European Group for Public Administration (EGPA)

International Group of Administrative Science (IIAS)

2013 EGPA Annual Conference. Edinburg, Scotland. 11-13 September, 2013.

Smart Cities: comparisons between Latin American and European

approaches. Challenges and opportunities.

Authors: Gigli, Patricio (patriciogigli@gmail.com) and Stalker, Germán

(stalkerger@gmail.com).

Institution: Center for Public Policies for Equity and Growth (CIPPEC, www.cippec.org).

Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Although there is an increasing interest in ‘knowledge cities’, there is a low

academic production in the state of art regarding what ‘smart cities’ are. Usually, the idea

of ‘smart cities´ differ depending on the country in which it is devised, and it is hard to

find a common position on what the specific meaning of a ‘smart city’ amongst academics

is. For example, while European countries include sustainable development in the

concept, United States and United Kingdom emphasize the use of technologies. In Latin

America, there is an optimistic perception regarding the use of technologies for urban

planning and public management of local governments.

The authors, are slightly more skeptical about the advances that directly link the

use of technologies with a better relationship between citizens and local governments. The

purpose of this article is to take a look at different definitions offered by specialists in

European, and American countries about ‘smart cities’, and analyze them from a critical

perspective. Hence, we can subsequently offer a conceptual framework of a definition

from an empirical approach. Thus, placing special emphasis on developing countries,

which takes into account the political, social, technological and economical context in

which cities, riddled with contradictions and inequality, can share knowledge and attempt

to solve common problems in a relatively effective manner. The components of the

concept include government, quality of life, environment, sustainable development,

economy and citizen participation, as well as mobility and infrastructure.

Finally, we set out a reflection on some challenges and demands that city

governments face to advance towards forms of development based on knowledge, which

make cities smarter in the sense that they can find effective solutions to common

problems.

Introduction "What is today the city for us? I have written something as a last love poem to the cities, where

it is increasingly difficult to live in them as cities. Perhaps we are approaching a crisis of urban life,

and the invisible cities are a dream that comes from the heart of the cities one can no longer live in"

reflected, in 1983, Ítalo Calvino, one of the most prominent Italian writers of the mid-

twentieth century: a warning, in a way, about the challenges of cities management after

World War II.

However, what was becoming of the big cities to middle of the last century? The

new profile industrialist who adopted the metropolitan regions became the general

promise of a better life, but with the massive migration from the outskirts of large urban

centres, came increased management challenges that had to be faced by government

teams. Among them, and above all, the increased demand for services and the

accumulation of new functions, in a context of an increasing scarcity of resources.

By the end of the twentieth century this trend was not only reversed but

enhanced by becoming politically administrative centres and engines of economic activity

(and not exclusively industrialist, but rather diversified and focused in the service sector).

Nowadays, more and more people are living and working in cities, and more and more

people want to live and work there in the future. By 2050, according to United Nations

estimates, seven out of ten people will be living in cities.

In this scenario, and beyond the differences printed by the national-regional

context, and the social and cultural patterns in each case, the most populated cities in the

world like New York (USA), Tokyo (Japan), Mumbai (India), Shanghai (China), Rio de

Janeiro (Brazil) and Buenos Aires (Argentina), among others, are facing similar

challenges.

What are the main challenges for urban governance teams? Among other

things, improving the public service delivery and increasing the quality standards

required by that provision, the promotion of sustainable economic development, with

environmental protection and efficient use of energy resources to deal with the increased

demand, use of new information technologies to accelerate communication and

transactions between government and civil society, and to promote citizen participation in

public affairs, new sustainable transport policies to moderate the collapse of public

transport in the metropolitan area and particularly in the central areas, greater

transparency and openness of public data to empower civil society and policy design

comprehensive safety and crime prevention, also by new technologies.

Specialists in local management, local officials and representatives of the private

sector and civil society organizations argue that cities can overcome these challenges

successfully to the extent if they succeed in adopting a new state-centric and citizen-

oriented and essentially participatory model, in synergy with other actors (companies,

third sector and other governments), especially through the implementation of new

technologies, enabling new solutions at low cost in the long run. Coining, in this way, an

expression that seems to have monopolized the debate and reflection on the local agenda

in international academic circles: this is the time for smart cities.

The convincing interest in this phenomenon is reflected in international

conferences, journals, and even in the institutional organization of some local

governments. Articles in newspapers and magazines, interviews with experts and

presentations at conferences and seminars monopolize the debate on local government

agenda. Some local governments, as Buenos Aires City Government in Argentina, and

enterprises also created areas dedicated to understanding the challenges of city

management under the paradigm of the smart city.

Today there is no academic agreement on what smart cities really are. What

are smart cities? And what is even richer in terms of good governance, what are smart

cities for?

This paper will try to find answer to all these questions. Firstly, it will offer a

collection of definitions, from different approaches, addressing the phenomenon of smart

cities around the world. Secondly, critical perspective will be analyzed in these approaches

and provide an adjusted definition about the city management experience in Latin

America. Thirdly, we will discuss about the challenges of managing of cities in emerging

countries.

1. What is a Smart City? Under the exponential growth of new technologies of information and communication

arises in the world a new political paradigm, social and urban city management. This

phenomenon, which is complex and multidimensional, generates great interest in the

academic world but also increases in the field of public administration although there is

still no consensus on its definition.

What are smart cities? It should be noted that there is a theoretical vacuum in

the state of art of the matter. There is no single definition that can be used and accepted in

all times and places, but on the contrary, different definitions that could be fit to the social,

political and economic context in which they are produced (Chourabi H. et al: 2012). The

concept is still emerging and their use around the world is taking on different

nomenclatures and meanings.

In many cases, the term is considered a synonym for other similar concepts that

have more dissemination and use in the academic environment, such as digital cities,

sustainable cities, resilient cities, intelligent communities, among others.

Box 1. Term used by world region / continent.

Northamerica Europe Asia

Terminology used

to refer to Smart

Cities

Intelligent city/

Intelligent

community/ Digital

community

Smart city/ Eco city Smart

city/Digital

city/ Ubiquitus

city

1.1 Some definitions proposed and different approaches

The survey work about specific bibliography on smart cities confirmed our first

hypothesis: there are quite a few and different definitions. In this section we will

mention some of them.

Box 2. Diferent definitions about Smart Cities.

Authors/Institutions Definition

Centre Of Regional Science (2007) Vienna University of Technology “Smart Cities. Ranking of European medium-sized cities”

A city that develops in a prospective in six areas: 1) Economics 2) citizens: human and social capital, 3) Governance / Participation, 4) Transport and Mobility, 5) Environment / Natural Resources 6) Quality of Life, based on the intelligent combination of endowments and activities of citizens.

Robert Hall (2000) 2nd International Life Extension Technology Worshop. “The Vision of a Smart City”

A city that monitors and integrates all the conditions of basic infrastructure to optimize and improve their resources, planning preventive maintenance activities, supervise the security aspects and maximize the services to citizens.

Caragliu et al. (2009) Politecnico di Milano, Italia, “Smart Cities in Europe”

A city in which the investments in human capital, social capital and traditional infrastructures (transport) and modern (ICT) communication are a sustainable fuel for the economic growth and for the improvements in the quality of life, with an intelligent management of naturañ human resources through citizen participation.

Toppeta, D. (2010) “The Smart City Vision: How Innovation and ICT can build smart, liveable, and sustainable cities”

A city that combines ICT and web technology 2.0 designing and planning efforts to dematerialize and streamline governmental administrative processes and help to identify new and innovative solutions to the complexity of managing the city.

Telefonica Company (2011) “Smart Cities, un primer paso hacia la internet de las cosas”

City that uses ICT to make both their critical infrastructure, its components and public services offered, more interactive and efficient (...) A city where investments in human and social capital, and communication infrastructure encourage economic

development sustainable high quality of life, with a wise management of natural resources by participatory government, the first step towards the Internet of things.

European Commision (2012) The cities and the smart communities are a a model that integrates energy, transport, information, communication, aiming to catalyze progress in areas where i) the production, distribution and use of energy, ii) mobility and transport, iii) the information technology and communication are closely linked and offer new interdisciplinary opportunities to improve services and reduce the consumption of resources: energy, greenhouse, gases and other pollutants emissions.

In general terms, it recognizes smarts cities as areas of innovation, cities that

promote effectiveness, efficiency and transparency in government management, by

using new technology, the promotion of sustainable development, efficient use of

resources and new sustainable ways of mobility in the city.

Apart from the general conceptualizations of the terms used (all of which

coincide with smart cities as areas of innovation) we can identify through the analysis of

the definitions proposed by specialists, and even the risk of falling into tendentious

generalizations, different approaches in different regions of the world.

Firstly, it could be said that in Europe the focus seems to be centered on the

social and human element of the city. Smart cities are areas of collaboration of the

different social partners for a better quality of life for the community and sustainable

development. Although there is no emphasis on the definition it might be on the end, the

purpose of a smart city, and not on their means. Smart cities are smart cities when

achieving conformity to the known parameters of sustainable development.

On the other hand, the Anglo-Saxon and Asian approach seems to be focused on

the technological component: cities are smarts when use, and generate, technological

advantage in partnership with companies to achieve better, effective and efficient

government administration. The focus is on the opportunities offered by new

technologies as a means: the intelligence is in the use of technological tools and not

necessarily an end objective.

Finally, it should be pointed out the role played in different parts of the world

by the technology companies in the definition and conceptualization of the term.

The distinction of the different approaches of each region in the world are not

meant to be at all exhaustive, but rather the beginning of a study intending to better

understand the phenomenon of intelligent cities from the theoretical point of view.

1.2 The need for an approach to the emerging cities

As discussed below, these definitions make sense in terms of social, political,

economic and cultural causes to them, and logically so.

Therefore, the export of concepts from the experience that gave rise to, without

modification, any questioning or adaptation, to other different contexts, is not the best

option. Hence, the need to build and think a definition that fits the constraints,

opportunities and realities of the great cities of Latin America, came across, perhaps even

more than the rest of the cities of the world, contradictions and inequalities still

unliquidated.

Is it possible to talk about smart cities in Latin America? What are smart cities

in this region? In the next section of this paper, we will offer a conceptual framework of a

definition from an empirical approach.

2. An empirical approach The approach that we are proposing is to consider the implementation of urban public

policies from a comprehensive approach that includes the concept of governance or good

governance (Aguilar Villanueva: 2007), understood as a process of articulating public

decisions that characterized the relationship between state and contemporary society.

It involves building politics with mechanisms of consensus, contracts and

guarantees for the participation of various neighbours, social organizations, third sector

business organizations, intermediate entities, as well as each of the organizations from the

public sector. It covers both internal and external management, city's attention on the

claims and demands of citizens, optimizing the use of technology, simplifying formalities,

access to public information and municipal decentralization with three strategic objectives.

Smart Cities are possible only with a context of effective decentralization.

Moreover, the perspective of its implementations should be inclusive. Not only as

receiving and responding to citizen punctual demands, but as the application give the

procedure and treatment to enable the satisfaction of citizens. So that an improvement

process that understands the attention to citizens only as reception and response will be

insufficient and operate just like a makeover, without attacking the central knots demand

management:

Box 3. Municipal decentralization must with three strategic objectives.

Improve the effectiveness of municipal services through the deconcentration of administrative formalities.

Promote territorial development and urban-environmental improvements in different districts.

Strengthen democracy and build citizenship from the implementation of different levels of participation.

Experience indicates that the opening for direct citizen involvement in defining

public policies helps to build a functioning state in an honest and austere fashion,

establishing the idea that it is possible to combine efficiency with transparency to

improve satisfaction for essential rights.

Moreover, the continuing modernization of the municipal state and the increase

in efficiency to improve the care of citizens as essential elements of government

management should be a strategic decision that will takes shape both at the normative

level, as in the daily management of public resources. At the same time, providing

different levels of interaction between citizens and local government either via Web

applications or portal technology that will be developed as through traditional channels,

and will be allow for two-way communication between users and governments. It should

aim to ensure personalized attention, not in person but in virtual form.

The principles that will guide our approach to the project of a smart city are:

Principle of service to citizens;

Principle of transparency;

Participation Principle;

Principle of equity;

Proximity principle;

Principles of efficiency, effectiveness and economy;

Synergy generation principle;

Principle of administrative simplification and,

Principle of interoperability.

Another of the central components is to improve the accessibility of public

information. The digitization of individual site plans, the medical history and local

government regulations are some basic steps to take. These tasks operate as a precondition

to improve access to information held by the municipal state. Moreover, they are inputs

for the effective exercise of citizen participation and accountability. In fact, the

information that governments produce and shelter belongs to the public, who can use that

information to monitor, evaluate and contribute to the formulation of public policies.

Ultimately, the implementation expects the intervention of public policy in the

city to move towards the inclusive growth. In the same sense, it is important to live in a

city that protects its environment through projects, educational experiences and

experiences of promoting environmental quality and sustainable development, and a city

that in its urban design improves social and environmental conditions in which it

operates.

3. Future Challenges for developing countries.

3.1 The substantive challenge

We mentioned that the incorporation of information technology and

communications (ICT) are producing profound changes in people's daily lives in their

social and working environment, in the activity of enterprises, organizations and

institutions, as well as in human and economic relations. These changes represent

unimaginable opportunities in what is related to the improving of delivering public

services and in the development of forms of governments more open and participatory. In

other words, more smart.

While applications and services through electronic government (E-Gov) exhibit

a continuous expansion and development, policies and E-Gov programs are at an

inflection point in this region: they must placed the citizens, specially vulnerable

population, in a central position, in order to consolidate the progress made, and make a

qualitative leap in the modernization of the State and transparency focusing on social

inclusion.

Overall, the implementation of any policy is to carry out a basic policy decision

that defines the problem to be solved and stipulates the objectives, and when it gets to be

put into action, unleashing opportunities, expectations, powers and interests involving

workloads and responsibilities. Implementation forms vary according to the different

cultures and institutional arrangements in which it develops.

That is why, the challenge of implementation is achieved as long as public

servants orient their actions to the satisfaction of citizens and by variables of ethical

behaviour. Converting into concrete results, a political decision means knowing that there

are expectations and opportunities, time and multiplicity of actors, interests and

responsibilities that must be taken into account throughout the implementation process.

Hence, the implementation of strategies for smart cities consists in a complex

and confrontational processes, that demands searching for a way to integrate differences

and coordination and result in a harmonious and effective collective action. The target that

should guide this process should always be the citizens themselves.

To do so, cities should have a master plan for use and applicate technologies to

establish general guidelines for local government action in the matter, which will guide

the municipality in the use and strategic incorporation of ICT, with a horizon medium and

long term. The plan will guide the process of incorporating new technologies in various

processes and functions carried out by local governments, anticipating scenarios and

addressing different perspectives on the subject.

With a plan of these characteristics, local governments are formed as catalysts of

the use of technology among citizens in cities and local organization to improve services to

citizens in an inclusive manner.

However, the incorporation of technology in the provision of government

services and the delivery of public goods, is basically a means: technologies are just tools.

This means that they are not good nor bad in themselves. Public policy is there to guide

the critical appropriation process, adequate adaptation and an intelligent use,

anticipating the consequences and scenarios that may arise in the medium term.

In order to strengthen and streamline the use of technology in the relationship

of the neighbours, the neighbours and businesses with the municipalities, as well as with

the idea of making full use of its benefits, use planning and application of technology will

determine the general principles of action of the local municipal government in the matter.

Will provide guidance to local governments for the use and implementation of

ICT, according to the axes defined for the modernization of the local state and system

policies. Some of the questions to be answered by a master plan are:

What are the main challenges and opportunities faced by the local government to make intensive use of ICT aimed at improving the quality of management and democracy?

What are the main goals that can compromise the local government over the medium and long term?

What are the main economics, human and cultural conditions for an efficient incorporation of ICT in municipalities?

What outstanding characteristics can be obtained from successful experiences of public agencies that used the technology to improve the relationship with citizens? Can these characteristics be replicated in other municipalities considering their context?

What lessons can be drawn to strengthen the link between local governments and citizens through the use of ICT?

Afterward, starts the period of diagnosis and survey of the current situation of

the municipality in terms of citizen services. At this stage, it is intended that the consulting

contribute information to understand and evaluate the current process in municipal

citizen service, while input-basis for the further development of a comprehensive model of

municipal management in the field.

The plan should establish the basic guidelines for a management model that includes:

The standardized and contain the interactions between the Municipality and / female citizens regarding claims, proceedings complaints and consultations

through a conceptual framework including comprehensive and coherent organizational process redesign.

The design, development and installation of technology solutions are comprehensive and specific.

Training of officials and city staff.

Focusing on the citizen as the center of electronic government overcome by the factors that determine the current exclusion of citizens in the management of e-Government with appropriate strategies to the mainstream citizen.

Giving priority to those social sectors that are excluded and vulnerable through innovative pathways for disadvantaged sectors are the biggest beneficiaries of the benefits of e-government and m-government as well as to shape strategies for its use by the recipients.

Promoting the sustainability of e-government with the mechanisms and factors that determine the sustainability of e-government solutions (political, social, organizational, technical, financial, etc.).

Promoting Open Government models. Establishing the factors that facilitate or inhibit the implementation of ICT can support and render the concept, model and Open Government premises and to translate strategies to implementation.

Interoperability (IO). Delivering quality public services to citizens through the use of ICT requires the reformulation of public processes. The concept of IO exceeds the required technical-computing and solving technological, informational, organizational, regulatory, legal and socio-cultural. It is a cluster of challenges to be addressed by municipalities and sometimes come into tension with management routines, habits, customs and processes that, in turn crossed by cultural variables, are not focused on ICT.

Agenda security and data protection information management. It requires the development of a strategy for strengthening and sophistication of security measures of information.

Planning should answer the question of: What place is the government and

where it should be as a provider of public technologies, and what we should know in the

medium and long term to support the advancement of the use of technology to transform

the Municipality?

3.2 Other challenges regarding academic production and public administration

In this section we will try to account for a series of challenges that, in our view,

smart government agenda is facing nowadays in the cities of the region.

- It is necessary to contribute, within academic spaces in the region renowned

for building a sustainable agenda of innovation for our local governments.

Regional universities and study centres still don't provide specific study plans or courses

for graduated students to train public administrators . Projects of a smart city require

intervention from specialised professionals of a vast array of disciplines . Training of these

specialised professionals would be great , as they will be able to address issues in the most

integral and holistic way for the projects of this new agenda.

- The initiatives of a smart city of a region are isolated and uncoordinated.

The governments of cities in the region have absorbed in their work agendas innovation

challenges in the era of smart cities, although the initiatives implemented under this

approach are uncoordinated, often the rest of government policies. In this sense the lack of

coordination among various government still adds the lack of coordination between

governments and businesses, civil society organizations and educational institutions.

- There are no areas dedicated to issues related with smart cities in the local

government organization.

In general, local governments in the region have not made any progress in translating the

effort for the innovation in creating areas dedicated to the management of smart city

projects. The City of Buenos Aires (Argentina) is an exception: in December 2011 it created

the first DG Smart City projects within the scope of the Ministry of Modernization.

- It is not easy to develop a methodology which could allow us to have a

universal advance in cities under the concept of smart city.

As there is no universal valid conceptualization of smart cities, thus it must be adapted to

take into account the social, political, economic and cultural context given. It is not

possible to develop a methodology that can measure the progress of a universal city under

this concept.

4. Final reflections

We said that cities can successfully overcome the challenges to the extent that

they succeed in adopting a new management model, state-centric with a focus on citizen

participation, in synergy with other actors (with companies, NGOs and also with other

governments), particularly through the implementation of new technologies, enabling

new solutions at low cost in the long run.

To do this, it should include structural devices, legal, organizational, cultural

and technological developments to balance the situation, meeting the rights and

obligations with reasonable costs. Among other activities, including: the continuous risk

management to achieve balance cost / benefit, the uniformity of institutional security

policies for the Information Systems and Administrative Management, the development of

IT practices for secure data handling, and documentation of best practices for backup, data

protection and elimination in secondary support.

The smart city phenomenon has attracted the interest of local governments

and businesses, also in some cases has created areas dedicated to understanding the

challenges of city management under the paradigm of smart cities. While trends in this

area do not provide for substantive changes, except the deepening and appropriation of

technologies by state actors, business, and people in general, the fact is that this process

requires providing a strategic framework and being designed, engineered and developed

by the local government, for the inhabitants of the city.

Today there is no academic consensus on what smart cities really are. What are

smart cities? And what is even richer in terms of good governance, smart cities are for

what?

The establishment of a recognized and accepted management model, applicable

in any organization and in different institutional different contexts, not only is a difficult

task. Furthermore, it is of doubtful application to public bodies, while certain assumptions

can not be transplanted uncritically. However, it is possible to identify some

characteristics, compared experiences and recommendations that can to guide the

discussion:

Encourage a cultural transformation in governance with the idea that citizen participation is a responsibility of rulers and ruled. As you can see, participation should be seen in terms of "co-production" between government and citizens. And this takes time. The effort to change the behaviour of large numbers of people, requires a conceptual framework and technical skills that can be adjusted to different contexts as well as a temporary look of medium and long term to implement the policy that makes possible changes.

Abate the gap in technical and human capacities installed inside the entities required to achieve an improvement and efficiency in public administration supported by

the use of IT and 2) ensuring that these new developments will be useful to society, promote greater social participation, accountability and innovative initiatives coming from the social sphere.

Apply processes approaches. This perspective, can include counselling for public organizations to achieve concrete , measurable results and have an impact on the fulfillment of the strategic objectives.

The implementation of ICT. Sensibility is required for internal structures of local governments as well as the public about the advantages of digital democracy, and training them in the use of the mentioned technologies in various democratic processes. To position the issue, the public interest not only trigger a wider debate about it but also the use of digital democracy resources to enhance citizen participation in all aspects of democratic life.

The transparency and the right of access to information. Indeed, the supply of information by public institutions is not the result of a grace or favor of those in power, but an obligation for republican states. Access to information held by government is a human right for people whose counterpart is the duty of states to deliver the data in a complete, adequate and timely accurate.

Ultimately, the prospect proposal aims to change the administration, focused on

your needs by managing the needs of the citizens, the opacity and discretionary use of

power by the transparency and access to information based management standards and

functions for standards-based management and results management for the

implementation of budget management to achieve objectives and goals, conducting

individual and repetitive tasks by encouraging innovation and teamwork; based controls

tradition for the ongoing accountability and controls in terms of management and results.

Bibliography

ACUÑA, Carlos. “La política de la modernización estatal: Notas comparando la experiencia europea

con la latinoamericana (con foco en la argentina)”. Universidad de San Andrés, Departamento de

Humanidades, Documento de Trabajo N° 45, Victoria. (2008).

AGUILAR VILLANUEVA, Luis F. “La implementación de las políticas públicas”, Colección Antologías

de Política Pública, Tomo IV, Miguel Ángel Porrúa, 2ª edición, 1996, México.

AGUILAR VILLANUEVA, Luis F. -“El aporte de la política pública y la Nueva Gestión Pública a la

gobernanza” Conferencia Plenaria presentada en el XII Congreso Internacional del CLAD sobre la

Reforma del Estado y de la Administración Pública, Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, 30 oct. - 2 nov.

2007.

CARAGLIU, A. et al. “Smart Cities in Europe. Conference Proceedings, 3rd Central European

Conference in Regional Science”. (2009).

CENTRE OF REGIONAL SCIENCE. “Smart Cities. Ranking of European medium-sized cities”. (2007).

http://www.smart-cities.eu/download/smart_cities_final_report.pdf

CENTRO LATIOAMERICANO DE ADMINISTRACIÓN PARA EL DESARROLLO (CLAD). “Carta

Iberoamericana de Participación Ciudadana en la Gestión Pública, aprobada por la XI Conferencia

Iberoamericana de Ministros de Administración Pública y Reforma del Estado.

http://www.clad.org/documentos/declaraciones/carta-iberoamericana-de-participacion-

ciudadana

CENTRO LATIOAMERICANO DE ADMINISTRACIÓN PARA EL DESARROLLO (CLAD). “Carta

Iberoamericana de Calidad en la Gestión Pública”, adoptada por la XVIII Cumbre Iberoamericana,

El Salvador, octubre de 2008. http://www.clad.org/documentos/declaraciones/carta-

iberoamericana-de-calidad-en-la-gestion-publica/view

CONCHA, Gastón y NASER, Alejandra. “Datos abiertos: Un nuevo desafío para los gobiernos de la

región”. CEPAL. (2012).

CHOURABI, H. et al. “Understanding Smart Cities: An Integrative Framework, Conference

Proceedings, 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences”. IEEE Computer Society.

(2012).

http://www.ctg.albany.edu/publications/journals/hicss_2012_smartcities/hicss_2012_smartcities.

pdf

CRIADO, J. y COROJAN, A. “¿Pueden las TICS, cambiar la transparencia, la lucha contra la

corrupción y rendición de cuentas en los gobiernos latinoamericanos?” http://halshs.archives-

ouvertes.fr/docs/00/53/15/27/PDF/AT15_Criado-Corojan.pdf

EUROPEAN COMMISION. “Informe sobre Smart Cities y Comunicación”. (2012).

http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm.

GARCÍA, D. (2009). “¿Existen las ciudades ubicuas? Estado actual de las aproximaciones Europea y

Coreana”. Revista RCT-CINTEL. Volumen 16, ed. 51.

HALL, R. “The vision of a smart city”. 2nd International Life Extension Technology Workshop, París,

Francia.

OLAVARRÍA GAMBI, Mauricio. “La Institucionalización y gestión estratégica del acceso a la

información y la transparencia activa en Chile”, BID, CPLT, 2012, Santiago, Chile.

http://www.consejotransparencia.cl/cplt-lanza-libro-sobre-la-experiencia-en-la-

institucionalizacion-y-gestion-del-derecho-de-acceso/consejo/2012-03-15/131337.html

POGGI, Eduardo, “Evolución de los Sistemas de Información”, 2008. Documento elaborado para el

Curso de Implementación de la Carta Iberoamericana de Gobierno Electrónico realizado por el

INAP de Argentina y el CLAD entre 2008 y 2011.

SOTO, Jorge. “Tecnología y Participación ciudadana en la construcción democrática” Instituto

Electoral y de Participación Ciudadana de Jalisco (IFE), Programa de Naciones Unidas para el

Desarrollo, (PNUD), México, 2011.

http://web.iepcjalisco.org.mx/sites/default/files/Libro%20Tecnologia.pdf

STALKER, Germán. “Empleo público, nuevas tecnologías y gobernabilidad. La incorporación de la

perspectiva del ciudadano en la gestión pública.” Revista de Derecho Público. Rubinzal-Culzoni

Editores. Empleo público - II. Año 2012 - 2. Directores: Hutchinson, Tomás, Rosatti, Horacio Daniel.

2012.

STALKER, Germán. “Participación Ciudadana en las decisiones públicas. La Ley de Comunas de la

Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires: interrogantes y desafíos” en “Contraloría y participación social

en la gestión pública”. Ed. Centro Latinoamericano para el Desarrollo, (CLAD). Caracas, Venezuela.

http://www.clad.org/portal/publicaciones-del-clad/libros/mas-informacion/contraloria-y-

participacion-social-en-la-gestion-publica/

STALKER, Germán. “El Acceso a la Información Pública como un Derecho Humano. Principio

General y Excepciones en el fallo de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos Claude Reyes

v/Gobierno de Chile”, Revista Rap N° 386, año XXXIII, 2010, pág. 103. www.rapdigital.com

TELEFÓNICA FOUNDATION. “Smart Cities, un primer paso hacia la internet de las cosas”.

http://www.fundacion.telefonica.com

TOPPETA, D. “The Smart City Vision: How Innovation and ICT can build smart, liveable, and

sustainable cities”. (2010).

http://www.thinkinnovation.org/en/research/research.php?c=2&id=23.

VERGARA, Rodolfo. “La Transparencia como problema”.

http://www.resi.org.mx/icainew/images/Biblioteca/Cuaderno%20transparencia/cuadernillo5.pdf

ZAMBRANO, Raúl. “Nuevas Tecnologías y Gobernabilidad democrática: ¡Hacia una participación

más inclusiva?, en Tecnología y Participación Ciudadana En la construcción democrática” Instituto

Electoral y de Participación Ciudadana de Jalisco, Mèxico, 2011.