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European Training Programme MA Literacy Programme Development- Linguistics for Literacy

Grammar report Alice Eastwood NO TEXTS EDIT2013 04 17.docLfL13 Grammar report Alice Eastwood.doc 1

Language Project

Grammar Report (Note: This assignment is not in its original format. In order to reduce the size of the file, the source texts have been

removed from the Appendices.)

Name of Language: Tado

Name of report writer: Alice Eastwood

Date: February 2013

Title Text 1: Powega Nu Mane Pade Lowei

The Friendship of the Rooster and the Eagle: A

Folktale

Author Text 1: Steven Malonta (source language not known)

Translated to Indonesian by Vitri Caroline

Translated to Tado by Bance Tarua Editors:

Jonathan Coombs (SIL) Janet Oruh (SIL)

Tado Language Development Team

Title Text 1: Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Linduii

The Origin of the Name of Lake Lindu

Author Text 2:

Else Kasumba Editors:

Nurdin Yabu

Lantoh Santika Ezra Tasungki

Bance Tarua Ronald A. Kasumba

Irwanto Tolei

List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning

1/2/3SG. 1st/2nd/3rd person singular

GEN genitive

1/2/3PL. 1st/2nd/3rd person plural

IRR irrealis

1pn 1st person plural inclusive

N noun

1px 1st person plural exclusive

NASP nominal aspect

ABS absolutive

NP noun phrase

Adj adjective NUCN nucleus of a noun phrase

ASP aspect P adposition

CLASS

classifier PERIPHERYN

periphery of a noun

phrase

COMPL completed PP adpositional phrase

CONJ conjunction

PRED predicate

CONTRA contrary to expectations PROPOSS possessive pronoun

COREN core of a noun phrase QNT

quantifier

DEF definite

REAL realis

DEIC deictic (spatial and temporal)

SVO Subject-Verb-Object

emph emphatic

TNS tense

MA Literacy Programme Development- Linguistics for Literacy

2

Table of Contents 1 Typology

1.1 Language Classification and

Location

3

1.2 Description of data

collection process,

methodology

3

2 Noun Phrases 2.1 Noun phrase structure 4

2.2 Noun phrase operators 5 2.3 Noun morphology 8

3 Clause structure – simple sentences

3.1 Basic clause structure 11

3.2 Non-verbal predicate

constructions

12

3.3 Argument Adjuncts 13

3.4 Adjuncts 14 3.5 Operators in the clause 14

3.6 Dependent/head marking 15 3.7 Extra-core slots or

detached positions

16

3.8 Verbal morphology 17 4 Speech act types

4.1 Features of statements,

questions (y/n and content), commands

18

4.2 The expression of different

focus types (especially narrow focus)

18

5 Grammatical relations 5.1 PSA patterning 19 6 Clause structure – complex

sentences

6.1 Evidence of different types

of complex sentences

19

7 Reflection

7.1 Questions for future

research

19

7.2 Lessons learned 19 8 References

20

9 Appendices 9.1 Appendix A

The Friendship of the Rooster and the Eagle: A

Folktale

21

9.2 Appendix B

The Origin of Lake Lindu

43


3

1 Typology

1.1 Language Classification and Location

The Tado language, otherwise known as Lindu, is a language of Central Sulawesi. Like several surrounding

languages, the language is called by the word for ‘no’ (tado). It is the mother tongue of about 2000 peopleiii

in the villages of Anca, Tomado and Langko near Lake Lindu. It is very similar to the neighbouring Moma

language, and considered by some to be a dialect of Moma. Tado is synthetic and agglutinative.

The classification of Tado is:

Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili

1.2 Description of data collection process, methodology

Powega Nu Manu Pade Lowe was one of the earliest texts to be translated to Tado. The text was chosen for analysis in this grammar report because a fully interlinearised version was available. It was interlinearised by

Jonathan Coombs, the SIL linguist who lived in the provincial capital from 2007-8, spending short periods in Lindu, and who facilitated the development of the orthography. His work is foundational to this grammar

report. The translation from Indonesian to English was carried out by Bance Tarua, a member of the Tado

language development team. The text has been thoroughly edited for consistency of spelling by the Tado Language Development Team, Janet Oruh and Jonathan Coombs. Nevertheless, two factors must be taken

into account when reading the text. Firstly, the Tado orthography was developed in 2008 by the newly-formed Tado Language Development team and Janet Oruh (née Watkins) and is still is tentative. Secondly,

because it is a translation by an inexperienced translator and all editors were new to the process of editing Tado, there is a risk that in places Tarua may have adapted his mother tongue to Indonesian word order.

Nevertheless, the text has been in use in three Tado schools since July 2010 and has met with approval

there. The second text, Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu, was written by Else Kasumba during a writers’ workshop

in July 2011. Else is a non-native speaker of Tado who has lived in Lindu for decades. It was subsequently edited by the members of the Tado language development team listed above, all of whom are native

speakers. They were helped by Budy Karmoy, an Indonesian national with knowledge of the Tado orthography. It constitutes one of fourteen texts in the Grade IV textbook for Tado Local Content subject

which was distributed to three Tado-speaking schools in October 2012.

The basic stem formers in Tado are pe- po- paN- pa- which can be thought of as imperative or quasi infinitive. ‘na-‘, ‘naN-, ‘ne-‘ or ‘no-‘ indicate realis. However, when Coombs initially parsed the text Powega

Nu Mane Pade Lowe in the FLEx software he felt it would be simplest to just use small affixes, adding a derivational prefix (stem-formers e- o- aN- a-) to form a bound stem and then add a required inflectional

prefix (p- n- m-) before it, even though the p- is incorrect. This was the system I adopted in parsing the

second text, Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu, too. This means that generally verbs are represented as e.g. ‘eabi/neabi’ instead of the stem ‘peabi’ (‘eabi’ does not in fact exist) or as e.g. ’n-angkondi’, rather than 'n-

pangkondi' or 'n- paN- kondi'. In contrast, this grammar paper, not relying on a computer for parsing,

treats the prefixation as a single merged prefix; e.g. nang-kondi.

The second text was only partially analysed because it proved impossible to understand the exact meaning of the Tado from the loose Indonesian interpretation which I had been sent. Thus, much of the content of

this grammar paper is based on the text analysed by Jonathan Coombs. His version originally provided a

free translation in Indonesian; this has been translated to English for the purposes of this paper.

http://www.ethnologue.com/show_lang_family.asp?code=klw


4

2 Noun Phrases

2.1 Noun phrase structure

i. The basic noun phrase in Tado with a single direct argument can be illustrated as follows:

NP

COREN PP

NUCN P NP

N

kaloua nu manu1

journey of chicken

ii. Nouns may be preceded by classifiers, for example:

NP

COREN PERIPHERY

NUCN Adj

N

sa-mbaaa manu tuama1

1SG-CLASS chicken male

NASP NUCN

COREN

NP


5

‘Sambaa’ is a classifier for chickens. All nouns have classifiers which “are mandatory when there is only one

or two of whatever it is, because sa=[1SG] and ro=[2SG] are bound to the classifier” (Oruh, 2013). So the

word order here is: classifier, noun, adjective.

However, this is flexible. In utterance 14 of the same text, the phrase appears:

141 na- rata manu tina sambaa

TNS

REAL

arrived chicken female 1SG. CLASS

A female chicken arrived.

Reversing the word order in this way is not possible in Indonesian, which excludes the possibility that the

translator was influenced here by the word order of the national language from which he was translating.

Probably, the device is used to bring the word female into focus by moving it from third to second place in

the phrase.

The two sentences above also show that Tado does not mark nouns for gender. If necessary, gender is

indicated by the addition of an adjective.

Additionally, we see that there is no indefinite article in Tado.

2.2 Noun phrase operators

i. Text 2 begins with the following sentence:

12 naria -mo sa- uatu na- tuwu sacamboko lindu

adj exist completed 1SG. time TNS

REAL

live 1SG. pair eel

Once there lived a pair of eels.

However, the subsequent sentence begins:

NP

COREN

NUCN

N

Lindu sa-camboko ei2

Eels 1SG. pair this

NUCN

COREN QNT

NP DEIC

1 Extract from the text Powega Nu Manu Pade Lowe 2 Extract from the text Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu


6

In the above tree we see that the position of the noun and the quantifier is reversed with the addition of

the deictic marker. A similar phrase:

6.12 lindu tina ei

eel female this

This female eel

follows the same pattern, with the deictic marker after the modifier.

The word ‘ei’ (this) appears three times in Text 1 and 14 times in Text 2. The context of each of these

appearances is listed below:

Phrase Gloss Occurrences

1. lindu (sacamboko) ei2 this (pair of) eels 5

2. to poindo ei2 this fisherman 5

3. duna eo ei2 up to this day 2

4. nemo-nemo i ngona i kita ei2 let it not be that we

(emph) get eaten

1

5. nipoili nu lindu tina ei2 The flow of (caused by)

this female eel 1

6. yaku ei nangonco1 I (emph) am looking for 1

7. manu tuama ei1 this cockerel 1

8. bana naronto pade duna ei1 thread is missing till this 1

Here we see that when ‘ei’ follows a pronoun as in example 4 and 6, the effect is to emphasise that

pronoun.


7

The word ‘edou’ is the equivalent of the deictic sense of the English ‘that’. There is no evidence in either text that it also functions as a pronoun. Thus, in the following example it has been represented only in the

operator projection:

CLAUSE

NP NP

COREN COREN

NUCN PERIPHERYN CLM NUCN

PERIPHERYN

NP NP

N Adj N Adj

PROPOSS

bana bulawa pade jaru bulawa=ku edou

thread gold with needle gold=my that

NUCN

COREN

NP DEIC

The possessive in Tado can be formed using the clitic ‘nu’. ‘Nu’ is written separately from the noun it modifies, unless that noun begins with a plosive or 's', in which case it is assimilated. E.g nu sou becomes

ncou (of the house) and lampi nu paa becomes lampi mpaa (meaning=???).

Translation: That gold thread and

those gold needles of mine

(Utterance 9.1)


8

NP

COREN

NUCN PP

N P NP

kondia nu manu ee1

food poss chicken DEF

NUCN

COREN

NP DEF

2.3 Noun morphology

Whilst independent pronouns do exist in Tado, more frequently they appear as clitics attached to verb

phrases or to nouns.

TADO Indep Erg/Abs Erg.IR (proclitic)

Gen/Erg.RL (enclitic)

Abs (enclitic)

1s yaku ku= =ku =ku .

2s iko mu= / ?nu= =mu . =ko

3s ia na= =na =ya / ?=a .

1pn kita/ikita ta= =ta =ta .

1px ikami ka= =ka =ka .

2p komi/ikomi mi= / ?ni= =mi . =komi / ?=mi

3p isira ra= =ra =ra .

(Coombs 2008: 2)

Free translation:

The rooster’s food


9

The examples below illustrate the enclitics marking the genitive case.

Examples:

NP

COREN

NUCN PP

N P NP

wega =na lowe ee1

friend 3SG.GEN eagle the

NUCN

COREN

NP DEF

Possession is marked here by the pronoun =na which is attached to the head noun, even though

syntactically it belongs to the adpositional phrase. Thus the same word order is preserved as with the clitic

‘nu’ (see 2.1 above).

NP

COREN

NUCN PROPOSS

N PERIPHERY

Adj

pale bula =ku

hand white 1SG.GEN

Here, possession is marked by the pronoun =ku which is phonologically attached to the adjective rather

than to the noun but applies to whole NP.

Translation: The eagle’s friend

(Utterance 21)

Free Translation:

Honestly, …. (Utterance 22)

Commented [u1]: Hmm. That's not very satisfying to me. My

intuition is that the =na and the lowe ee are both (redundantly) modifying wega, rather than =na doing the same thing that nu does. -

Jon


10

NP

COREN CONJ COREN

PROPOSS

NUCN NUCN

N N

Sampulu jaru pade bana =mu

Ten needle with thread =2SG.GEN

NUCN NUCN

QNT COREN COREN

NP NP

Here, the pronoun =mu attaches phonologically to the second of the two nouns it modifies. Note that like other Austronesian languages Tado does not mark nouns for number: if necessary, a separate quantifier is

provided (as in ‘sampulu jaru’ above). Thus, in the text Powega Nu Mane Pade Lowe, we cannot tell from the

grammar whether the needle is singular or plural until Utterance 22.

Nouns are not marked for case.

Translation: Your thread and ten needles

(Utterance 22)

(Utterance 21)


11

3 Clause structure – simple sentences

3.1 Basic CLAUSE structure

CLAUSE

CORE PERIPHERY

NP NUC NP PP

COREp

PRED PROPOSS NUCP NP

PRED

P

manu nang-onco kondia =na ri laentongo nu ngambaa ee

chicken TNS.REAL-look for food =3SG.GEN in middle of valley DEF

CLAUSE

CORE

NP NUC NP

PRED PROPOSS

Adj PROPOSS V

sumawee muli =mu ma-jadi kondia =ku =da =mo1

all descendants =2SG. TNS.IRR-become food =1SG.GEN contrary to expectations3 =COMPL

NUC ASP

NUC ASP

CORE

CLAUSE

3 Hereafter, CONTRA

Translation:

The rooster was looking for (its) food in the middle of the

valley

(Utterance 2.2)

Translation: All your

descendants will become my

food (Utterance 23.2)


12

On the evidence of this data, the basic word order in Tado is Actor-Predicate-Undergoer (or Subject-Verb-Object). However,

in general there are also a large number of undergoer voice clauses. many of which have the word order undergoer Verb Agent

Undergoer (where uV is an undergoer-voice verb marked with ni- or ra= etc.). It is in fact possible that a majority of clauses

begin with a verb, despite a basic SVO word order.

3.2 Non-verbal predicate constructions

There are no copula verbs in Tado. In the example below, we see an adjectival predicate without a copula

verb:

CLAUSE

CORE

PrCS NUC

PRED PRO

Adv Adj

nuapa pade na-lino =ko1

what with adj-silent =2SG.ABS

A second example is:

5.11 Yaku na- oro gaga

I adj hungry very

I am very hungry.

Translation: Why are you silent?

(Utterance 6.2)

Commented [u2]: True, although there are a large number of

undergoer-voice clauses in Tado, some of which are U uV A (which

is still SVO by the LFG theory I was taught), but many of which are

uV A U (where uV is an undergoer-voice verb marked with ni- or

ra= etc.) So, it's possible that maybe a majority of clauses begin with a verb, despite a possibly basic SVO order.


13

3.3 Argument Adjuncts

CLAUSE

CORE

NUC

PRED PP

V PRO

na- lou =ra =mo ri ngambaa1

TNS.REAL-go =3PL.ABS=COMPL at =2SG.ABS

PRED

PRED ASP

NUC

CORE

CLAUSE

The argument adjunct in Tado occurs after the verb.

Translation: They went to the valley (Utterance 2.1)


14

3.4 Adjuncts

CLAUSE

CORE PERIPHERY

NUC PP

PRED COREp

PRO PRED NUCP NP

PRED

V P

n-esompo =ya n-euntu ri siawe nu manu ee

TNS.REAL-descend 3.SG.ABS TNS.REAL-abate at near of chicken DEF

The adjunct occurs after the clausal predicate. For another examples, please refer to the first tree diagram

in 3.1. There, the adjunct ‘ri laentongo nu ngambaa ee’ also occurs in the same position.

3.5 Operators in the clause:

“Historically, […..] the basic stem-formers (pe- po- paN- pa- which can be thought of as imperative or quasi infinitive) were used to derive uninflected verbal stems, and then optional inflectional infixes plus

deletion rules could transform these (into ne- no- naN- na- 'realis' or me- mo- maN- ma- 'irrealis').”

(Coombs 2013: 2).

m- (or ma-, maN-, me-, mo-) marks irrealis, that is, something which has not yet happened, e.g (“I am able

to”) in the next example. This bound morpheme in the sentence below is attached to two of the verbs,

carrying the irrealis meaning across the whole clause.

9.11 mamala =da =ko ku= wei mampeodo abi

TNS

IRR

be able

to

CONTRA 2SG.ABS 1SG= Give TNS.IRR lend friend

I can (in fact) lend them to you, friend

Compare, however, the example below, where the ‘m-‘ is not marking irrealis; rather, it is an allomorph of

nu: an example of nasal assimilation of nu= -pandake:

1.31 lowe n- eworo ri m- pandake =na

eagle TNS.REAL fly at of climb =3SG.GEN

the eagle flying above

Translation: He came down

and stopped near that rooster. (Utterance 3.3)

Commented [u3]: This one, which I was intending as the stem-former for stative stems ('adj'), may be a mistake. It looks like their

stem-former may have actually been ka- or something else. Although

there is an imperative such as paleta=mo=ko, I now suspect that that pa- is really just another allomorph of paN- where the root's L

deleted the N. Sorry! -Jon


15

‘n-‘ (or ‘na-‘, ‘naN-, ‘ne-‘, ‘no-‘) indicates realis. Specifically, ‘na-‘ often marks adjectives (which technically

are stative verbs). See below for examples:

2.11 ngambaa ta naria sampolea kou na- tuwu ra= peuntui =ra

valley not adj there

is

1SG CLASS Tree adj alive 3PL.

ERG

.IRR

stop 3PL.

ERG

There was not a single living tree in the valley where they stopped.

‘ta-’ This is a free morpheme, short for tado, which negates the core (see example above), appears before

the predicative adjective.

Additional morphemes include:

‘=da-‘ This marks something contrary to expectation. It is a bound aspectual morpheme. An example

occurs in the first example in this section (above).

‘ni-’ This marks patient voice in the realis tense, and agent is not indicated. “In the irrealis, […] ra- often

serves this purpose rather than specifically indicating 3PL” (Coombs 2013). Please refer to 3.7 below for an

example of the use of ‘ni-‘.

N.B. ‘=ra‘ Note that in the final word in the example 2.11 above, the clitic =ra is not absolutive as one would expect. The sentence includes the phrase “Ta naria sampolea kou or ‘there wasn’t a single tree,’ in

which kou is clearly singular because of the number word before it, sampolea. So =ra, being plural, cannot refer to the tree. It must refer to the birds, which means it must be ergative and not absolutive. This

shows that in every similar construct, the second ra is always ergative and does not make the verb realis as

it normally would. The first ra makes the verb irrealis, and since as Jon said (and also Adriani and Esser) it is often used by itself to indicate a generic passive in the irrealis, where the agent is not mentioned, the

second ra is added just to explicitly refer to the agent” (Oruh, 2013).

3.6 Dependent/head marking

In the following sentence, neither the predicate nor the arguments are marked to show their relationship.

Word order (agent-predicate-undergoer) provides this information.

251 manu sa- mata n- opangkae nang onco jaru

chicken 1SG eye TNS

REAL

scratch TNS

REAL

look

for

needle

The chicken always scratches and looks for the needles.

In the two sentences below, however, the undergoer is marked with a possessive pronoun to show its

relationship to the head noun. The predicate remains unmarked.

2.21 manu nang onco kondia =na

chicken TNS

REAL

look for food 3SG.

GEN

The chicken was looking for its food.

Formatted: Font: Italic

Commented [u4]: Actually, I think the verb is marked as active

(or "actor voice") rather than as passive (or "undergoer voice"),

which would be marked with a ni- .

Commented [u5]: Actually I think that, "Manu nionco kondiana"

would mean the opposite--that the chicken got eaten by its food.


16

8.11 Yaku no- wia kapi =ku

1SG TNS.

REAL

make wing 1SG.GEN

I make my wings.

In the last example, tense and agent are marked on the predicate ‘mamala kupeodo’:

8.21 ane mamala ku= peodo bana =mu

if TNS IRR be able to 1SG.ERG.IRR Borrow thread =2SG.GEN

If I could borrow your thread

However, undergoer is not marked on the predicate, in any of the above examples. Therefore, on this

evidence Tado is a dependent-marking language.

3.7 Extra-core slots or detached positions.

SENTENCE

CLAUSE

CORE

LDP PrCS NUC

PRED PRO

NP V

abi nuapa ni-onco =mu

friend what PATIENT-search =2SG.ERG.REAL1

Here, the question word takes the pre-core slot, and the word ‘abi’ (‘friend’) is in left-detached position.

For a second example, please refer to 3.2. (This utterance is also preceded by the word ‘abi’, also in left

detached position.)

Translation: Friend, what are

you searching for? (Utterance 4.1)


17

3.8 Verbal morphology

(tense, voice) (stem-former)

ROOT/

STEM (pron 1) (pron 2) (aspect) (aspect) (pron 2)

m- (irrealis)

n- (realis)

-----

ni- ra-

----- ERG.IR: ku= 1s mu= 2s na= 3s ta= 1pn ka= 1px mi= 2p ra= 3p etc.

paN- po-

pe-

ERG.RL:

=ku 1s =mu 2s =na 3s

=ta 1pn =ka 1px =mi 2p =ra 3p

ABS:

=ku 1s =ya 3s

=ta 1pn =ka 1px =ra 3p

=da =pa

=mo ABS:

=ko 2s

=komi 2p

Coombs (personal correspondence)

The table above describes the order of tense prefixes and proclitics in Tado. “Tado has independent

pronouns, but most often this information is encoded as a clitic attached to the verb” (Coombs, 2008 ibid).

Markers affixing to the front of the verb stem (in order): tense, voice, ergative irrealis proclitics

Markers affixing to the end of the verb stem phrase (in order): ergative realis proclitics, possessive

pronouns, clitics marking absolutives (except for 2SG and 2PL), the aspectual marker for contra-expectation (‘=da’), for action in progress (‘=pa’), for completed action (‘=mo’) and clitics marking

absolutive 2SG and 2PL.

Pronouns indicating ergative irrealis and ergative realis are identical, only differing in whether they come before or after the stem, which is why they are tentatively labeled as proclitics rather than prefixes. The

absolutive 1SG, 1PL (inclusive), 1PL (exclusive) and 3PL are also the same as the former set; however, 2SG,

3SG and 2PL are different.


18

4 Speech act types

4.1 Features of statements, questions (y/n and content), commands

Please refer to section 3.1 for features of statements, and to section 3.7 and 6.1 for features of questions.

CLAUSE

CORE

NUC

PRED NP

V Adj

mu-jaga bana bulawa

2SG.ERG.IRR-look after thread gold

The positive command employs the irrealis proclitic on the verb to indicate that what is commanded has

not yet happened. An example of a negative command:

9.21 Nee ngoni na- kalio nu roa =ku

Let not later 3SG.ERG.IRR see of friend 1SG

Don’t let my friends see.

Here again in the negative the irrealis proclitic is attached to the negative command. ‘You’ is implied and

the undergoer of the verb ‘see’ is also implied.

4.2 The expression of different focus types

Translation: Look after (the)

gold thread (Utterance 4.1)

Commented [u6]: Isn't this just "friend"? Otherwise, I'd expect ra= instead of na= .


19

9.21 mamala =da =ko kuwei mam peodo abi

TNS

IRR

be able to CONTRA =2SG.ABS 1SG.ERG.IRR- give TNS.

IRR

lend friend

I am (in fact) able to lend to you, friend

(cont’d) ane ntani =na tado kuwei mam peodo bana

[…]

=ku

if different 3SG.GEN not 1SG.ERG.IRR give TNS.

IRR

lend thread

[…]

=1SG.

GEN

(but) to others, I will not lend my thread

The topic, ‘ane ntani’, which is in left-detached position, is introduced here by the use of the word ‘ane’ (‘if’). The focus of the sentence is ‘tado kuwei mampeodo banaku’ (I won’t lend my thread to others). This

is evidence that Tado can use predicate focus.

5 Grammatical relations

5.1 PSA patterning in case and/or agreement

Tado employs the ergative/absolutive distinction when selecting between the reduced pronouns. In the first example sentence quoted in 3.5, the absolutive pronoun ‘=ko=’ (‘you’) marks the undergoer. It is

attached to the end of the first verb. The first person ergative proclitic ‘ku=’ indicates that the speaker is the actor. It attaches to the second verb in the three juxtaposed verbs. Please see 2.3 for a list of proclitics

marking ergative and absolutive.

6 Clause structure – complex sentences

6.1 Evidence of different types of complex sentences.

12.11 no- mulei =ya =mo na- ndou kapi =na

TNS.

REAL

begin 3SG.ABS COMPL TNS.REAL sew wing =3SG.GEN

He began to sew his wings.

Tado can juxtapose two or more verbs. In the example above, the second clause is an argument of the first

clause. Both verbs are in the realis tense. Note that it is not necessary to have a separate agent in Tado;

the agent in the sentence above is indicated on the first verb. Please refer to 4.2 for a second example.

7 Reflection

7.1 Questions for future research

It would be helpful to read again the documents I have received which describe the morphophonemics of

Tado. The [p] in the basic stem formers pe- po- paN- pa is deleted or assimilated in a number of verb

forms in a way that I do not yet fully understand.


20

Furthermore, in Jonathan Coombs’ table cited in Section 3.8 above, voice is listed as marked by ‘aN-, o-,

e-, ni-, etc.’. I have discussed ‘ni’ briefly in 3.5 above. More research is needed and might, for example, lead to a revision of 3.6.

7.2 Lessons learned about the process and your organisation of the project

Documents and emails sent to me by Jonathan Coombs and Janet Oruh, who have done research into

Tado and the neighbouring language, Moma, were indispensable in writing this project. Indeed, the text which I used to get most of the information was interlinearised by Jonathan Coombs. I could not have

done this project without them.

My initial decision to draw trees by hand led me to write my draft by hand. This was a helpful approach, as

it allowed me to focus on content rather than formatting at the drafting stage.

Word count: 3260

8 References

i Malonta, S. (2010) Powega Nu Mane Pade Lowe, SIL International. ii Kasumba, E. (2012) Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu, SIL International. iii SIL, 1990 quoted in http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=klw

Unpublished sources

Coombs,J (2008) Moma and Tado Pronouns.

European Training Programme (2010) An Introduction to Grammar.

Oruh,J. (2011) Janet's sketch of Moma-Tado Grammar.docx.

Coombs, J. (2013) Parsing Tado-Lindu with FLEx and Hermit Crab.doc.

Emails from Jonathan Coombs about Parsing Tado (2013).

Emails from Janet Oruh about the grammar of Tado (2013).

Email from Jonathan Coombs about differences between Tado & Moma (2013).