of the Holy Roman Empire), 18, 28–30, 42,

86, 97, 116, 124–125Emperor Mathias of Austria, 100Emperor Maximillian II of Austria, 93emphasis, 30, 32, 48

empire, 3–4, 6, 18, 22, 28–31, 37, 39, 42, 47–48, 69,79, 81, 83–85, 88, 90, 92–94, 97

empires, 76, 85employed, 48employment, 49empress, 93emptied, 76, 86empty, 8–9, 14, 60, 68encounters, 54encourage, 88encouraged, 88end, 3–4, 12, 22–23, 25, 32, 39–40, 42, 48, 61, 79,

85, 90ended, 91, 93ending, 22, 33, 83endless, 92ends, 79enemies, 14, 16, 27, 38, 44, 46, 55, 59, 66, 79, 92, 94enemy, 4, 16–17, 19–20, 24, 41, 44–48, 50–56, 69,

76, 79, 92enforce, 35enforcer, 34engage, 3, 87engagement, 19engagements, 16engages, 26England, 5, 40, 42, 47–48, 51, 74, 76, 84–86, 89–92,

97–110, 116–117, 119–121, 123, 125–126English, 3, 37, 40, 84–85, 90, 100, 103, 106, 116,

121–122English Channel, 51enjoy, 60, 79enjoyed, 86, 90–91enjoys, 59enlightened, 91–92, 124enlightenment, 29, 90, 102, 110, 117enmity, 42enter, 15, 33, 38–39, 43, 86entered, 6, 25, 86, 88, 91entering, 36, 38, 87enterprises, 69entrance, 54entry, 95environment, 82environments, 65envoys, 35, 38epic, 94epidemics, 57, 70, 99, 101epithet, 85, 91epitome, 40epoch, 8, 22, 45epochal, 83equal, 48, 56, 75, 79, 94, 97equality, 45, 119equipment, 48–49, 80, 82, 96equipped, 85, 96era, 12, 45, 52, 60, 68eradicated, 52Erasmus of Rotterdam, 98erect, 55Ericeira, 116Erik XIV of Sweden, 37, 39Erlach, Fischer von, 102erupt, 12escalated, 37

escaped, 57Eschl, von, 115establish, 11, 14, 20, 31, 44, 75–78established, 10, 14, 18, 20, 48, 85establishes, 75establishing, 7, 13, 18, 68, 76–78establishment, 6, 88Estonia, 39, 104, 118, 122Estonian, 39ethics, 30, 32Eugene, prince, of Savoy, 109Europe, 3, 6, 10, 17, 22, 28–29, 31–32, 39, 48,

63–66, 68, 74, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 86, 88–90,92, 94, 97, 101

European, 3, 9, 12, 14, 17, 20, 22, 29, 31–32, 36, 45,48, 64–65, 70–71, 75, 81, 83, 85–86, 88

European, eastern, 115Europeans, 29, 70, 74, 77evaded, 25evaporation, 64event, 31–32, 34, 40, 74, 77events, 20, 23–24, 31, 36, 50, 60, 62, 67, 76–77, 83,

87, 94evolved, 70exception, 9, 18–19, 22, 34, 37, 46, 65, 71exceptional, 83, 86exceptions, 19, 33, 42, 56exchange, 15, 37, 60, 70, 90exchanged, 12, 55, 70, 92exchanging, 35exchequer, 87, 92exclusion, 89exclusive, 65exclusively, 12excuse, 37excused, 85executed, 69, 83execution, 92, 106executive, 124exempt, 31exhausted, 86, 89exhaustion, 16exiled, 117existence, 28, 48exotic, 12, 63–64, 75, 81expand, 15, 76, 79, 85, 88, 117, 123–124expanding, 15, 43, 85, 125expansion, 14, 69–70, 86–87, 90, 92–93, 98, 101,

115, 117, 119, 121expedition, 11expelled, 36, 120expenditure, 12expenditures, 8expense, 43, 67, 89, 95expenses, 45, 49, 59–60, 67, 69, 95expensive, 12–13, 49, 65, 71–72, 80experience, 56, 58, 61, 64experienced, 55–56, 70, 89experiences, 10, 61experts, 96expiration, 95–96expires, 38exploit, 75exploitation, 64explorations, 65, 95

134

Europa Universalis


explore, 6, 76–78explored, 21, 77Explorer, 9, 21, 76–77Explorers, 50, 70, 77, 85exploring, 50export, 82, 123exported, 84exports, 88exposed, 57expressed, 8expression, 89expulsion, 102extend, 67extended, 16, 56, 60, 67external, 12, 66extract, 68extracted, 64

Ffabric, 97fabrics, 63facilities, 82faction, 31factor, 15, 36, 39, 44, 48–49, 58, 78, 80factories, 18, 20, 44, 60, 64–66, 68–69, 81–82, 114factors, 12, 22, 26, 35, 49, 56–58, 63, 66, 69, 71, 73,

78, 80–81, 83, 85factory, 26, 60–61, 81–82fail, 25, 56failed, 34, 42, 56, 76, 84–85, 88, 91, 94–95failing, 90faith, 33–34, 38, 67, 92Falconnet, 102Falkirk Moor, 107fall, 3, 15, 27fallen, 84falling, 34falls, 27, 56, 58, 76fame, 45familiar, 6families, 36family, 3, 35–36, 89fanaticism, 31Far East, 64, 86, 100–101, 111, 120farmed, 122farmers, 85farming, 44, 97, 101, 116, 120farmland, 99Farnese, Elizabeth, 91fashion, 9, 32, 86, 89fashionable, 65fast, 8, 48, 78, 83faster, 48, 65fastest, 15, 48, 81fatal, 43–44fate, 47father, 42, 84–85, 88–89, 91, 93–94fatigue, 29, 32–33, 44, 46favorite, 89, 93fear, 85feasible, 75feature, 36, 65fed, 57federal, 98

fee, 59fees, 59–61, 80Félipe II (see Philip II of Spain)fell, 22Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 31, 98, 119Ferdinand of Austria, 111Fernão de Magelhães (Magellan), 115Ferrara, Duke of, 98feta, 63feud of the counts, 103feudal, 69, 85, 98, 117feudalism, 39, 108few, 9, 17, 25–26, 28, 46–47, 56–57, 59, 63, 68, 71,

78, 86fewer, 25, 80fief, 42field, 27, 48, 56, 79, 85, 91–94fields, 8, 79, 81fifteen, 93fight, 3, 9, 25, 33, 42, 56–57, 72–73, 79, 93fighters, 69fighting, 27, 29, 31, 43, 54, 82, 84, 89, 92figure, 14, 16figures, 95Filipe I of Portugal (= Philip II of Spain), 116filled, 70, 73final, 37, 94, 73, 75–77, 80, 86, 95–96finance, 16, 69, 88, 116financed, 37, 59finances, 23, 36, 67, 85, 124financial, 67, 71, 76, 80, 85, 95, 104, 110, 119Financial Summary, 8, 11, 25, 49financing, 59, 68, 83, 101find, 4, 6–9, 11, 13, 17, 20, 43, 51, 54, 63, 70, 78,

82–83, 95–96finding, 19finds, 28fine, 82, 89finished, 9, 44Finland, 85, 118–119, 122–124Finnish, 117Fiorenzuela, 91fire, 48, 55–56, 87firearms, 79–80, 85, 113firepower, 11, 48, 80fires, 45firing, 50, 53first, 4–5, 8–9, 11, 13–14, 19, 23, 29, 32, 35, 37,

44–47, 53, 57, 59, 61, 65, 67, 68–71, 76, 79,84, 87, 90, 92, 95–96

Fischer von Erlach, 102fish, 12, 63–64, 71, 82, 97fishermen, 64fishing, 64, 70five, 7–8, 22–23, 34, 47, 58, 60, 67, 81, 89fixed, 12, 59flag, 16, 18–19, 26, 53, 55, 80Flanders, 97flank, 48flare, 89flattery, 92flax, 82fled, 92fleece, 63flees, 53, 55

fleet, 12–13, 19, 44, 49–55, 57–58, 75, 88fleets, 4–6, 8, 12–13, 15, 19, 30–31, 40, 43–45,

47–54, 56, 58, 60, 64, 67, 69, 75, 77, 79–80,83, 96

Flemish, 84Fleury, Hercule de, 91, 110flexible, 39flighty, 23flocks, 66flood, 37Florence, 98Florida, 102, 107–108, 120–122Floridablanca, marquis of, 121flourished, 57, 86flow, 3fluid, 45fly, 19, 26flying, 19focus, 45, 48foe, 96fog, 6–7foggy, 87fold, 32follow, 3, 46, 87followed, 8, 40, 48–49, 68, 85following, 8, 29, 51, 58, 76, 95–96follows, 51Fontainebleau, 38food, 64–65foothold, 70, 86forbade, 88force, 22, 27–28, 32, 38, 53, 55–56, 70, 93–94forced, 4, 29, 31–32, 34, 39, 54, 56, 60, 70, 90,

93–94forces, 11, 26–27, 34, 44, 48, 56, 76, 79–80, 85, 93forcing, 30, 51, 56foreign, 7, 22–23, 25, 35–36, 44, 47, 60, 67, 82–83foreign policy, 22, 32, 42, 105–109, 118, 120,

122–123forest, 7, 95forests, 55, 97forgery, 68forget, 27, 40, 47forgetfulness, 85form, 11, 29, 39, 46, 59, 64, 70formal, 22–23formalized, 35, 77format, 8, 96formations, 80formula, 73formulate, 46formulated, 22forts, 111fortification, 9, 48, 51, 92fortifications, 9–10, 19, 43–44, 55, 75, 96, 111fortified, 26, 50, 55fortress, 55–56fortresses, 55, 60, 69fortune, 69, 93fortunes, 46, 86forward, 3, 71fought, 85, 88, 94found, 13, 63, 92foundation, 63–64, 84–85founded, 61

135

Europa Universalis


founder, 84foundered, 48founding, 86foundries, 64, 82four, 15, 31, 46, 73, 77, 79–81, 86, 95–96fourth, 23fourthly, 53, 58, 68fox, 64frail, 91frame, 30framework, 22François I of France, 83–85France, 3, 28, 38, 45, 47, 51, 76–77, 83–87, 89–91,

94, 97–103, 105–110, 116, 119–121, 124–126Franché-Comte, 98, 108, 119, 121Francis Bacon, Sir, 100Francis Drake, Sir, 85Francisco de Almeida, 97Frederick I of Sweden, 123Frederick II "the Great" of Prussia, 35–36, 45, 90–91,

107, 110, 119, 126Frederick of Hessen-Cassel, 92Frederick William I of Prussia, 89–91Fredrikshald, 92free, 55, 79, 86, 121freedom, 24, 29, 45, 84freedom of religion, 100freely, 18, 39, 42, 50freezing, 64Freiburg, 108French, 4, 25, 32, 34, 37, 40, 84, 87, 89–91, 100,

102–103, 105, 107, 108–110, 116, 119, 121,125

French Revolution, 110, 117, 119, 126French Guyana, 102frequency, 25friction, 45, 57friend, 91, 96friendship, 23, 37–38frigate, 80fringes, 3, 10, 28"Frond, The", 109front, 33, 38, 84froze, 104frozen, 22, 40fulfilling, 93fulfills, 40full, 8, 67, 90fully, 9, 14, 17, 42, 58function, 50, 68, 94functional, 80functioning, 56functions, 8, 31, 44, 50funds, 14, 59, 67, 124fur, 63furnaces, 82furniture, 64furs, 36, 63–64, 70, 82, 97Fyodor (Theodor) I of Russia, 118Fyodor III of Russia, 88

Ggain, 17, 20, 25, 34, 42–43, 46, 83, 85, 92gained, 3, 6, 43, 83, 95

gaining, 5, 18gala, 37Galileo Galilei, 100Gallas, 125galleon, 51galley, 49galleys, 12–13, 49, 51, 58gardener, 91gardens, 82garrison, 26, 48, 56, 103garrisons, 9gate, 32gather, 40, 47, 70gathered, 35gave, 31, 86–88, 91, 93–94Geert Geertsz (Erasmus), 98gems, 64general, 50, 91generals, 50generate, 27, 69generated, 10, 73generates, 8, 94generations, 84generic, 32, 45, 71, 80, 82generous, 46Genoa, 97, 115Genovese, 83gentleman, 87geographic, 20geographical, 7, 15, 17, 20, 76, 115geography, 7George II of England, 90George Berkeley, 102Georgia, 111–112, 119German, 92, 99–100, 104, 107, 110, 123, 125Germany, 32, 84, 87, 97, 99, 106, 116–117, 119, 123"Germans", 103gestures, 36giant, 48, 89giants, 89Gibraltar, 52, 107, 121–122gift, 36–37gifts, 15, 35–37, 60gilded, 37ginger, 65give, 4, 6, 8, 17, 36–38, 46, 50–51, 55, 75given, 40, 42, 46, 63, 71, 85, 95gives, 30, 56, 74, 96giving, 9, 12, 36–37, 50, 67, 90, 96global, 12, 69, 71, 90globally, 64, 71glorious, 83Glorious Revolution, the, 106glowing, 90Goa, 115goal, 4–5, 22, 32, 35, 45–46, 75, 84, 86–89, 93–94goals, 40, 45–46, 69, 87God, 3, 33gods, 77gold, 11–12, 45, 63–64, 68, 70, 95, 98, 116, 120golden age, 74, 83, 89, 112Golden Horde, 117Golitsyn, Vasilij, 88good, 4, 10, 14–15, 22–23, 26, 32–33, 36–41, 43,

45, 50, 56, 64, 68, 76–79, 84, 88, 91, 95

goods, 3, 7, 12–13, 59, 61, 63–64, 70–71, 75–76,81–82

Gothenburg, 104Gotland, 104, 123govern, 33governing, 35government, 3, 23, 25–28, 30–31, 33–34, 41–42, 59,

61, 67–68, 71, 86, 90, 92, 114governmental, 25, 80, 82–83governments, 3, 22, 38, 60, 68governor, 11, 69, 88, 90governors, 11, 64–65, 69, 111grain, 12, 63–64, 97, 102, 105, 114Granada, 119grand admiral, 110Grand Campaign, 3, 47, 85Grand Duchy of Moscow, 98, 117, 122grand dukes, 117grand vizier, 85, 88, 111grandfather, 85, 87grandson, 89–90grandsons, 42grants, 24graph, 95–96graphic, 20graphs, 95–96gray, 83 (see also grey)great, 3, 14–15, 25, 30, 32, 35–37, 42, 44, 46, 55, 58,

63, 75, 79, 81, 83–96Great Nordic War, 88, 90, 101, 104–105, 107, 114,

118, 123great power(s), 46, 97, 101, 103–126greater, 4–5, 11–13, 24–26, 32, 37, 44–46, 57, 64,

68, 71, 73, 75–76, 83, 90–91, 96greatest, 43, 46, 84–86, 88–92, 94Greeks, 110green, 9–10, 14, 23, 58Gregorij Orlov, 93grey, 3, 58 (see also gray)grip, 25, 86–87Grotius, Hugo, 100ground, 20, 86grounds, 60, 70group, 80–81groups, 22–24, 80–81grow, 70, 72, 78growing, 94grown, 46, 62grows, 10, 78growth, 11, 20–21, 25, 44–45, 60–62, 77–78, 81guard, 51, 56, 85guards, 89guidance, 31guild, 72guilds, 80Guilio Alberoni, 91Guinea, 115Gulf of Persia, 49Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden, 45, 50, 83, 87, 123Gustavus III of Sweden, 36, 119, 124Gustavus Eriksson Vasa of Sweden, 25, 33, 87Gustavus (see also Charles X Gustavus)

Hhalberds, 79

136

Europa Universalis


half, 3, 26, 28, 34, 67, 69, 77, 85, 88Halland, 104, 123halt, 69Handel, 102handle, 33, 39handled, 23, 30, 38, 44handling, 23, 33, 82hang, 16Hanover, 91, 107, 123Hanseatic League, 97, 100, 103, 122happy, 33Hapsburg (dynasty), 42, 83–84, 86, 98, 109, 116, 121,

124–125Hapsburgs, 100, 108, 112Haram, 22hard, 86, 95harder, 75Härjedalen, 104, 123harsh, 82, 91harvest, 70harvests, 101hate, 41, 85hated, 41hates, 43hatred, 39Hats, Party of the, 45healed, 94healing, 65health, 90heart, 6, 59–60, 88heat, 48heathenism, 34heathens, 29heavily, 15, 26, 30, 39, 49, 77, 80heavy, 31, 45, 48, 87hegemony, 22, 83, 89, 125height, 22, 89heir, 50, 84, 123heirs, 87held, 56help, 23, 38, 96helped, 91, 93helps, 6hemp, 64, 82Henri de Anjou, King of Poland-Lithuania, 93, 98Henrique, king of Portugal, 115Henry IV of France, 86, 108Henry VII of England, 84Henry VIII of England, 84–85, 98, 106Hensius,Antonius, 90Hercule de Fleury, 91, 110hereditary, 124heretic, 34, 84heretics, 31, 84Hessen-Cassel, 92heterogeneous, 126hidden, 7hierarchy, 122high, 11, 21, 25–27, 31, 36, 41, 43–45, 50, 56, 58,

62–64, 71, 73–76, 79, 82–83, 87, 92higher, 11, 14, 16, 23, 25–26, 30, 40–41, 43, 45,

49–50, 55, 58, 61–63, 67–69, 71, 71–72,75–76, 78, 80, 82–83

highest, 4, 35, 50, 69Hildebrandt, von, 102

hindered, 94hindrance, 92historians, 82historic, 3, 43, 74historical, 3, 8–9, 31, 37, 39, 50, 64, 70, 77historically, 3, 12, 14, 21, 31, 33, 37, 41, 50, 56, 60,

63, 81history, 3, 5, 50, 83, 88–89, 91, 93–94hoist, 53hold, 42, 48, 73holding, 24, 93, 96holdings, 92–93, 96Holland, 30Holstein, 105Holstein-Gottorp, duchy of, 103, 105holy, 38, 86Holy League, 114Holy Roman Empire, 18, 29–30, 42, 109, 116,

124–125home, 42, 64–65, 74, 82homespun, 63honest, 91honor, 22–23, 38–39, 41–42, 44–45, 70honoring, 16, 39Hormuz, 115Horn,Arvid, 123horse, 11hostile, 46, 54–55, 96house, 84, 89, 91House of Commons, 90houses, 82Hudson Bay, 107huge, 23, 34, 37, 82Hugo Grotius, 100Huguenots, 34, 86, 89, 102, 108humanitarian, 89humans, 64humiliated, 85humorless, 94hundred, 65Hundred Years War, 105, 108Hungarian, 97, 113Hungarian-Bohemian, 124Hungary, 39–40, 47, 81, 83–84, 98, 110–112,

124–125hunt, 70hunting, 70, 97Huron nation, 100husband, 92hussars, 113Hussein Pasha, 88Hutten, Ulrich von, 32hygiene, 57

IIberian Peninsula, 28, 99"Iberian Union", 116ice, 7icelocked, 58icon, 77, 95–96icons, 95ideal, 38ideals, 84ideas, 45, 88ideological, 22

ideology, 29, 110Ignatius of Loyola, 98ill, 88, 92illustrated, 70immaculate, 82immeasurably, 73immediate, 12, 80immobile, 48immoral, 22impact, 11, 36, 43, 50, 62impacted, 68Imperator at Rum, 98imperfections, 50imperial, 110implementation, 90importance, 10, 12, 39, 55, 79, 81important, 8–9, 12, 14–16, 18, 22, 26, 28, 31–38,

42–46, 48, 50–51, 53, 55, 57–59, 62–65, 71,73, 77–84, 88, 94

importantly, 68, 75imports, 88impossibility, 68impossible, 25, 33, 40, 69impression, 24imprisoned, 89improbable, 33improve, 15, 31, 33, 36–37, 44, 88improved, 14, 37, 45, 79–80, 90improvement, 36, 41improvements, 4, 58, 95improves, 26improving, 36, 42, 44impulses, 79Inca empire, 97Incas, 120incense, 97incentive, 25incited, 89income, 8, 10–12, 19, 23–27, 30–31, 34, 39–41, 43,

45, 59–61, 66–69, 71, 73–76, 78–82, 87, 95,97, 99, 102

incomes, 59–61, 75incompetent, 37incorporated, 23incorporates, 3, 26incorporation, 83incorrect, 58increase, 9, 11–13, 20, 23–27, 34, 41, 43–45, 59,

61–62, 68–69, 71, 73, 75, 77–78, 80–81, 88increased, 8, 12, 16, 23, 26, 30, 32, 45, 48, 57,

63–64, 66, 68, 82, 86, 88, 93increases, 8, 11, 24, 36, 44–45, 57–58, 61–69,

78–79increasing, 11, 23, 25, 44, 46, 64, 71, 77incrementally, 58incurred, 60independence, 27–28, 38, 43, 48, 90, 103, 106, 116,

119, 122, 124independent, 17–18, 24, 28, 31, 36, 40, 42, 54, 56,

76, 86, 111, 115, 120, 126index, 95India, 63–65, 77, 79, 86, 90, 97, 101, 107, 115Indian Ocean, 115Indian princes, 107indicated, 9

137

Europa Universalis


indicates, 13, 20, 58Indies,West, 86indirect, 60indispensable, 48, 94individual, 33, 47, 86individualism, 30, 99individuals, 3, 68Indonesia, 65, 102indulgent, 36industrial, 112Industrial Revolution, 80industrialization, 82, 108industries, 81industry, 64, 88inexpensive, 64infantry, 13, 44, 48–51, 85, 96, 113infantrymen, 48infidel, 84inflamed, 31inflation, 11, 22, 55, 60, 64, 67–69, 80, 95inflicted, 94influence, 10, 19, 32, 50, 52–53, 55, 57, 75, 79–80,

83, 87, 89, 114, 124, 126influenced, 36, 45, 53, 79, 85influencing, 35influential, 89informal, 22, 35, 60information, 37, 55, 96Information window, 5, 8–10, 13, 15–16, 20, 23, 49,

51, 56–58, 61, 71, 76–77, 95infrastructure, 4–5, 11, 59–60, 66, 69, 79–80, 82–83,

95Ingermania, 101, 103, 118, 123ingredients, 64inhabitant, 41, 59inhabitants, 10, 14, 20, 28, 34, 45, 61–63, 71, 75–76inherit, 84inheritance, 113, 125inherited, 84, 87–89inheriting, 84inheritor, 28inhospitable, 61initiate, 56injustice, 22injustices, 25inland, 70inner lines, 91innocent, 15innovation, 80innovations, 71, 80Inquisition, 100, 116insecure, 23inseparable, 32insignificant, 8institutions, 60, 67instruments, 64insult, 37, 45insults, 15, 35, 37insurance, 71, 80intact, 66integrity, 88interaction, 3intercepted, 51intercepting, 52interception, 51–52

interceptions, 52interest, 6, 25, 60, 67, 95interests, 35, 38, 83, 93interior, 21internally, 67international, 15, 22, 24, 43, 60, 71interpretation, 29, 31–32interpreted, 11, 23, 38intervals, 13intervene, 87intolerance, 122intolerant, 108, 120, 122intoxicating, 82intrigue, 25, 91, 120introduced, 69, 88introducing, 80, 88introduction, 3, 36–37, 69, 80, 88invaded, 84invader, 55invasion, 92, 120invasions, 92, 113invent, 37invest, 3, 5, 10, 15, 44, 60, 66, 69, 79–81invested, 14, 23, 43, 80investing, 12, 23, 30–31, 44, 69, 81investment, 43, 79–80, 83investments, 8, 11–12, 24, 60, 79–80, 117, 125invisible, 12invite, 38involved, 6, 22, 25, 31, 36–38, 47, 56, 81, 83, 86, 90involves, 41, 47, 74involving, 47Iraq, 83, 98iron, 63–64, 82irrigation, 97irritation, 23Isaac Newton, 102Isabella, queen of Spain (see Ferdinand and Isabella)Islam, 110islands, 65, 77isolated, 22isolation, 74isolationist, 122issue, 75issued, 40, 67issuer, 22issues, 33Istanbul, 37Italian, 42, 85, 97, 100, 111Italy, 4, 84, 91, 97–100, 102–103, 108, 111,

119–121, 124item, 36items, 70Ivan IV "the Terrible" of Russia, 37, 85, 93, 117–118Ivan V of Russia, 88ivory, 12, 63–64, 71, 82Iyemitsu, Shogun Tokugawa, 74

JJagellonian dynasty, 112–113James Edward Stuart (James I), king of England and

Scotland, 103James II of England, 106–107Jamestown, 100Jämtland, 104, 123

Jan de Witt, 89Jan III Sobieski of Poland-Lithuania, 83, 94, 111, 114,

125Jan Zamoyski, 93Janitchars, 47Japan, 74, 115Japanese, 74Java, 115Jean [John] Calvin, 31–32, 34Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 87Jesuits, 116–117jewelry, 64Jews, 120Joan the Mad, 84João II of Portugal, 115João IV of Portugal, duke of Bragança, 116João V of Portugal, 117Johan III of Sweden, 93, 122Johan Zapolya of Siebenbürgen, 111John Knox, 32John Locke, 102join, 38joined, 39, 64, 83joint, 71Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 36judge, 26judges, 64–65judicial, 26Juel, Niels, 104jumble, 49junker, 90justice, 45, 69justified, 45, 69Jutland, 104, 123

KKahlenberge, battle of, 125Kaminiecz, 112Kara Mustafa, 88Karlowitz, peace of, 125Katarina II (see Catherine II)Kaunitz, Count Wenzel-Anton of, 90Kazan (Khanate), 85, 117keep, 4, 9, 12, 25, 31, 33–34, 39, 43, 46, 51–52, 56,

77–78, 93keeping, 38, 42–43, 68–69, 85, 95–96kept, 13, 66, 94Kexholm, 118, 123key, 33keyboard, 95keys, 95keyword, 69killed, 92kinds, 48–50king, 3, 40, 83–84, 86–87, 89–90, 92–94, 105, 113kingdom, 39, 45, 74, 86kingdom, elected, 113kings, 37, 39, 94knight, 48, 84knighthood, 39knightly, 84knights, 39, 79Knights of Saint John, 110knowledge, 8, 15, 21, 94

138

Europa Universalis


known, 21, 25, 36, 50–51, 65, 74, 83–84, 88–89, 93Knox, John, 32Königsmarck, 123Köprülü, Mehmet and Ahmed, 88Koran, 31Krakow, 93Kristina (Queen of Sweden), 87Kurdistan, 110

Llabel, 95labeled, 7labor, 64lack, 10, 17, 25, 31, 42, 45, 60, 64, 74–75lacked, 48, 68, 71, 88lacking, 19lacks, 58, 67, 76lagged, 44lags, 6land, 4, 6, 8–9, 15, 21, 24, 28, 42, 45, 51, 58, 60, 77,

79–80, 82–83, 85, 90–91, 96landing, 51lands, 85, 88landscape(s), 97, 99lanes, 10, 51language, 8large, 4–5, 14, 18, 22–23, 35, 37, 41, 46, 49–51, 66,

73, 80, 90larger, 8, 44–45, 55, 62, 70, 80largest, 13, 43, 60last, 7, 32, 35, 40, 44, 67, 84, 87, 89, 94–96lasting, 76lasts, 44late, 22, 48, 79, 90lateen, 51later, 4–6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 17, 22, 25, 37, 39, 41, 43–44,

56, 60, 62, 64, 67, 70, 74, 77, 80, 84–90, 92latest, 38Latin, 8, 16, 42, 81latitudes, 64launch, 56launched, 83–84, 92–93launching, 56law, 23, 39, 71, 100lawful, 42lawmaker, 83laws, 24, 40lawyer, 26lay claim, 37layman, 32lead, 3, 5, 16, 29, 34, 50, 64–65, 69, 77leader, 11, 38–39, 47, 74, 83, 93leaders, 25, 31, 38, 40leadership, 85, 93, 124leading, 5, 12, 43, 84–85, 89, 95leads, 26, 50learn, 76learned, 82, 91learning, 3, 8–9least, 9, 11, 13, 20, 41, 43–44, 49, 68, 72, 78leave, 23, 38–39, 56, 90leaving, 23, 54, 75led, 32, 39, 64, 86, 88, 90–91, 94left, 5, 8–9, 41, 56, 70, 85, 87, 89, 93, 95

legal, 68–69legal system, 116legendary, 84legends, 21, 94legislative, 34Leibniz, G.W. von, 102Leiden, 100lend, 37, 67lender, 67length, 52, 54lengthy, 51Leonardo da Vinci, 98Lepanto, 85, 111, 120less, 11, 15–16, 23, 25–26, 34, 36, 39, 41–42,

48–50, 56, 58, 61–62, 65, 67–68, 71, 74, 76,79, 85, 89, 92

lessen, 41, 69, 81lessened, 82lessening, 39lessens, 69, 75lesser, 33, 41, 68, 70, 74Leszczynski, Stanislaus, 114, 119letters, 92, 107letter(s) of introduction, 36–37Levant, 97, 115level, 8–12, 18, 20–21, 23, 25–27, 30–31, 33–34,

36–37, 41–44, 49, 51–52, 54, 54–60, 66–67,69, 71–77, 79–80, 82–83, 95

levels, 8, 10–11, 14, 20, 23–25, 27, 31, 33, 36,40–41, 49, 52–53, 58, 62, 66, 71, 71–75, 79,95–96

level of development, 62levies, 22, 24, 116, 122levying, 60liable, 40liberal, 110, 115liberate, 116liberated, 28liberation, 25, 27–28, 40"Liberum Veto", 114, 119lies, 49, 73lifted, 56light, 10, 14, 89lighter, 48lightly, 22, 34likely, 47–48, 61, 67limit, 44, 50, 56, 67limitation, 44limitations, 44, 87limited, 3, 19, 42–44, 69, 76limiting, 44, 89limits, 44, 75line, 8, 14, 16, 23, 39, 45, 47, 56–58, 77linen, 63, 66lines, 9, 35, 56, 76, 91, 95linked, 80liquid, 12, 60, 63, 67–68liquor, 82Lisbon, 115–117list, 4, 83listed, 81, 96literature, 86Lithuania (see Poland-Lithuania)Lithuanian, 124little, 5, 8, 37, 67–68, 91

live, 61lived, 28, 45, 51, 85, 89lives, 10, 56, 74living, 25–26, 70Livonia, 93, 103, 113, 118, 123Livonian, 93load, 13loaded, 13loading, 13loan, 23, 42, 67–68, 95loans, 11, 23, 25, 40, 59–60, 66–68, 95local, 12, 15, 19, 44, 75–76, 88locals, 76located, 17, 47, 51, 53, 56–59, 61, 72, 75, 78, 81, 96location, 77locations, 76, 79Locke, John, 102locked, 4London, 90, 100, 116, 121long, 9, 11, 14, 25, 31–32, 40–41, 43–45, 48, 52,

54–56, 59, 65, 76, 84–85, 88, 92–94Long War, the, 111longer, 11, 18, 23, 25, 28, 40, 42, 44, 48–49, 55, 67,

77, 83, 86longest, 48–49, 91loose, 10, 44lord, 39–40, 87, 92Lorraine, 28, 84, 98lose, 3, 6, 20, 22, 33–34, 40, 42–44, 46, 50, 56, 58,

67, 72, 75, 86loser, 53loses, 38, 42, 52–53, 55losing, 43–44, 47, 53, 85, 90loss, 16, 28, 39–41, 43–45, 47, 55–56, 69, 85losses, 6, 12, 16, 27, 43–44, 52, 57, 91, 96lost, 23, 27–28, 32, 43, 66, 83, 87, 91–92, 94, 96"lost prince", cult of the, 116Lothringen, 125Louis XII of France, 84Louis XIII of France, 86, 89, 100Louis XIV of France, 45, 87, 89, 103, 106–109,

116–117, 121, 125Louis XV of France, 91Louisiana, 107, 110Louvois, 109low, 11–12, 21, 24, 27, 31, 33, 36–37, 41, 56, 58,

62–63, 66, 71, 73, 75–77, 82lower, 7–8, 11–12, 22–26, 28, 34, 38, 41, 43, 50, 58,

76–78lowered, 22–23, 25, 31, 34, 38–39, 41–42, 44, 56,

58, 64, 75lowering, 22–24, 34, 38, 41, 69lowers, 22–23, 25, 30, 34, 43–44, 69lowest, 9, 42, 58loyal, 85, 88, 91, 93loyalties, 88loyalty, 36Loyola, 98Lublin, 113Lubomirski rebellion, 113luck, 52lucky, 74lucrative, 75Ludovico Sforza, 98Ludvig (Ludwig) II of Hungary, 110, 113

139

Europa Universalis


lukewarm, 33Luther, Martin, 32, 98–99Lutheran, 32Lutter am Barenberge, 104Lützen, 87luxuries, 82, 117luxury, 64, 70lynched, 89

MMacao, 115Machiavelli, 98Machiavellian, 91machinery, 90Mad, Joan the, 84Madagascar, 97, 115Madras, 90Madrid, 116Magelhães (Magellan), Fernão de, 115Magellan (see Magelhães)magnates, 102, 114, 124magnificence, 24magnificent, 82–83, 87, 90main, 10, 19, 32, 40, 51, 65–66, 71, 88, 94–95mainly, 51, 64, 74, 76, 86, 88maintain, 12–14, 35, 41, 56, 58, 71, 75, 86, 88maintained, 18, 93maintaining, 39, 41, 60, 92maintenance, 19, 45, 49–50, 58, 71, 75, 80, 95majesty, 89major, 92majority, 29, 31, 52, 67–68Malaya, 115Malebranche, Nicholas, 102Malta, 111, 119Mamlukes, 31Mameluke, 111Mamelukes, 98, 110manage, 3, 11, 19, 26–27, 67, 69, 75, 87, 94managed, 24, 31, 67–68, 77, 84–87, 89, 92–94management, 80managing, 12, 59, 69maneuverable, 48maneuvering, 52–53, 80, 96manpower, 8, 43–44, 64Mantua, Duchy of, 108manual, 3–4, 25Manuel the Great of Portugal, 115manufacture, 64, 82, 86, 111manufactured, 64manufacturing, 88, 123map, 5–10, 12–15, 17–18, 20, 25, 56, 71, 77–78, 96maps, 9, 21, 37, 40march, 9, 51, 90marched, 57marching, 9, 13, 50, 79Maria I of Portugal, 117Maria Theresia, Empress of Austria, 90, 126Marie de’Medici, 86Marignano, 84marked, 17–18market, 61–63, 71–72markets, 65marking, 55

Marlborough, Duke of, 107, 109Marlowe, Christopher, 100marriage, 15, 22–23, 36–39, 41, 98marriages, 6, 15, 33, 35, 37–39, 96married, 38, 84, 91–92marry, 37marshal, 92–94marshals, 91Martin Luther, 32, 98–99Mary I, Queen of England, 85, 106Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, 106massacre, 62masses, 68massive, 28, 40, 47material, 63–64, 66materials, 63–64, 80matrimony, 38Mathias of Austria, 100Maximilian of Austria, 45, 84Maximilian I of Austria, 98Maximillian II of Austria, 93maximize, 31, 33, 67maximum, 9, 12, 46, 58, 60, 72, 79–80Mayflower, 10mayor, 69mayors, 11, 69Mazarin, 108–109mead, 65measles, 77measure, 45measurement, 71measurements, 80measures, 86meat, 64medical, 57Medici, 86Mediterranean, 13, 49, 58, 65, 83–85, 110–111, 120medium, 14, 56Mehmet Sokullu, 85Mehmet Köprülü, 88Melanchton, 32member, 35–36, 38–39, 43, 90members, 35–36, 38–39, 47, 96Menorca, 107–108, 121–122mentally, 88, 92menu, 8, 15–16mercantile, 120Mercantile era, 60mercantilism, 40, 88mercenaries, 99, 103, 117merchant, 12, 14, 25, 59, 71–72, 75, 88, 95merchants, 8, 10–12, 14, 18, 20, 25, 30, 40–41, 43,

59–60, 64, 68, 71–73, 75–76, 80, 85, 100–101,115

merge, 9merged, 13merging, 13metal, 64, 68metals, 64, 106meters, 89method, 34, 37, 60methods, 36–37, 69, 80Mexico, 4, 99Michail (Michail Romanov), czar of Russia, 94, 118Michel de Montaigne, 100

Michelangelo Buonarroti, 98middle, 33, 64, 124–125middle classes, 115, 120Middle Ages, 22, 28, 39, 42, 74, 79, 97–98Middle East, 29, 48, 65Miguel de Cervantes, 100Milan, 121, 125militant, 30militarily, 113, 126military, 3, 6, 8–9, 11–12, 21, 35, 39–41, 43–44,

47–49, 55, 58, 60, 64, 76–77, 79, 79–80,82–96, 111, 114, 116, 120

mind, 30, 90mine, 95mineral, 64mines, 11–12, 64, 82minimize, 31, 33, 51minimized, 44minimum, 56, 58mining, 64minister, 86, 89–93, 116ministers, 86, 111ministry, 88mink, 64minor, 60minorities, 31, 33, 44, 126minority, 41minting, 11, 16misery, 84misfortunes, 86mission, 5, 15Mission window, 9missionaries, 31, 34, 75missionary, 34missions, 5, 95Mississippi, 107, 121mixed, 51Moçambique (see Mozambique)mobile, 48mobility, 70mode, 4models, 55modern, 25, 33, 39, 55, 63, 68, 87modernization, 94, 117, 119modernized, 83, 117modest, 45Mohacs, 110, 113, 124Moldavia, 81, 83, 112Molière, 102Moluccans, 115Mombasa, 115monarch, 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 17, 22–23, 25–26, 28–31,

33, 36–39, 41–42, 50, 67, 73, 79, 83–85,87–89, 91–95, 114, 120

monarchies, 38monarchs, 3, 22, 35–38, 83, 95monastery, 84monetary, 64, 68money, 6, 11–12, 35, 37, 41, 45, 47, 60, 67–69, 71moneys, 45Mongol(s), 98, 110monopolies, 41, 69, 88, 115monopolistic, 40, 71–74monopolizing, 40–41monopoly, 5, 12, 14, 71, 75, 100

140

Europa Universalis


Montaigne, Michel de, 100Montesquieu, 102month, 9, 11, 23, 26, 36, 51, 56–58, 61, 67, 72, 80, 96monthly, 11–12, 23–24, 30, 43, 49, 59–61, 67–69,

75, 78–82, 95months, 4, 9, 16, 39, 42, 45–46, 51, 55–56, 67Moors, 34, 102, 119–120moral, 3morale, 9, 11–12, 27, 30–31, 48–50, 52–55, 58, 67,

80morally, 3morals, 29Moravia, 125Morea, 112Morocco, 111, 116Moroccan, 115mortal, 37Moscow, 113Moscow, Grand Duchy of, 98, 117, 122Moslem, 22, 28–29, 31, 33–34, 42, 58, 65, 81Moslems, 22, 29, 31, 33, 37, 76, 84, 88, 110, 115most, 8–10, 14, 17–18, 22, 26, 32, 35, 37–39, 44,

48–49, 53, 57, 63–64, 68, 72, 75–77, 80,83–86, 88, 90, 93–94

mother, 84–85, 88motion, 6motivational, 70mountain, 51, 55mountains, 7, 51, 55mouse, 9move, 5, 9, 18–19, 27, 42, 48, 50–51, 53, 55–56, 90moved, 9, 16, 48, 51, 55, 70, 77movement, 7, 9, 27, 34, 39, 47–48, 50–51, 55, 58movements, 20, 27–28, 58moves, 51, 54moving, 4, 9, 16, 21, 45, 50–51, 96Mozambique, 102, 116MP (movement points), 51Mughal, 81multiple, 15, 66multiplied, 73Münster, 109, 118murders, 111Murillo, 86Muscovite, 97museums, 36music, 102Mustafa, Kara, 88Mustafa Pasha, 88mustering, 71myths, 77

Nnailed, 32name, 6, 35, 45, 96names, 50, 96Naples, 37, 98, 121, 125–126Napoleonic wars, 105, 112, 124narrow, 51–52, 58Narva, 92nation, 3, 6, 9, 31, 42–43, 45, 76–79, 81–82, 85–86,

88–89, 92, 94–96, 110national, 23, 29, 36, 50, 60, 67–68, 80, 88nationalism, 26, 115, 126nationalist, 112

nationalistic, 126nations, 3, 9, 31, 35–36, 38–40, 81, 83, 86, 89,

95–96native, 18, 70–71natives, 17, 50, 54, 76–77, 99natural science, 80, 102nature, 6, 23, 94naval, 8–9, 16, 21, 43–46, 48–55, 58, 60, 63–66,

75–77, 79–80, 82–83, 85, 95, 96, 111, 121naval power, 107, 110naval route, 115naval superiority, 115, 120navies, 79navigation, 40navigational, 80navy, 50, 86, 88, 95–96, 109, 111, 118, 123–124nearest, 54necessarily, 66, 68necessary, 28, 46, 51, 64, 68–69, 71, 77, 82necessities, 45, 56, 82necessity, 68need, 3, 5–6, 9, 13, 15, 21, 36, 38, 46, 51, 77, 79–80,

95needed, 45, 64, 69, 71, 88, 95needlessly, 40needs, 6, 44, 68negative, 11, 20, 22, 25, 30, 34, 36, 41, 43, 45, 55,

60–61, 67, 69, 72, 74, 77, 79negatively, 22, 42negotiate, 67negotiated, 83, 94negotiating, 77negotiation, 37negotiations, 16, 19–20, 38negotiator, 90–91neighboring, 14, 50, 61, 68neighbors, 6, 12, 14, 23, 36, 44, 46, 79, 86–87Netherlands, 42, 76, 79, 84, 86, 89–90, 98–104, 106,

108–109, 116, 119–121, 123, 125Neuomann, 102neutral, 14, 36, 56, 76, 105never, 3, 11, 18, 27, 34, 37–38, 42, 46–47, 50–51,

53, 56, 62–63, 67–68, 70, 75, 75–77, 79, 81,84, 86, 93–94

new, 4, 6, 8–10, 12–13, 27–28, 38, 43–44, 50,59–60, 62–63, 69–71, 76, 79–81, 84, 86–87,90, 94–95

New Foundland [Newfoundland], 107New World, 119–120newly, 9, 58Newton, Isaac, 102next, 6–7, 27, 44, 48, 61, 75, 77, 85Niccolo Machiavelli, 98Nicholas Malebranche, 102Niels Juel, 104Nijemen, 90no, 6, 13, 18, 20, 31, 40, 42, 46, 50–51, 54–56, 58,

60, 67, 71, 76, 78, 83, 86, 87, 89, 92nobility, 23–25, 40, 48, 89–90, 93–94, 103–105,

113–117, 119–120, 122, 124nobles, 85, 89, 93, 103, 109, 113, 117–118non-Catholic, 106non-European, 14, 17, 71, 81, 86, 115, 122non-historically, 33non-monarchies, 38

non-occupied, 9non-player, 46non-Russian, 114non-violent, 35Nordic (see Great Nordic War)normal, 5–7, 10–11, 24, 41, 61, 63, 77, 89normally, 9, 14, 20–21, 23, 25, 38, 42, 56, 61, 63, 66norms, 30North America, 4, 64–65, 70–71, 77, 79, 90,

102–103, 107, 110North American, 106North Sea, 97northern, 4, 21, 63, 65, 84, 92Northern Africa, 111, 115Norway, 28, 92, 101–105 (see also Denmark-Norway)Norwegian, 92notes, 68nourishment, 64Nova Scotia, 107Novgorod, Republic of, 43, 73–74, 98, 117, 122Nubians, 81number, 3–5, 11–12, 14–16, 18, 27–28, 31, 36–39,

42–46, 49, 51–52, 57, 59–61, 64, 67, 69, 71,73–77, 79, 81–83, 87–88, 91–92, 94–96

numbers, 36, 95nutmeg, 65nutrition, 57Nystad, 43

Ooats, 64obedience, 90obey, 38obeyed, 25object, 64objects, 8, 64obliged, 39observed, 31obstacle, 7obstinate, 90, 94occasions, 60occupation, 20occupied, 9–10, 15, 17–18, 45–46, 73, 90occupies, 10occupying, 9occurrences, 24ocean, 51, 79oceangoing, 49oceans, 74, 79, 85odds, 53, 55Odessa, 92, 113offensive, 86, 92, 125offensives, 91, 122, 124offer, 15, 17, 36–37, 39–40, 67 (see also peace

offer(s))offered, 46, 67, 70offering, 16, 46–47offers, 4, 15–16, 35–37, 47, 56office, 29–30, 42, 92–93officers, 50, 124offices, 60official, 38, 60, 69officials, 8–9, 11, 17–18, 34, 44, 60, 69old, 9, 29, 31, 34, 69, 85–86

141

Europa Universalis


Oleg Potemkin, 93Olesko, 94oligarchy, 111Olivares, Count of, 86–87Oliver Cromwell, 106Oman, sultan of, 116Onega, 43open, 7–8, 13, 19, 46, 49, 51, 63, 95openly, 37opens, 15, 46, 95opera houses, 82operation, 34, 55operational, 48opinion, 28, 88opponent, 16, 43opponents, 83, 90, 95opportunity, 3, 40, 56opposed, 17opposing, 80opposite, 16, 36, 41opt, 9optimize, 11option, 15, 30, 45, 47options, 56Orania [Orange], house of, 89–90orchestra, 35order, 3–4, 6–9, 12–13, 15–21, 25, 27–29, 31, 33,

36–43, 46, 50, 55–56, 59, 74, 75, 79–81, 84,87–89, 92, 95–96

ordered, 94orders, 50, 52, 89ordinary, 83ore, 82organism, 42organization, 32, 69, 88organizational, 83organizations, 31organized, 25, 32, 34, 48, 90, 95organizer, 85, 89organizing, 17Orient, 97oriental, 82origin, 50, 82, 85, 92original, 19originally, 26, 32, 39, 53, 64–65, 90origins, 42"Orlando Furioso", 98Orlov, Gregorij, 93ornaments, 64orthodox, 5, 28, 33–34, 37, 41, 76, 81, 92Orthodox Church, 31, 117–118Orthodoxy, 34Ösel, 104, 123Osman (Uthman), 110Osnabrück, 109, 118Ottoman (Empire), 3, 28, 31, 37, 39, 47–48, 69, 83,

85, 88, 92–94, 97–99, 101–102, 110–112,114–115, 118–120, 124–126

Ottomans, 92, 94, 98, 110–113, 120, 124–125outbreak, 45outcome, 5, 48, 53, 55outright, 37outside, 5, 17, 48, 52, 58, 75, 92outskirts, 85overall, 45

overestimated, 55overrated, 10overtime, 79, 96overtones, 29, 40overview, 5, 11overwhelming, 92owe, 67own, 6, 9, 12, 16, 18, 22, 31, 36, 39–43, 47, 50–55,

60, 66–67, 72–75, 77, 91, 93owned, 60owner, 19, 41, 45ownership, 46owning, 90Oxenstierna, Count Axel, 87Oxford, 91

Ppace, 5, 9, 68Pacific, 77pacify, 93pacifying, 80packaging, 82Pact[a] Sunt Servanda, 23page, 95–96pages, 95–96paid, 49, 60, 67–68, 80painfully, 36pains, 65pairing, 89palace, 88–89palaces, 82, 117panic, 27panics, 27Papal bureaucracy, 97Papal State, 30, 38, 112pariah, 15, 22, 41Paris, peace of, 90, 110Parliament(s), 45, 86, 94, 99, 101, 106, 107, 114, 119,

123–124parliamentary government, 107parliamentary rule, 114parliaments, 89Parma, Duke of, 91part, 3, 8, 19–22, 24–25, 28, 30, 32, 34–36, 39–42,

47, 51, 57–58, 60, 64, 67, 68, 70–71, 74,76–77, 82, 86, 89, 92

partially, 85participant, 86participants, 96participated, 94parties, 36–37, 42, 46, 119, 123partitioning, 6, 80, 90, 124, 126partitions, 92parts, 3–4, 6–9, 21, 61, 75, 83, 93party, 45, 55, 90, 120, 124pasha, 85, 88, 110pass, 77passage, 51passages, 51–52passed, 43, 45passes, 36, 43–44Passorowitz, peace of, 112, 126pastureland, 99paths, 10

patriarch of Moscow, 117–118patrol, 54, 74patrols, 19pause, 4, 8pause mode, 4pauses, 95Pavia, 84pay, 3, 6, 45–46, 49–50, 58–59, 67–68payment, 49, 60, 68payments, 49, 67pays, 59peace, 3, 15–20, 22–23, 28, 32–35, 37–44, 46–47,

50, 56, 60, 68, 76, 86–87, 90, 90–95, 108, 120,123–124

peace offer(s), 16–17, 28, 34, 46–47peace treaty, 104–105, 109–110, 113, 121, 126peace treaties, 118–119, 123peaceful, 33, 66peacefully, 32peasant, 25, 103, 118, 122peasants, 24Pedro II of Portugal, 116Pedro Alvarez Cabral, 97penetrated, 70penicillin, 65Peninsula, Iberian, 28Penrith, 107people, 11, 23–25, 28, 31–32, 61, 68, 70–71, 82,

92–93peoples, 70pepper, 65, 115per, 31–32, 59perceive, 4perceived, 45percent, 45, 49, 69percentage, 25, 95percentages, 95perennial, 4perfect, 79perform, 7performed, 15, 34, 36performing, 16, 35period, 3, 12, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 33, 36, 38–42, 44,

48, 50, 60, 63, 66–70, 74, 78, 79, 83–94periodically, 78periods, 3, 25, 45perishables, 38permanent, 21, 32, 42, 44, 77, 86, 94persecution, 34Persia, 29, 31, 39, 49, 64, 83, 98, 101, 111–112, 114Persian, 110person, 22, 56, 63personal, 34, 36–37, 77, 91, 93personality, 85perspective, 3Peter I "the Great" of Russia, 37, 88, 92, 103, 118Peter III of Russia, 92, 107, 119, 124Peter Paul Rubens, 100petrified, 74Pfalz, Philip of, 125phase, 39, 56phases, 52–53, 55phenomena, 25, 29, 41phenomenon, 22, 26Philip II of Spain, 45, 84, 106, 115–116

142

Europa Universalis


Philip IV of Spain, 86Philip V of Spain (grandson of Louis XIV), 91, 101, 107,

109, 116, 121, 125Philip of Pfalz, 125Philip "the Good", 84Philippines, 4, 77, 102, 115, 120philosophers, 82, 102philosophy, 29, 36, 102physical, 22physically, 51Piccolomini, 125picture, 8, 20, 25Pierre Bayle, 102pillaged, 45, 56–57, 66pillager, 45pillaging, 45, 56Piotr Alexeievitch of Russia, 88 (see also Peter I)Piotr III of Russia (see Peter III)piracy, 74pirate, 75, 110pirates, 74–75, 79, 106pitched battle(s), 43, 46, 48, 50, 54–56, 77, 80,

111–112Pitt,William, 90Pizzaro, 97place, 3, 8, 41, 48, 50–51, 54–56, 59, 66, 71, 73placed, 59, 71, 82, 88placement, 72places, 3, 8, 18, 30, 61, 82placing, 12, 14, 75, 94plague, 101plagues, 25plains, 97plan, 16, 33, 43, 46, 91, 93planned, 69planning, 6, 67plans, 93plantations, 63, 65planted, 64plants, 64play, 3–5, 17, 47, 58, 76, 83played, 6, 17, 22, 48, 86player, 3–5, 17, 31, 40, 46–47, 55–56, 75, 78, 95players, 5playing, 3, 5, 43, 76, 83, 94plays, 57, 71, 77pledges, 38Plessis,Armand Jean du, (Cardinal Richelieu), 86, 108plundered, 44–45, 61Po Valley, 97poetry, 86point, 8, 22, 25, 51, 80pointer, 8, 14points, 4–5, 27, 32, 34, 42–43, 51, 79, 92, 95Poland, 104, 118Poland-Lithuania, 3, 6, 29, 31, 47–48, 69, 81, 87,

90–94, 97–104, 110–115, 117–119, 122–126Poland-Lithuania-Saxony, 104, 114, 118, 123Poles, 101, 104, 118police, 26policies, 33, 42policy, 22, 32, 74, 92, 120Polish, 37, 87, 94, 112–115, 121, 123–124Polish-Lithuanian, 83, 113, 126Polish War of Succession, 112, 114, 119, 121, 126

political, 3, 7, 17–18, 22–23, 26, 29, 31, 35, 38–41,47, 60, 68–70, 74, 80–81, 83, 84, 87, 89–90,93–94, 102, 117–118, 122

political structure, 98political system, 110–113Political map, 7, 17–18politically, 15, 40politician(s), 84, 91, 124politics, 3, 32–35, 86–89, 91–94, 99, 111, 114,

119–120Polotsk, 93, 113Poltava, 88, 92, 118, 123Pombal, marquis of, 117Pomerania, 37, 45, 90Poniatowski, Stanislaus, 114, 119pool, 25, 50, 71poor, 6, 37, 40, 57, 59, 70, 77, 87poorly, 59, 68Pope, 28–30, 32, 34, 77, 97–98, 106, 111Pope Alexander VI, 115popular, 30populated, 17, 29population, 3, 8, 10–11, 20–26, 31, 33–34, 38, 42,

44–45, 56, 60–62, 66, 69–71, 75, 76–78, 81,96–97, 99, 101, 108, 112, 114, 126

populations, 3, 31, 45, 76, 78porcelain, 64port, 13, 18, 45, 51–54, 57–58, 79, 118ports, 18, 51–53, 75, 85, 87, 104, 113, 122–123Portugal, 47–48, 76–77, 79, 86, 97–98, 100, 102,

115–120Portuguese, 65, 97, 101, 105, 115–120position, 3–4, 39, 78, 87–88, 90–93positive, 11, 30–31, 61, 72, 88positively, 36possess, 50, 52–53possesses, 49possessions, 17, 20, 29, 77–78, 117possibilities, 47, 68possibility, 40, 44possible, 3–5, 9, 14–15, 18, 38, 41–42, 48, 56, 58,

68, 75, 78post, 92 (see also trading post)post-Lutheran, 32posterity, 83postponing, 67posts (see trading posts)potatoes, 64Potemkin, Oleg, 92–93potential, 16, 59, 66pots, 14pouring, 68power, 3–4, 12, 15, 22, 25, 28–29, 32, 35–36, 40,

42–43, 45–46, 71, 77, 83, 86, 86–87, 89–95,101, 124–125

Power Struggle, 4, 106powerful, 23, 38, 40, 46–47, 79, 85–86, 88, 93powers, 74–76, 97 (see also great power(s))practical, 75, 88practice, 31, 41praying, 84pre-capitalist, 68precaution, 38precious metals, 64predecessors, 88

predestination, 32predetermined, 4–5preferable, 79preferably, 13, 55preference, 50preferred, 31, 89prematurely, 83prepare, 15prepared, 16preparing, 38, 56prerequisites, 71preservation, 65preservative, 65preserving, 64prestige, 22–24Prestonpans, 107pretend, 3prevent, 39–40, 46, 51, 54, 86prevented, 71preventing, 84prevents, 28, 79previous, 15, 31, 95prey, 15, 41price, 45, 55, 62–63, 68–69, 71, 78, 82prices, 11–12, 60, 63, 70–71pricing mechanism, 63priests, 11, 22, 29primarily, 25, 60, 63, 65–66, 70–71primary, 5, 64prime minister, 86, 89–90, 92–93prince, 34–35, 39, 45, 90, 93, 95, 108, 109princes, 22, 32, 36, 86, 99, 107princess, 92principal, 48principality, 107principalities, 99, 116, 124–125principle, 9, 23, 33, 38printing press, 68priorities, 6priority, 4, 90privateers, 103privileges, 86Privy Counsel [Council], 86pro-French, 106, 123–124pro-Prussian, 92, 124pro-Russian, 123–124probability, 85problem, 5–6, 19, 33, 39, 56, 67–68, 78problematic, 68problems, 37, 41, 46, 84, 87, 92–93procedure, 34process, 51processing, 82proclaiming, 28produce, 3, 13, 61, 63–65, 71, 75, 82produced, 7, 61, 63, 65, 75–76, 91producer, 12produces, 11, 68producing, 13, 63, 68, 71, 82product, 63, 71, 95production, 10–11, 20–21, 25–26, 30, 34, 45, 57,

60–63, 66, 68–69, 71, 75–76, 78, 82, 84, 88,95, 97, 99, 101–102, 106, 112, 115–117,120–121

productive, 35

143

Europa Universalis


products, 9, 60, 63, 69, 71, 75professional, 39, 111proficient, 71profit, 12, 68, 75, 115profitability, 12profitable, 39, 43, 68, 72, 75, 78–80profitably, 87profiteering, 70profits, 11–12, 30, 60, 71, 74, 117, 121progress, 8, 14, 32, 44, 74, 86prohibited, 75proletariat, 112prominent, 25promises, 23, 38promote, 92proofs, 38propaganda, 89, 115proper, 22, 42properly, 22, 25, 44properties, 65property, 32proportion, 25–26, 43, 54, 58, 61, 71proportional, 71proportionally, 11proportions, 94prospect, 43prospects, 14prosperity, 84protégés, 38protect, 38, 41, 69, 74protected, 35, 74–75protecting, 79protection, 38, 79protectionist, 86protective, 74protector, 41, 85, 120protectorate, 114protectors, 41Protestant, 30–34, 72, 84, 87, 89, 99, 122, 125Protestant Union, 99–100, 125Protestantism, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 120Protestants, 29, 31–34, 76, 84, 99, 106, 125proto-capitalism, 70proto-companies, 81proto-industries, 81Provence, 28provide, 6, 8, 12–13, 30, 39, 45, 75–79, 81–84provided, 3, 30, 50, 53, 64, 69, 87–90provides, 3–4, 9–12, 21, 29–32, 36, 45, 68, 71, 75,

79, 82–83providing, 3, 13, 31, 40, 53, 82province, 4–14, 16–21, 24–27, 30–34, 39, 42, 44–47,

50–51, 53–58, 61, 63, 69, 71, 71–72, 75–79,81–82, 88, 95–96, 111

provinces, 3, 5–7, 9–10, 12–21, 23–28, 30–34,39–47, 49–53, 55–57, 59–61, 64–66, 68–69,72, 75–80, 82, 87, 95–96, 103, 112, 125–126

provincial, 9, 26, 29, 31–32, 34, 61, 79, 95–96, 111provisions, 92Prussia, 36, 45, 89–91, 94, 107, 110, 113–115, 119,

123, 126Prussia-Brandenburg (see Brandenburg-Prussia)Prussia, East, 113Prussian(s), 5, 92, 107, 114–115, 124public, 11–12, 30, 68–69

Pugachov (Pugachev/Pugatchev) Uprising, 92, 119,124

punished, 22, 45punishment, 37Purcell, 102Puritans, 106purpose, 23, 38–39, 71purposes, 39, 48, 51, 89pursue, 55Pyrenees, 121

Qqualified, 8qualitative, 11qualities, 83, 91, 94quality, 19, 49, 64, 68quantities, 82quantity, 49quarantine, 41quarter, 24, 52quash, 34Quebec, 100queen, 45, 86–87, 90question, 16, 23, 32–33, 36, 38, 53–54, 73, 78questions, 76quick, 5, 8, 55, 65, 79, 93quicker, 33, 36quickest, 76quickly, 5, 13, 48, 57, 65, 68–70, 75, 86quiet, 66quota, 25

Rrace, 95Racine, 102Radnick, 88Rafael Santi, 98raging, 87raise, 17–18, 20, 23–24, 69, 76, 91raised, 12, 22, 32, 90raising, 24, 44ramblings, 92rampant, 33random, 5, 20, 23–24, 34, 36, 50, 60, 62, 67, 76, 83,

94randomly, 94range, 48rank, 35, 96ranking, 50rapidly, 79, 86rarely, 11, 45, 76Rasin, Stephan, 118rat, 101rate, 3, 11, 24, 56–58, 67–68, 77, 79, 81rates, 77rating, 11ratio, 95 (see also ultima ratio regum)rationalistic, 102raw, 63–64, 66re-conquest, 86reach, 4, 75, 82, 84reached, 21, 23, 32, 44, 46, 54, 76, 79, 82, 87, 92reaches, 10, 27, 58, 62, 77, 80

reaching, 32, 35, 51reacted, 22reacting, 83reactionary, 106, 119reactions, 22read, 3, 8–9, 25"Read more" button, 9reading, 3reads, 73ready, 14, 96real, 3, 20, 77, 80, 89realistically, 3reality, 3, 25, 38, 59realize, 46, 95realized, 36realm, 42, 83–85, 93‘realpolitik’, 98reason, 23, 31–32, 36, 40, 42, 55, 65, 68, 70–72, 79,

96reasonable, 82reasons, 22, 25, 39, 43–45, 63, 68, 77, 87rebel, 26–27, 34, 76rebelled, 116rebellion, 3, 12, 15–16, 23, 25–27, 31, 33–34, 44, 46,

64, 69, 81, 86, 94, 122, 124rebellions, 11, 20, 23, 25, 27–28, 31, 34, 43, 101,

111–113, 115–116, 118–120rebellious, 89rebels, 19, 25–28, 45, 61, 104, 122rebuild, 41recaptured, 86recapturing, 87receive, 4–5, 8, 11, 14, 18–19, 30, 32–33, 36, 39–43,

46–47, 50–52, 54–55, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73,76–79, 89

received, 4, 34, 59–60, 64, 79, 95receives, 11, 32–33, 41–43, 47, 60, 71, 73receiving, 72receptacles, 64recess, 90recession, 91reclaim land, 97recognize, 36, 93recognized, 22recommend, 8–9, 75reconciled, 91reconnaissance, 48reconstruct, 85recover, 45, 55, 58recovered, 58recovery, 44recruit, 8–10, 44, 48, 68, 75, 79recruited, 3, 9, 45, 49, 58, 88recruiting, 44, 49, 60, 69recruitment, 44–45, 48, 64–66, 95–96recruitment centers, 64–66rectangle, 9, 52, 54, 58rectangles, 54red, 9, 19, 26, 49, 58reduce, 49–50, 56, 58–59, 66, 86reduced, 36, 58, 66reduces, 56reducing, 42reestablish, 42refer, 61

144

Europa Universalis


reference, 79referred, 57, 68refined, 82, 87, 92refinement, 80refineries, 82refinery, 82reform, 32, 69, 118reformation, 119, 122Reformation, the, 29, 31–32, 34, 93Reformed, 23, 29–30, 32–34, 36, 42, 58, 76, 83, 85,

106reformer, 32, 83, 85, 114, 117, 119reformers, 32reforming, 32, 115, 126Reformist, 30, 32–34, 36, 72, 99, 120Reformists, 29, 32–34, 76, 99reforms, 88, 94, 105, 114–115, 119–121, 125–126refusal, 40–41refuse, 23, 42, 96refused, 32refuses, 28, 42regain, 27, 94regained, 42, 90–91regaining, 45regains, 55regarded, 3, 22–23, 35, 50, 83, 89, 93regardless, 19, 40, 42, 57regency, 50, 83regent, 88regiment, 89region, 22, 78, 84, 96regions, 79, 81, 96regretting, 16regular, 13, 26–27, 32–33, 65, 79regularity, 60regularly, 38, 91regulating, 29reign, 30, 39, 83–95reigned, 85reinforce, 93reinforcement, 64reinforcing, 93related, 39, 46, 61relation, 31, 36, 39, 41, 66relations, 7, 15, 22–23, 31–42, 44, 47, 83, 96relationship, 23, 31, 33, 41, 67relative, 4, 11, 43, 49, 52–53, 55–57, 68, 73, 80–81relatively, 4–5, 9, 43–44, 47, 63, 66, 69, 71, 74, 76, 88relevance, 38relief, 48, 65relieved, 94religion, 3, 9, 11, 17, 22–23, 26–34, 36–37, 39–42,

58, 72, 76, 81, 87, 99, 122religions, 15, 25, 30–32, 34, 36–37, 41, 76, 81, 93religious, 25, 29, 31–34, 41, 44, 81, 84, 86, 92, 94,

108, 112, 120, 124religious freedom, 108religious wars, 108religiously, 29, 110reliquaries, 64remain, 22remainder, 34remained, 42remains, 47, 62

remember, 4, 11, 34, 37–38, 41, 44, 62, 65–66, 73,78

remind, 36reminiscent, 37remove, 95Renaissance, 22, 79, 85, 89, 95renegotiate, 46renew, 67renewed, 67renewing, 32reorganize, 9reorganized, 83, 87, 90reorganizing, 13repaid, 67repair, 41repay, 23, 42, 67repayment, 60, 66–67repeat, 38repeated, 23replaced, 70replacing, 24reply, 36represent, 3, 35, 46, 49, 63–64, 71, 81representation, 20representative, 33–34, 90represented, 9, 29, 38representing, 47, 49represents, 10, 17, 21, 32, 44, 46, 64, 77republic, 38, 83, 93, 98–99republic of nobles, 113–114Republica Christianorum (Christian Republic), 97republics, 38repudiated, 32reputation, 22–23, 88, 94requesting, 39requests, 38require, 9, 37required, 25, 37, 39, 45, 67requires, 34requiring, 37requisitioned, 45rescue, 38research, 8, 10–11, 15, 41, 60, 66, 69, 79–83researching, 40reset, 9, 80reside, 75residence, 89residing, 74resistance, 45, 71, 86, 93resources, 3, 6, 10–11, 19, 31, 59, 66, 69, 71, 80, 86respect, 15, 41, 92response, 22, 37responsible, 3, 31, 33, 53restored, 30restrictions, 50result, 4, 11, 17, 22, 24–26, 31, 39–41, 43, 46,

56–57, 59–60, 67, 72resulted, 85, 87, 89resulting, 25results, 4, 11, 16, 26, 40, 47, 56, 68, 80resume, 55–56resumes, 4, 42retake, 27, 86retaliating, 70retire, 27, 50, 53, 93

retires, 53retiring, 48, 55retreat, 53, 55–56, 118retreats, 58return, 19, 27, 32, 74–75, 78, 94returned, 65, 84, 89, 92revealed, 83revenge, 22, 87revenue, 6, 9, 11revenues, 9, 11–12, 14, 76, 78, 80, 95reverse, 72reverts, 55review, 15, 25revolt, 66, 92revolution, 23, 25, 80, 106revolution, (French), 110, 117, 119, 126revolutionary, 126reward, 91rewards, 95Rhine, 109Rhodes, 83, 110Richelieu, Cardinal, 86–87, 108–109richer, 59richest, 68richness, 57rid, 27, 40, 75Riga, 37, 102rigging, 80, 82right, 6, 8, 29, 32, 41, 52, 54, 80, 87, 95–96righteous, 85, 88rightful, 93rights, 24, 36, 41rise, 3, 12, 30–31risen, 66rises, 58rising, 84risk, 3, 12, 15–16, 34, 38, 40, 43–44, 46, 50–51, 56,

74–75, 92risk of rebellion, 25–27, 31, 34, 44, 69, 81risking, 38risks, 15, 44Rittberg-Kaunitz, Count Wenzel-Anton of, 90rituals, 89river, 51, 55rivers, 7, 51roads, 25, 88Robert Walpole, 91Rocroi, 108Rodrigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI), 98role, 32, 48, 70, 88Roman, Holy, 18, 29–30, 42Roman (not Holy Roman), 22–23, 42, 98, 110Romanov, Michail, 94, 118Rome, 30–32, 87, 111rope, 82ropes, 64roping, 80Roses,War of the, 84, 98rotation, 80rotten, 65Rotterdam, 98rough, 63roughly, 42, 69round, 94roundheads, 106

145

Europa Universalis


route, 22, 43routes, 21royal, 32, 36, 60, 86, 88–90, 93–95, 124royal marriage(s), 6, 15, 22–23, 33, 35–39, 41, 96royalists, 106royalty, 37, 89Rubens, Peter Paul, 100ruin, 5ruined, 44ruinously, 44rule, 9, 23, 42, 88–89, 94–95rule of thumb, 33, 49, 68, 76ruled, 38, 79, 85–86, 88–89, 92ruler, 83, 85, 88, 92–93rulers, 29, 34rules, 22, 35, 38, 80ruling, 42, 86Rum (Constantinople), 88, 98, 111run, 34, 59, 78running, 4, 38, 45runs, 17Russia, 5, 31, 33–34, 36–38, 41, 43, 46–48, 64, 76,

85, 87–88, 92–94, 97–99, 101–102, 104–105,107, 110, 112–115, 117–119, 121–124, 126

Russian, 33, 87–88, 94, 105, 114, 117–119, 121,123, 126

Russians, 92–93, 103–104, 119rye, 64

Ssable, 64sack, 23sadr-i azam, 85, 88sail, 51, 79sailed, 85sailing, 11, 52sailors, 3, 8, 82sails, 82salary, 68sale, 60salt, 60, 63–64, 82same, 3–6, 11–13, 17, 22–23, 25, 27–28, 31, 33–41,

43, 46, 50–54, 57, 63, 66, 68–69, 71, 76, 78,80, 83, 85–86, 89–90, 94

San Yuste, 84sappers, 56Sardinia, 119, 121, 125Sava River, 112, 125save, 45, 48, 72saved, 90saving, 68Savoy, 102, 109, 116Saxon, 105, 114Saxony, 103–104, 114, 119, 123, 126saying, 9, 69scale, 22, 31, 33, 58, 74, 76scales, 45scandals, 91Scandinavia, 64Scania, 52, 103–105, 123Scanian, 37Scarlatti, 102scenario, 3, 8–9, 17, 40, 42–43, 47scenarios, 3

scepter, 83science, 8, 80scientific, 120scientifically, 79scientist, 102scope, 25, 45Scotland, 30, 40, 99, 106–108scourge, 66scouting, 55screen, 5, 8scruples, 84scrupulous, 68sea, 6–7, 9–10, 12–13, 19, 21, 48–55, 57–58, 64,

75–77, 80, 83, 85, 87–88, 90, 96–97, 104, 107seafarers, 85seas, 19, 49, 51, 74, 121seasoning, 65seaworthy, 45, 49Sebastião, king of Portugal, 115–116second, 3, 5, 12, 26, 34, 36–37, 47, 50, 71, 76, 84secondary, 6secondly, 42, 49, 53–58, 67–69, 76secret, 31, 94secretary, 95sectors, 30secularized, 117secure, 69secured, 69see, 4, 6, 8–9, 13–14, 16–20, 22–26, 29–30, 32–35,

40, 42–47, 49–55, 57, 60, 60–63, 67, 69,71–72, 76–77, 89, 95–96

seeing, 94seen, 22–23, 33, 35, 40–41, 56, 62–63, 70, 77, 86Seignelay, Colbert de, 88seize, 19, 93Sejm, 94, 113select, 40selected, 9, 13, 57–58self-determination, 108self-interest, 38self-sufficient, 71Selim I (Yavuz) of the Ottoman Empire, 83, 110semi-feudal, 69semi-governmental, 82semi-independent, 125semipublic, 12senator(s), 114send, 10–15, 18, 34, 36–37, 40, 43, 53–56, 61,

71–72, 75–77"Send merchant" button, 14sending, 14, 21, 27, 34–35, 37, 41, 48, 60, 62, 72–73,

75, 78, 93Senegal, 107–108, 110senile dementia, 85sent, 13, 71–73, 75–76, 90sentiment, 32separate, 7, 11, 30, 35, 38, 44, 47, 95separatism, 124Serbia, 83, 112, 125–126serfs, 24serve, 31, 45, 57, 89served, 28, 48serves, 56service, 87, 91serviceable, 48

services, 36, 91settle, 33, 72settled, 38, 47settlements, 95–96settlers, 76setup, 48seven, 22, 76, 90–91, 96Seven Years’ War, 105, 107–108, 110, 114, 119, 121,

123, 126Seville, 98, 121shade, 25shading, 25shadowed, 8Shakespeare,William, 100share, 15, 73shares, 71–72sharing, 38–39, 41shatter, 48shattering, 48sheep, 66Shia, 29, 31, 33, 58, 76 (see also Shiite Moslems)shield, 9, 20shields, 8, 18shift, 43, 48shifted, 48shifting, 43Shiite Moslems, 110 (see also Shia)ship, 10–13, 45, 49, 52, 75shipbuilding, 64, 88, 96shipped, 65shipping, 10, 51, 105ships, 12–13, 17–21, 44, 52, 54, 58, 75, 79–80, 82,

96, 121shipyard, 45, 76shipyards, 44, 64–66, 111shock, 48, 50, 55, 80, 92, 96Shogun Tokugawa Iyemitsu of Japan, 74short, 11, 70, 86–87shorter, 3, 78show, 6, 8, 10, 36, 81, 84, 95–96showed, 63showing, 7, 9, 25, 44, 84, 95–96shown, 7–8, 13–14, 20, 44, 57–58, 91, 95shows, 6–9, 20, 52, 54, 63, 95–96shut, 74Siberia, 21, 85Sicily, 119, 121, 125–126sick, 3, 89side, 5, 39, 44, 51–53, 55, 63, 86, 88sides, 52–55Siebenbürgen, 93, 110–113, 118, 125siege, 16, 19, 26, 48, 50, 55–56, 61sieges, 43, 48, 55, 58, 66, 79, 96Sigismund III of Poland-Lithuania and Sweden, 93, 113,

122sign, 14, 23, 34, 47signaling, 80signed, 19, 40, 43, 92significantly, 56, 62, 64, 69signing, 47signs, 84"Silent Parliament", 114Silesia, 107, 110, 125–126Silesian, 105silk, 36, 64, 97, 116

146

Europa Universalis


silver, 64, 68, 97, 100, 120similar, 22, 28, 37, 54, 56, 63–64simple, 6, 33, 68, 91–92simplicity, 8simplify, 48, 69simply, 3, 8, 25, 27–29, 39, 45, 48, 53, 57, 67, 71simulate, 3simulated, 3simulates, 4, 83simultaneously, 67–68singers, 82single, 39, 42, 47–48, 94sink, 3Sir Francis Bacon, 100Sir Francis Drake, 85situated, 20, 75situation, 15, 34, 86situations, 33, 45six, 10, 14, 39, 72, 75, 84, 93sixth, 11size, 3, 12, 16, 40, 42, 49, 52, 54–57, 59–62, 67, 69,

71, 76–78, 96sizes, 49skill, 50, 53, 58, 73, 79, 83–94, 96skilled, 52, 83, 85, 88, 91–93skillfully, 84skills, 25, 50, 55, 83, 88, 91skull, 13, 58slave, 64–65slave trade, 64–65, 102slaves, 12, 63–65Slavs, 110slow, 4, 8–9, 79slower, 44, 48slowest, 50, 81slowly, 3, 36, 50, 55, 68, 70, 92, 94small, 4–5, 10–13, 15, 18, 36–39, 44, 47, 50–51, 56,

71, 73, 77, 79–80, 88, 95smaller, 8, 19, 28, 45, 56, 78, 80, 82smallest, 17smallpox, 77smithies, 82smoke, 65Smolensk, 113, 118Sobieski, Jan III, of Poland-Lithuania, 83, 94, 111, 114,

125social, 25, 30, 74, 80–82, 88, 90, 94social system, 115societies, 17society, 22–25, 29–30, 68–69, 80, 91, 94Sokullu, Mehmet, 85soldier, 9, 54, 89, 92soldiers, 3, 5, 8, 44, 54–57, 62, 82, 89, 92, 96, 120son, 42, 83–85, 88, 90–91, 93–94sons, 42, 84Sophia, half-sister of Peter I of Russia, 88sort, 95sorted, 95sound, 53, 55, 58Sound, the, 102, 104, 123sounds, 71source, 64–65sources, 59–60south, 85South Africa, 102

South America, 64, 70, 102, 120southeast Europe, 110southern, 63, 65, 84, 93sovereigns, 97sovereignty, 27Spain, 4–5, 26, 28, 30–31, 33, 40–41, 45, 47–48, 51,

68, 74, 76–77, 84, 86–87, 91, 97–102,106–110, 115–116, 119–126

Spaniards, 97, 106, 108, 113, 116Spaniola, 94Spanish, 33–34, 37, 40, 86–87, 89, 91, 94, 97, 102,

105, 107, 116, 120–121, 125–126Spanish Netherlands, 103, 109, 121, 125Spanish Armada, 48, 86, 106, 120Spanish realm, 101Spanish War of Succession, 101, 104–105, 107, 114,

117–118, 121, 123, 125special, 17, 26, 31, 35–36, 42, 45, 47, 50, 58, 60, 63,

77, 86specialist, 90specialists, 50, 77, 96specialized, 8, 48, 81–82specific, 5, 36, 63specifies, 95–96speed, 4, 9, 13, 43, 45, 50, 78spend, 12, 79spending, 30spent, 79, 84, 89Spice Islands, 65spices, 12, 63, 65, 82, 97, 115spider king, 84spinoff, 69spirit, 85, 90spiritual, 31, 33splendor, 84split, 9, 29, 50, 84splitting, 13spread, 17, 27, 68, 77, 79, 82, 86spreading, 24, 83squares, 79stability, 8, 11–12, 15–16, 22–28, 30–31, 33–34,

38–40, 42–45, 47, 60, 62, 66–67, 72–73, 75,77, 80, 82–83

stable, 36stage, 9, 23, 39, 43, 85standard, 4, 26standardized, 80standing army, 18, 45Stanislaus Leszczynski, king of Poland-Lithuania, 114,

119Stanislaus Poniatowski, king of Poland-Lithuania, 114,

119star, 17, 46, 84stars, 16–17, 43, 46–47, 56–57start, 4–6, 9, 13, 17–18, 25, 27–28, 36, 40–44, 46,

50, 59, 75started, 8–9, 32, 37, 39–40, 42, 47, 63, 70–71, 86–88starting, 5, 22, 41, 68starts, 9, 11, 23, 26, 28, 47, 58, 72, 79starve, 56state, 36–42, 45, 48, 50, 58–60, 79–81, 85, 87–91state budget, 8, 11–12, 23, 88state church, 106state religion, 11, 17, 23, 26–34, 36–37, 39–42, 58,

72, 76, 81, 108

states, 18, 39, 42–43, 84, 90, 125statesman, 85–91, 93statesmen, 83stathouder (stadthouder) 89static, 37station, 71, 79stationed, 50, 56, 60stationing, 71status, 3, 17, 22, 39–40, 45, 48, 57, 63, 69, 71–74,

81–82, 92, 96status quo, 29, 32, 46–47, 124, 126stealing, 75Stefan Batory of Poland-Lithuania, 93step, 22–24, 29, 38–39, 44–45, 56, 79, 93Stephan Rasin, 118steppe, 97steppes, 101, 113steps, 22–23, 34, 42, 47sterile, 65Stettin, 123Steyn, 98stimulating, 83Stockholm, peace of, 107stop, 10, 27, 45, 50, 52, 87, 93–94stopped, 93–94stopping, 6stops, 4stored, 95storm, 19, 58storms, 7strategic, 51, 57, 76, 79–80, 85, 87, 103, 124, 126strategically, 33, 43strategies, 78strategy, 56Strelstser, 85strength, 3, 6, 9, 16, 49, 53–55, 66, 76, 80, 88, 95–96strengthen, 35, 38, 45strengths, 96stricter, 31strife, 87strong, 12, 23, 32, 44–45, 48, 69–70, 83, 85–87, 90,

92–93stronger, 12, 25, 43strongest, 38–39, 87strongly, 9, 30, 32, 38, 62, 75struggle, 4, 10, 22, 29, 40, 82, 84, 89Stuart (dynasty), 86, 103, 107Stuarts, 106style, 78, 85Styria, 125subject, 40subjected, 23, 41subjects, 22–24, 29, 33–34, 36, 41, 60, 67–68submitted, 39subordinate, 39subordination, 39subsidies, 37, 86, 106–107subsidize, 60subsidized, 88subsidy, 105subsisted, 70substitute, 64subtracted, 95succeed, 19, 32, 50, 52, 69, 88–89, 93

147

Europa Universalis


succeeded, 27, 32, 52, 64, 70, 75, 77, 84–85, 88, 92,94–95

succeeding, 83succeeds, 5, 47, 51success, 26, 35, 72, 76–77successes, 77successful, 4, 16, 25, 28, 34, 39, 52, 55–56, 78, 83,

85–86, 92successfully, 51–52, 54, 61, 64, 91, 93–94succession, 84, 91, 105successor, 48suffer, 7, 13, 15–16, 18, 23, 40, 43–44, 47, 52, 54,

56, 58, 61, 67, 78suffered, 38, 58, 94suffering, 18suffers, 66sufficient, 71sufficiently, 39, 44, 51sugar, 63–65, 82suggesting, 38suggestion, 93suggestions, 83suitable, 70, 76Süleyman I "the Great" (or "the Magnificent") of the

Ottoman Empire, 83, 85, 110–111Sully, 108–109sultan, 37, 42, 83, 88, 98, 110–111, 116, 124sultan murders, 111sum, 23, 31, 44, 49, 59–60, 67, 80, 95summary, 95 (see also Financial Summary)summer, 6sums, 41, 64Sun King, the (Louis XIV of France), 89, 109Sunni (Moslems), 29, 31, 33–34, 37, 76, 110Sunnis, 28superior, 54–55, 92superiority, 19, 55, 115supervise, 90supervision, 40supplies, 45, 56, 63–64, 70supply, 12, 32, 62–65, 68, 71supply line(s), 56–58, 111–112support, 39, 80, 92–93supported, 31, 84, 86, 88supporting, 88, 92suppress, 68supranational, 42supremacy, 15, 51–52, 90supreme, 83, 89Surinam, 102surprise, 67surprised, 51surrendered, 19–20surrendering, 56surround, 44surrounding, 33, 86, 89, 92surroundings, 15, 41surrounds, 9survival, 5, 14, 84survive, 6surviving, 37susceptibility, 57sustains, 55swamp, 7, 51swamps, 51, 55, 57, 97

Sweden, 3–4, 30–34, 36–40, 42–43, 45–47, 71, 76,83, 87, 89, 92–94, 97, 99–105, 107, 113–114,117–119, 125–126

Swedes, 94, 101, 105, 114, 118–119Swedish, 37–39, 45, 47, 83, 86–87, 90, 92, 94, 99,

101, 103–105, 122switch (religion), 28, 34switching (religion), 27Switzerland, 28, 30, 42, 71symbol, 45, 71symbolized, 5symbolizing, 52, 54symbols, 8–9system, 25–26, 28–29, 34, 38–39, 60, 64, 68–71, 80,

83, 85, 88, 90systematic, 87systematically, 89, 95systems, 17, 39, 70–71, 80, 87

Ttable, 37, 51, 95–96tables, 95–96Tabriz, 112tactic, 77tactical, 47, 52, 80, 91, 124tactically, 53, 55, 58tactics, 70, 92, 94, 111, 113, 117, 120take, 11, 19, 26–27, 46, 56, 68, 76taken, 23, 45, 47, 60, 63, 67–68, 83, 96takeovers, 96takes, 9, 11, 41, 48, 54, 71–72, 77taking, 11, 27, 43, 45–46, 55, 59, 68, 73talent, 37talented, 86, 91talents, 91, 93talks, 46Tangiers, 52tar, 64target, 79targets, 94tariff, 59tariffs, 59, 88Tartars, 94, 113, 118task, 5, 9, 55, 85, 92tasks, 8, 35taught, 94tax, 25–26, 30, 59–62, 69, 71, 75–76, 95tax collector, 26, 69, 91taxation, 26, 31, 87, 116taxes, 3, 9–10, 16, 22–25, 30, 45, 59–61, 66, 69, 71,

75, 78, 80tea, 36teacher, 87, 91teachings, 32tech, 44techniques, 80technological, 12, 43, 71, 80–83, 108, 111–112technologies, 25technology, 3, 8–9, 11–12, 21, 40–41, 43–44, 49,

51–55, 58–60, 66, 69, 71–73, 77, 79, 79–83,85, 88, 95–96, 111, 117

telescope, 100temporary, 24, 39–40, 42, 61, 94ten, 6, 24, 73tender, 68

tenders, 40tenfold, 44–45tension, 32tent, 44term, 25, 32, 38, 67, 70–71, 80, 82terminology, 63terms, 6, 25, 31, 46, 60, 67–68, 71, 73, 76, 94, 96Terra Incognita, 6, 8, 21, 77terrain, 6–7, 9, 51, 56–57Terrible, Ivan the, 37, 85territorial, 19territorially, 43territory, 10, 39, 96terror, 34, 83, 85tested, 56Teutonic Order, 36, 113, 122text lines, 9textbooks, 3textile, 64textiles, 64, 106"The Prince", 98theaters, 82Theodor (Fyodor) I of Russia, 118theological, 31theories, 87theorists, 87Theresia (see Maria Theresia)Theses, 32third, 5–6, 12, 23, 31, 36–37, 42, 46, 92, 95–96"Third Rome", the, 117thirdly, 49, 53, 55, 57–58, 68–69, 76thirteen, 83thirty, 33, 96Thirty Years’ War, 3, 32, 86–87, 99, 104, 106, 111,

116, 120–121, 123, 125thought, 6, 28–29thousands, 8, 96threat, 45, 51, 92threatened, 23, 86, 89threatening, 41three, 8–9, 11–12, 15, 22–23, 25, 36–37, 46–49, 51,

55, 61–62, 67, 69, 72, 85, 92, 95throne, 50, 83–86, 88–89, 93–94thumb, rule of, 33, 49, 68, 76tidal wave, 117tie, 36tied, 31, 41, 71Tiepolo, 102ties, 12, 22–23, 36, 38, 41, 69Tilly, 104, 125timber, 63–64, 105time, 3–4, 6, 8–12, 15, 20–21, 25, 27, 31, 33, 36–44,

46, 48–49, 51–57, 61–63, 65–69, 72, 75,77–80, 83–84, 86–87, 89–90, 94–96

"Time of Troubles" (the "Great Mess"), 93, 101, 118,122

times, 11, 18, 21, 23–24, 39, 42, 45, 49–50, 52,60–61, 66, 68, 84, 92, 95

tin, 64tip, 95tips, 3, 8tobacco, 63–65, 82today, 12, 37, 45, 57, 63, 65–66, 68, 70, 74, 88tokens, 15Tokugawa Iyemitsu, Shogun of Japan, 74

148

Europa Universalis


tolerance, 26–29, 31–34, 36–37, 41, 77, 100, 108tolerant, 93, 110tolls, 59, 88tomatoes, 64tombstone, 17, 46–47tombstones, 16, 43, 46–47took, 48, 65, 84, 87–89, 94tool, 31, 34–35, 75, 79tools, 14–15, 64top, 8, 57Tordesilla(s), 19, 32, 42, 77Torstensson, 123total, 4, 12–13, 43, 45, 47, 60, 68, 71, 73–74, 76, 90,

95–96totally, 32town, 16, 37, 45, 56–57, 61, 76–79towns, 44, 76–79, 97townsmen, 24–25track, 43trade, 3, 7, 9, 11–14, 23, 25, 37, 40–42, 59–66,

69–76, 78–80, 82, 86, 88, 95–96, 97, 101,103–105, 111, 114–116, 121

Trade map, 7, 71Trade tariffs, 59trade (/trading) technology, 12, 41, 71–73, 80, 83traded, 63trader, 70traders, 60, 70trading, 12–14, 21, 24, 40–41, 43, 75–76, 83, 86, 88trading post, 14, 16–18, 20–21, 54, 61, 75–78, 96trading posts, 6–7, 12–14, 18–21, 44, 47, 57, 59, 62,

68, 75–76, 78–79, 96, 102, 107, 116traditionally, 38, 57, 60traditions, 3, 49train, 48trained, 79, 90, 94, 96training, 49–50traits, 87transatlantic, 79transferred, 28, 76, 79transformation, 23transformed, 71translate, 39transport, 12–13, 58, 79transportation, 9, 50, 71, 80transported, 59transporting, 13transports, 49, 51Transylvania, 93, 113travel, 74, 77treasury, 8, 12, 23–24, 33, 45, 59–60, 67–68, 72, 79,

86treat, 15treated, 37, 82treaties, 17, 20, 22, 32–34, 38–39, 42–43, 46–47,

68, 76, 95treaty, 17, 19–20, 22–23, 32, 38, 40–43, 46–47, 77Treaty of Tordesilla(s), 19, 32, 42, 77, 98, 115trenches, 56trends, 63Trent, Council of, 31–32trials, 57tribal, 17, 110tribe, 70tribes, 10, 71

tribute, 16–17, 46, 105, 111tributes, 60Trinity College, Dublin, 102Tripolis, 111triumphal, 82Trondheim, 104, 123troop, 12, 20, 51troops, 4, 9–10, 12–13, 42, 45, 49, 68, 79, 86, 92tropical, 58, 61tropics, 20trouble, 15, 68troubles, time of, 93trust, 67, 91Tudor (dynasty), 84–85Tunis, 84, 110–111Turenne, 108–109Turkish, 42, 94, 110Turks, 84, 110turn, 3, 7, 12, 32, 34, 41, 56, 69–70, 75–77, 90, 95turnaround, 38turned, 4, 10, 37, 40, 84–87, 90, 92–93turns, 23, 81twenty, 6twice, 24, 49two, 6, 8–10, 17–19, 22, 25, 27, 31, 33–39, 42,

46–48, 50–52, 54–55, 66–67, 69, 71–72, 76,89–90, 92, 94–96

Two Sicily’s, the, 121type, 6, 13, 60, 83–94, 96types, 7, 12, 17, 35, 45, 49, 57, 59, 68, 80, 95typical, 91–92, 94tyrannical, 91Tyrolia, 125

UUkraine, 28, 48, 92, 94, 113, 123Ulrich von Hutten, 32Ulrich Zwingli, 32Ulrika Eleonora, 92Ulster, 8–9, 12ultima ratio regum, 35un-Christian, 22unable, 23, 25, 27, 37unacceptable, 36, 40uncalled for, 22uncertain, 4uncertainty, 23uncheck, 95unchecked, 95unchecking, 95undefeatable, 43underestimated, 12, 43undermine, 56undermining, 94understandable, 45understanding, 68understood, 85undeveloped, 10undiplomatic, 37undiscovered, 9, 14, 21unfortified, 50unfriendly, 37unhappy, 33uniform, 87, 90uniforms, 80

unimaginable, 12union, 40, 87, 119union at Lublin, 113Union of Calmar, 99, 119unique, 32, 50, 64, 77unit, 7, 9, 12–13, 16–20, 22, 26–27, 44–45, 48,

50–51, 54–58, 61, 76, 96unite, 37, 93, 122united, 22, 25, 39United Provinces, 40, 100United States, 38–39, 90, 102, 108, 115, 122uniting, 25, 28units, 4–9, 11, 13, 16–18, 20–21, 26–27, 30–31, 40,

42–45, 47–51, 54–57, 60, 67–69, 75–80, 93,95–96

universal, 29, 125universalism, 99universities, 82unknown, 6, 8–9, 65, 77unlimited, 69unload, 13unloaded, 13unloading, 13unpacking, 14unpaid, 67unpleasant, 44, 67unpredictability, 39unprotected, 74, 79unrest, 11, 24–25, 42, 66, 68unsuitably, 75untouchable, 36upgrade, 6, 11, 20, 55, 69upgraded, 8, 10upgrading, 44, 60, 69, 85uphold, 39upholding, 39upkeep, 8, 12upper, 23, 64–65uprising(s), 25–26, 30–31, 64, 113, 118, 120,

125–126upset, 22, 80Urbino, 98use, 7, 15, 20, 27, 31, 34–36, 39, 41, 48, 55, 57–58,

67–69, 71, 77, 80, 90, 96used, 10, 14–15, 27, 29, 35–37, 45, 48, 51, 56–57,

63–66, 68, 71, 75, 84, 89–92useful, 47useless, 13using, 4, 7, 10, 21, 32, 34–35, 38, 40, 47, 55–56, 58,

63, 71, 95usually, 3, 5, 9, 14–15, 25, 43, 45, 48, 52, 55–56,

62–63, 68, 82usurper, 37utensils, 64Uthman (Osman), 110utilized, 48, 53utilizing, 54utmost, 79Utrecht, peace of, 107

Vvaisseaux, 51valid, 77

149

Europa Universalis


Valois-Angoulème, François de (François I) of France,84

value, 12–14, 21, 25, 30, 36, 41, 44, 50, 53, 58–64,68–69, 71, 73–77, 94–95

values, 26, 41, 50, 61–63, 71, 75, 77variable, 60variants, 29varied, 25, 50, 63–64varies, 25, 27, 48, 60, 76variety, 28various, 3–5, 7–8, 10, 16, 22, 24–25, 36, 38, 40–41,

52, 60, 63–64, 79–81variously, 71vary, 4, 22, 36, 49, 59varying, 9, 12, 35Vasa, 25, 33, 37, 87, 93Vasa dynasty, 122Vasilij Golitsyn, 88vassal(s), 22–23, 39–40, 48, 111, 113, 121, 123vassalage, 38–39, 42vassalized, 40vassals, 39–40, 50, 96, 117vast, 19, 42Vauban, marshall, 109vegetables, 64veins, 60Velasquez, 86Vendôme, Duke of, 91, 109Venetian(s), 47, 124vengeful, 12Venice, 38–39, 47, 88, 97–98, 111–112, 115, 118,

125verbal, 46Verde, Cape, 77Versailles, 89–90, 102Vespucci, Amerigo, 97vessel, 49, 80vessels, 12–13, 49–50, 52–53veterans, 104vicinity, 75victim, 34victories, 91, 94, 125–126victorious, 16, 24, 55victory, 24, 69, 84, 88, 90, 92, 94victory conditions, 4–5victory point(s), 4–5, 27, 34, 42–43, 95Vienna, 48, 94, 98, 111–112, 114, 124view, 3, 7, 14, 17, 23, 25, 29, 33, 36, 69, 93, 95viewed, 22, 33, 89, 95views, 32, 38village, 44, 88Villars, 109Villeroi, 109violence, 29, 35, 37violent, 33, 35, 85Virginia, 100virtue, 68visible, 9, 63visit, 37visiting, 58vizier, 85, 88, 111Vladislav, king of Poland-Lithuania, 113vodka, 65Volga, 85Voltaire, 91–92, 102

volumes, 82voluntary, 55von Erlach, Fischer, 102von Eschl, 115von Clausewitz, 35von Hildebrandt, 102von Hutten, 32von Leibniz, G.W., 102Vorpommern, 123vulnerable, 55, 75

Wwage, 4, 33, 38, 43wages, 8waging, 5wagons, 56, 92wait, 36, 38, 58Wallachia, 81, 112, 126Wallenstein, 125walls, 56Walpole, Robert, 91war, 3–4, 7, 10, 12, 15–20, 22–25, 28, 31–48, 50, 53,

56–57, 59–60, 66–69, 74, 75–76, 84, 86–94,96, 101

war craft, 113War, English Civil, 86, 99, 106War, Great Nordic, 88, 90, 101, 104–105, 107, 114,

118, 123"War of Captain Jenkins’ Ear", 107, 121war of independence,American, 108, 110war of independence, Swedish, 103war of alliances, 104, 109, 116war of succession, 110War of Succession,Austrian, 105, 107, 114, 119, 121,

126War of Succession, Bavarian, 126War of Succession, Polish, 112, 114, 119, 121, 126War of Succession, Spanish, 101, 104–105, 107, 114,

117–118, 121, 123, 125War of the Roses, 84, 98, 105War, Seven Years’, 105, 107–108, 110, 114, 119, 121,

123, 126War, the Long, 111War, Thirty Years’, 3, 32, 86–87, 99, 104, 106, 111,

116, 120–121, 123, 125wars against the Netherlands, 106Warsaw, 114ward off, 79warfare, 48, 51, 80, 85warlord, 74warning, 37warrior, 88, 91, 94warriors, 88wars, 5, 15–16, 22, 25, 28–29, 32, 36, 39, 43, 46, 48,

85–86, 93–94, 96, 101–102warship, 49warships, 5, 12–13, 49, 51watch, 51, 56, 80water, 46waters, 19, 51, 70waterways, 40way of thinking, 45weak, 12, 76weaker, 37

weakly, 75weakness, 23, 88weaknesses, 6wealth, 10, 20, 95wealthy, 64weapon, 35, 41, 64weaponry, 77, 80weapons, 25, 64, 70, 82, 111, 114, 120weather, 6–7, 19, 57weddings, 24weight, 13Weimar, Bernhard of, 123welcome, 65well-armed, 6well-executed, 69well-known, 50well-trained, 79, 94Wenzel-Anton, Count of Rittberg-Kaunitz, 90west, 77, 84–86, 92West Indies, 86, 108western, 39, 70, 88Western Europe, 98, 100, 102, 112, 125, 126Westphalia(n), 109, 120, 123, 125Whig, 90whipped, 91white, 8–10, 14, 53, 55, 58whole, 50widespread, 32, 34widowed, 86wife, 85Wildeshausen, 123Wilhelmine, sister of Frederick II of Prussia, 91William I, king of England and the Netherlands, 106William II of Orania [Orange], 90William Pitt the Elder, 90William Shakespeare, 100William (see Frederick William I of Prussia)willing, 46willingly, 34win, 5, 16, 27, 43, 46, 53, 55–56, 76, 91–92wind, 52–54window, 5, 8–11, 13, 15–16, 20, 23, 31, 33, 38, 46,

49, 51, 56–58, 61, 67, 71, 76, 77, 95windows, 8winds, 80wine, 63, 65–66, 82wing, 48winner, 4–5winners, 29winning, 4–5, 43, 46, 48, 69wins, 43, 50winter, 6–7, 16, 57, 64wipe out, 55, 75wiped out, 56wise, 12, 79–80wish, 5, 7, 9, 13–14, 17, 33–34, 36–37, 42, 49, 53withdraw, 55, 68withdrawals, 60withdrawing, 55, 68withdrawn, 60withdraws, 54–55Witt, Jan de, 89Wittenberg, 32, 99Wladyslaw IV Vasa of Poland-Lithuania, 93–94wolf, 64

150

Europa Universalis


Wolff, Christian, 102women, 44, 84won, 28, 44, 47–48, 80, 92, 94woods, 24, 51wool, 12, 63–64, 66, 84, 86, 116work, 8, 14, 30, 32, 34, 44, 69, 84, 96worked, 50, 74, 86working, 61workings, 87works, 9, 67workshops, 82world, 3, 6–8, 10, 12, 17, 21, 29, 31, 35, 38, 41, 46,

65–66, 68–69, 71, 74–77, 79, 84–85, 115world wars, 101worn out, 57, 79worse, 84, 86worsen, 15, 37, 47worsening, 37, 41worth, 43Wrangel, 123wrath, 22, 31writers, 102written, 37written off, 40, 67

Yyacht, 37year, 6–7, 18, 29–32, 36, 45, 55, 59, 67, 72, 76, 79,

90, 93–96yearly, 12, 39years, 3, 5–6, 22, 25, 28, 33, 37–38, 44, 47, 51, 58,

65, 67, 74, 83, 85–87, 89–91, 93yellow, 9, 58yield, 68young, 44, 88, 91younger, 93youngest, 92youth, 86, 94Yuste, San, 84Yusuf al-Sim’ani, 102

ZZamoyski, Jan, 93Zanzibar, 115Zaporogian, 113, 118Zealand, 52, 104, 123zero, 20, 31, 58zinc, 64zone, 13, 19, 51–55, 58, 75–76, 79zones, 6–7, 9–10, 19, 21, 50–51, 54, 58, 75, 77, 96Zumarhausen, 108Zwingli, Ulrich, 32

151

Europa Universalis


152

Europa Universalis

Paradox Entertainment:PRESIDENT Nils Gulliksson EXECUTIVE PRODUCER Fredrik Malmberg PRODUCER HenrikStrandberg ASSISTANT PRODUCER Klas Berndal LEAD PROGRAMMER Johan Andersson

PROGRAMMERS Linus Blomberg Che Lalic Niklas Smedberg ASSISTANT PROGRAMMINGBenjamin Abraham Erik Jonsson Roger Karlsson Jon Kågström Emil Norrman Richard

Löwgren Viktor Blomberg Patrik Backlund LEAD ARTIST Daniel Nygren ARTISTS Tony BaggeStefan Jalke Claes Wikdahl FMV SEQUENCES Nils Gulliksson Henrik Holmberg Hannes Rhodin

ADDITIONAL ART Fredrik Lundberg Jonni Teittinen Tony Warfvinge PROJECT LEAD HenrikStrandberg DESIGN Klas Berndal Johan Andersson Henrik Strandberg Philippe Thibaut BASED

ON BOARDGAME BY Philippe Thibaut SCENARIO DESIGN Johan Andersson Joakim BergqwistPhilippe Thibaut ADDITIONAL SCENARIO DESIGN Klas Berndal Heiko Brendel Matthew Wallhead

Michael Czerkawski MUSIC Lieblich Sound Design MANUAL Joakim Bergqwist TRANSLATIONHeiko Brendel Joakim Bergqwist Henrik Strandberg Bo Abrahamsson COVER DESIGN Nils

Gulliksson Daniel Nygren Dick Sjöström Gustav Fogelström TEST MANAGER Johan AnderssonTESTERS Alain Neuvens Alvaro Prada Andy Moroff Anthony Wardlow Brad Burton BuzzPounds Carlos E Palau Chad Peterson Christian Denizon Christian Nilsson Christopher

E.Johnsson Craig Richardsson Dan Waldeck Daniel Belovic Daniel Beswick Dave Smith DavidLopez Edward Kendrick Elia Morling Elio Padoano Emmanuel Doussot Eric Piatysek Erik

Iversen Eskil Swahn Etienne Lescanne Fabrice Perolla Frank Thein Gabriele BianchiniGraham Dodge Gunnar Bylund Hakan Bernefors Heiko Brendel Henrik RothÈn HenrikStaffas James Gemmill Jason Townsend Jean-Francois Courco Jeff Bogenschneider Jeff

Canha Jeff Vitous Jens Kullenius Jerome Trift Joakim Bergqwist Johan Ristrand Jon PessanoJonas Hasselrot Jonas Oxgaard Jean-Philippe Duflot Julian Barker Justin Tefft Jörgen

Andreasson Ken Waters Kent Närling Kevin Pankhurst Lawrence Durham Lynn WilliamsMarc Buytendijk Marcus Maunula Mark Wilkinsson Martin Hinves Mathias Larsson Mats

Björnlund Matthew Wallhead Mattias Ohlsson Maurice Northey Michael Treasure MichaelCzerkawski Mikael Hagman Mike Strong Nathaniel Gousset Nicholas Chazottes Niklas Goop

Olle Tidblad Olof Hällqvist Paolo Ciarlo Paul Lee Paul Tittle Per Ekman Per-Arne HanssonPeter Juhl Phil Charlot Pierre France Pierre Toulouze Robert Miller Rodney Ebersole ScottBraley Sebastien Bachet Step Lindqvist Stephane Adamiak Stephane Baubillier StephaneDavid Stephen Schoenberger Stephen Szymanski Sukhvinder Branas Tobias MagnussonTom Bernandy Tom Wallach Tom van Sant Trevor Schmidt Tyler Penfield Ulf Ström VaiosTriandafilis Wilhelm Österberg Ville Virrakoski William Bliss Vladimir Pavic Yann DenoualSPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS Fredrik Malmberg Frederick U. Fierst Bruno de Scoraille Magnus

Nedfors Tom Olsson Andres Rocabado Christopher Sundberg Stefan Thulin Steve Pillinger


euro pa universal is 1 manual

Documents