examples of buchi emecheta

8/4/2019 Examples of Buchi Emecheta

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Examples of Buchi Emecheta's Works

The Joys of Motherhood (AWS African Writers Series)

Buchi Emecheta, writes with piercing teeth and gouging fingers: irony, sarcasm, and anger are her

appendages: orphan, arranged marriage object, immigrant to England, five children by 22, marriage

terminator, single mother acquiring degree in sociology, messaged writer.

The setting for "The Joys of Motherhood" is in Lagos, Nigeria, between the 1930's and the 1960's.

Lagos, the capital of the British colony of Nigeria, is primarily Yoruba; the main characters are Igbo.

Change from chiefdoms to the city: "Men here [in Lagos] are too busy being white men's servants to

be men. We women mind the home. Not our husbands. Their manhood has been taken away from

them. The shame of it is that they don't know it. All they see is the money, shining white man's

money" Community versus individual: The scene is an attempted suicide in Lagos. "You are simply

not allowed to commit suicide in peace, because everyone is responsible for the other person.

Foreigners may call us a nation of busybodies, but to us, an individual's life belongs to the communitynot just to him or her. So a person has no right to take it while another member of the community

looks on. He must interfere, he must stop it happening."

War: The context is the forced draft of Nigerians into the army during World War II: "For me to be

married to a soldier, a plunderer and killer of children.... I don't know how I would feel if I was asked

to kill people who had never offended me."

Men and Women: "God when will you create a woman who will be fulfilled in herself, a full human

being, not anybody's appendage?"

Motherhood: "When the children were good they belonged to the father; when they were bad, they

belonged to the mother. Every woman knew this."

The Bride Price (Oxford Bookworms Library, Stage 5)

When her father dies, Aku-nna and her young brother have no one to look after them. They are

welcomed by their uncle because of Aku-nna's 'bride price' - the money that her future husband will

pay for her. In her new, strange home one man is kind to her and teaches her to become a woman.

Soon they are in love, although everyone says he is not a suitable husband for her. Themore the

world tries to separate them, the more they are drawn together - until, finally, something has to

break.

Second-Class Citizen

A poignant story of a resourceful Nigerian woman who overcomes strict tribal domination of women

and countless setbacks to achieve an independent life for herself and her children.

Born of Ibo parents in Nigeria, Buchi Emecheta is widely known for her multilayered stories of black


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women struggling to maintain their identity and construct viable lives for themselves and their

families. She writes, according to The New York Times, with "subtlety, power, and abundant

compassion." George Braziller is proud to have published nine of Emecheta's novels over the course

of twentyfour years.

The Joys of Motherhood by Buchi

Emecheta

heJoys of Motherhoodby Buchi Emecheta (1979) is about Nigerian tradition versus a modernand Western lifestyle, but its also about a woman coming to terms with her role as womanand a mother. I found myself viewing the main character, Nnu Ego, with conflicting emotionsthroughout the novel.

From a modern, feminist perspective, Nnu Ego appears to be a repressed woman, livingaccording to male-dominated traditions in an increasingly modern world much to herdetriment. Lagos, Nigeria in the 1930s and 1940s was becoming increasingly modern, andhad Nnu Ego abandoned some of her traditions, her life may have been a lot easier. But on theother hand, Nnu Ego is an impressive personality. Despite the social pressures and customsthat shock me and seem to repress her, she was proud to follow tradition and she resisted

being modernized. She was dedicated to her husband, who she did not like from the first,and stood up for him despite modern societys ways. And as a mother, she did all she could.

Being a mother, and one who reads parenting books occasionally, and so forth, I realizedreading this book just how impossible and unfair it would be for anyone to judge anothermother: how can anyone say what makes a good mother or not? Although her children lacked

tender loving care because she was so busy trying to keep them fed amidst the poverty of theirlittle home, Nnu Ego, for example, tied up her entire existence in her children. She lovedthem, she loved being a mother.

From the surface, I didnt see much joy in motherhood in The Joys of Motherhoodby BuchiEmecheta. Nnu Egos story was rather heartbreaking. The traditions of her rural tribe in

Nigeria were foreign to me. Things like burying a servant in the grave with her deceasedmistress, the brother inheriting his dead brothers wives as his own, and the simple fact thather identity from the start of her life was supposed to be on her children, I felt uncomfortable.Women and girls were nothing until they produced a bride-price for her father and then hadchildren (preferably a boy) to carry on her husbands name.

Although Nnu Ego strove to uphold the traditional Nigerian way of life, Nnu Egos childreneventually branched away into a modern world. They had no intention of caring for the

parents in their old age, and Nnu Egos story ends with her alone.

Such solitude broke my heart. It made me think of women today who stay home with theirchildren and yet lose their minds. I know it happens, and I can relate. Although I love being astay-at-home mom to my preschooler, I need interaction with adults in some way. I need tohave friends, and I need to talk about something other children at some point. I havent lostmy mind yet, but the possibility is always there.


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Nonetheless, despite the tragedies of Nnu Egos life I also think that looking deeper into NnuEgos story there is some satisfaction and joy for her. She does get to see her childrengrowing up and succeeding in ways she couldnt have imagined. She brags to her friends with

pride about her son in Emelika. In some respects, her brags are empty: she does not reallyfeel satisfied with her children since they have departed from tradition and fail to respect heras she dreams they would. But when I think of Nnu Ego, I do think she was successful

mother. In the midst of an environment where she had to hurdle two strong ways of life, shewas able to feed her children alone, raise them to be independent and intelligent, and to lovethem. The joy of motherhood is her ability to survive even when she doesnt think she can.She is stronger than she had ever realized.

For me, the most tender scene was toward the end. After seven pregnancies (two sets of twinsin the mix), Nnu Ego wondered if she had wanted the last child, knowing the difficulties thatwould come. She realized that yes, even then she had looked forward to becoming a motheryet again. In the midst of her small and large frustrations, Nnu Ego still found a small measureof joy in her calling as mother, despite the seemingly crushing weight of traditions thatsubjugate women.

To me, as a woman and as a mother, she is a woman to emulate and revere for her strength. Ihope I, too, can enjoy my calling as a mother even in the midst of my small frustrations,especially since my society treats me comparatively well.

This is the first novel and the first book Ive finished for my African Autumn, and if this andthe other books Ive begun is a good indication, Im going to have an enjoyable few monthsreading these African classics. The problem may be: where do I stop? A new world ofliterature is opening up to me.

Related Posts on Rebecca Re

(1944- ) novelist

Buchi Emecheta was born of Ibuza parents in Nigeria. Orphaned at an early age, she spenther childhood in a missionary school. In 1960, at age 16, she married Sylvester Onwordi, towhom she had been engaged since she was 11. In 1962, the couple moved to London; themarriage lasted six years and produced five children.


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Many of Emechetas earliest novels draw on her experiences in Africa and England.Emechetas early writing style is based on oral tradition. She speaks from her ownexperiences and vividly describes the people and places encountered by her characters ontheir journey to self-awareness. Her first novel, In the Ditch (1972), tells the story of her lifeas a struggling immigrant and single mother in London through the character of Adah, ayoung woman who leaves her husband to find out who she is. In a strange land, she is seen as

an outsider. With children in tow, Adah negotiates the welfare system, the job market, andwhat it means to be deemed a social problem.

In Emechetas second novel, Second Class Citizen (1974), she continues to chronicle Adahslife, but this time she steps back to see how she arrived in the ditch. This story concentrateson the inequalities within her culture that manifest themselves as discrimination againstwomen. Adah encounters strict tribal customs that deny education to women. As she bendsunder the workload of supporting her family and caring for her children, she witnesses the

privileges of her student husband. Second Class Citizen reveals how gender roles aremaintained through culture.

Emechetas autobiography, Head Above Water (1986), tells of her struggle to confront the

poor social conditions of blacks in London while simultaneously emerging as a writer.

Emecheta has come under fire from some critics for her refusal to support the pastoral ideasof Africa and Europe. Her raw views often expose the dark side of tribal relations,colonialism, and male/female relations.

She was raised at a time in Nigeria when traditional structures were being challenged by asociety that was shifting from rural to urban living. It was also a time when immigration tocolonial centers, such as London, presented another test of maintaining or adapting onesidentity. Emechetas novels reflect both the chaos and the opportunities of this unrest anduprooting. Emecheta does not write about an idyllic Africa of the past but instead aboutcontemporary Africa with painstaking accuracy.

She centers the majority ofher stories on gender relations and the conflicts betweenmodernity and tradition. These topics often serve as metaphors for the relationship betweenAfrica and the Diaspora (the scattering of people of African descent through slavery) and forthe relationship between colonizer and the colonized; for example, in The Family (1989), shechronicles the life of an impoverished Jamaican girl who negotiates familial abuse, which isone of slaverys legacies. Emechetas brave approach to writing about the unspoken has sether apart from other African writers. She has won several literary prizes including herselection in 1983 as one of the Best Young British Writers Award. Emecheta is a strong post-colonial writer who witnesses with a feminist lens; as a result, she has diversified traditionalWestern feminism by adding a voice that speaks to the specific issues of women from

developing countries.

History of Nigeria

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


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Histo of Ni i

This artic

e is part of

s i s

Prehistory

Ancient and Middle Ages

(Before1500)

Early modern period

(15001800)

Colonial Nigeria(18001960)

Nigerian First Republic

(1960-1979)

Civil War

(19671970)

Histo

of Ni

i 19791999

Nigerian Second Republic

(1979-1983)

Nigerian Third Republic

(1993-1999)

Nigerian Fourth Republic

(1999present)

opis

History of the Igbo people

History of the Yoruba people

Ni

i o t l

vde

Main articleNigeria


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Contents

[hide]

y 1 Early historyy 2 Yorubay 3 The Igbo states

o 3.1 Nri Kingdomy 4 Early states before 1500

o 4.1 Oyo and Beniny 5 Northern kingdoms of the Savannay 6 Kanem-Bornu Empirey 7 Hausa statesy 8 Pre-colonial states, 1500-1800

o 8.1 Savanna statesy 9 Akwa Akpay 10 A British sphere of influencey 11 Independencey 12 First Republic

o 12.1 First period of military ruley 13 Second Republicy 14 The abortive Third Republic

o 14.1 Sani Abachao 14.2 Abubakar's transition to civilian rule

y 15 Fourth Republicy 16 Yar'Adua's disappearance and Jonathan's successiony 17 Further readingy 18 Referencesy 19 External links

[edit] Early history

Archaeological research, pioneered by Thurstan Shaw and Steve Daniels,[1] has shown thatpeople were already living in southwestern Nigeria (specifically Iwo-Eleru) as early as 9000BC and perhaps earlier at Ugwuelle-Uturu (Okigwe) in southeastern Nigeria, wheremicroliths were used.[2]Smelting furnaces at Taruga dating from the 4th century BC providethe oldest evidence ofmetalworking in Archaeology.

The earliest known example of a fossil skeleton with negroid features, perhaps 10,000 yearsold, was found at Iii Ileru in western Nigeria and attests to the antiquity of habitation in theregion.[3]

Microlithic and ceramic industries were also developed by savannapastoralists from at leastthe 4th millennium BC and were continued by subsequent agricultural communities. In thesouth, hunting and gathering gave way to subsistence farming in the first millennium BC andthe cultivation of staple foods.


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The stone axe heads, imported in great quantities from the north and used in opening theforest for agricultural development, were venerated by the Yoruba descendants ofneolithic

pioneers as "thunderbolts" hurled to earth by the gods. [3]

Kainji Dam excavations revealed iron-working by the 2nd century BC. The transition fromNeolithic times to the Iron Age apparently was achieved without intermediate bronze

production. Others suggest the technology moved west from theNile Valley, although theIron Age in theNiger Rivervalley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction ofmetallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years. The earliest identified iron using

Nigerian culture is that of theNok culture that thrived between approximately 900 BC and200 AD on the Jos Plateau in northeastern Nigeria. Information is lacking from the firstmillennium AD following the Nok ascendancy, but by the 2nd millennium AD there wasactive trade fromNorth Africa through the Sahara to the forest, with the people of the savannaacting as intermediaries in exchanges of various goods.

[edit] Yoruba

Historically the Yoruba have been the dominant group on the west bank of theNiger. Ofmixed origin, they were the product of periodic waves of migrants. Their nearest linguisticrelatives are the Igala who live on the opposite side of the Benue/Niger divergence, and fromwhom they are believed to have split about 2,000 years ago. The Yoruba were organized in

patrilineal groups that occupied village communities and subsisted on agriculture. Fromapproximately the 8th century AD., adjacent village compounds called ile coalesced intonumerous territorial city-states in which clan loyalties became subordinate to dynasticchieftains. Urbanization was accompanied by high levels of artistic achievement, particularlyin terracotta and ivory sculpture and in the sophisticated metal casting produced at Ife.

The Yoruba paid tribute to apantheon headed by an impersonal deity, Olorun, as well aslesser deities who performed various tasks. Oduduwa was regarded as the creator of the earth

and the ancestor of the Yoruba kings. According to myth Oduduwa founded Ife anddispatched his sons to establish it.

[edit] The Igbo states

Main articles: Awka, Onitsha, Owerri, Aro Confederacy, and Abiriba

With the decline ofNri kingdom in the 1400-1600 AD, several states once under theirinfluence, became powerful economic oracular oligarchies and large commercial states thatdominated Igboland. The neighboring Awka city-state rose in power as a result of their

powerful Agbala oracle and metalworking expertise. The Onitsha Kingdom, which wasoriginally inhabited by Igbos from East of the Niger, was founded in the 16th century bymigrants from Anioma (Western Igboland) and Benin. Later groups like the Igala traders fromthe hinterland settled in Onitsha in the 18nth century. Western Igbo kingdoms like Aboh,dominated trade in the lower Niger area from the 17th century until European penetration.The Umunoha state in the Owerri area used theIgwe ka Ala oracle at their advantage.However, the Cross River Igbo state like the Aro had the greatest influence in Igboland andadjacent areas after the decline of Nri.

The Arochukwu kingdom which emerged after the Aro-Ibibio wars from 16301720, andwent on to form the Aro Confederacy which economically dominated parts of midwestern and


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eastern Nigeria with pockets of influence in Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon. The source ofthe Aro Confederacy's economic dominance was based on the judicial oracle ofIbini Ukpabi("Long Juju") and their military forces which included powerful allies such as Ohafia, Abam,Ezza, and other related neighboring states. The related Abiriba (Abiriba and Aro Are Brotherswho's migration is traced to Ekpa Kingdom in East of Cross Qua Ibo River)(their exact takeof location was at Ekpa (Mkpa) east of the Cross (Qua Ibo) river. They crossed the river to

urupkam (Usukpam) west of the Cross river and founded two settlements - Ena Uda and EnaOfia in present day Erai in Cross River state Nigeria) Aro and Abiriba cooperated to become apowerful economic force.

Igbo gods, like those of the Yoruba, were numerous, but their relationship to one another andhuman beings was essentially egalitarian, reflecting Igbo society as a whole. A number oforacles and local cults attracted devotees while the central deity, the earth motherand fertilityfigure Ala, was venerated at shrines throughout Igboland.

The weakness of a popular theory that Igbos were stateless rests on the paucity of historicalevidence of pre-colonial Igbo society. There is a huge gap between the archaeological finds ofIgbo Ukwu, which reveal a rich material culture in the heart of the Igbo region in the 8th

century, and the oral traditions of the 20th century. Benin exercised considerable influence onthe western Igbo who adopted many of the political structures familiar to the Yoruba-Beninregion. Ofega was the queen.

[edit] Nri Kingdom

Main article: Kingdom of Nri

The city of Nri is considered to be the foundation ofIgbo culture.[4] Nri and Aguleri, wherethe Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umueri clan, who trace theirlineages back to the patriarchal king-figure, Eri.[5] Eri's origins are unclear, though he has

been described as a "sky being" sent by Chukwu (God).[5][6] He has been characterized as

having first given societal order to the people ofAnambra.

[6]

Archaeological evidence suggests that Nri hegemony in Igboland may go back as far as the9th century,[7] and royal burials have been unearthed dating to at least the 10th century. Eri,the god-like founder of Nri, is believed to have settled the region around 948 with otherrelated Igbo cultures following after in the 13th century.[8] The first Eze Nri (King of Nri),fikunim, followed directly after him. According to Igbo oral tradition, his reign started in1043.[9] At least one historian puts fikunim's reign much later, around 1225 AD. [10]

Each king traces his origin back to the founding ancestor, Eri. Each king is a ritual

reproduction of Eri. The initiation rite of a new king shows that the ritual process of

becoming Ezenri (Nri priest-king

follows closely the path traced by the hero inestablishing the Nri kingdom.

E. Elochukwu Uzukwu[11]

Nri and Aguleri and part of the Umueri clan, a cluster of Igbo village groups which traces

its origins to a sky being called Eri, and, significantly, includes (from the viewpoint of its


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Igbo members

the neighbouring kingdom of Igala.

Elizabeth Allo Isichei[12]

The Kingdom of Nri was a religio-polity, a sort oftheocratic state, that developed in the

central heartland of the Igbo region.[8] The Nri had a taboo symbolic code with six types.These included human (such as the birth oftwins), animal (such as killing or eating of

pythons),[13] object, temporal, behavioral, speech and place taboos.[14] The rules regardingthese taboos were used to educate and govern Nri's subjects. This meant that, while certainIgbo may have lived under different formal administration, all followers of the Igbo religionhad to abide by the rules of the faith and obey its representative on earth, the Eze Nri.[14][15] bymfonini usoro

[edit] Early states before 1500

Main article: History of Nigeria before 1500

The early independent Kingdoms and states that make the present day British colonializedNigeria are (in alphabetical order):

y Benin Kingdomy Borgu Kingdomy Fulani Empirey Hausa Kingdomsy Kanem Bornu Empirey Kwararafa Kingdomy Ibibio Kingdomy Nri Kingdomy Nupe Kingdomy Oyo Kingdomy Songhai Empirey Warri Kingdom

[edit] Oyo and Benin

Main article: Oyo Empire

During the 15th century Oyo and Benin surpassed Ife as political and economic powers,although Ife preserved its status as a religious center. Respect for the priestly functions of theoni of Ife was a crucial factor in the evolution of Yoruban culture. The Ife model ofgovernment was adapted at Oyo, where a member of its ruling dynasty controlled severalsmaller city-states. A state council (the Oyo Mesi) named the alafin (king) and acted as a

check on his authority. Theircapital city was situated about 100 km north of present-day Oyo.Unlike the forest-bound Yoruba kingdoms, Oyo was in the savanna and drew its militarystrength from its cavalry forces, which established hegemony over the adjacentNupe and theBorgu kingdoms and thereby developed trade routes farther to the north.

Main article: Benin Empire


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[edi ] r

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e Savanna

TheSonghai Empire& c'1500

Trade i t e key t t e emergence of organi ed communities in t esavanna portions ofNigeria. Prehistoric inhabitants adjusting to the encroaching desert were widely scattered bythe third millennium BC when the desiccation oftheSahara began. Trans-Saharan traderoutes linked western Sudan with the Mediterranean since the time ofCarthage and with theUpper Nile from a much earlier date, establishing avenues of communication and culturalinfluence that remained open untilthe end ofthe 19th century. By these same routes,Islammade its way south into West Africa afterthe 9th century AD.

By then a string of dynastic states, including the earliestHausa states, stretched acrosswestern and central Sudan. The most powerful ofthese states wereGhana, Gao, and Kanem,which were not within the boundaries of modern Nigeria but which influenced the history ofthe Nigerian savanna. Ghana declined in the 11th century but was succeeded by theMaliEmpire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century.

Following the breakup ofMali a localleader namedSonni Ali (14641492) founded theSonghai Empirein the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control ofthetrans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali sei ed Timbuktuin 1468 and Jennein 1473, building hisregime on trade revenues and the cooperation ofMuslim merchants. His successorAskiaMuhammad Ture (14931528) made Islamthe official religion, built mosques, and broughtMuslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an importanttradition ofSudanic African Muslim scholarship, to Gao.[16]

Although these western empires had little politicalinfluence on theNigerian savanna before1500, they had a strong cultural and economic impactthat became more pronounced in the16th century, especially because these states became associated with the spread of Islam and

trade. Throughoutthe 16th century much of northern Nigeria paid homage to Songhaiin thewest orto Borno, a rival empire in the east.

[edi ( ]Kanem-B)

rnu Empire

Main article 0 Kanem-Bornu Empire

Borno's history is closely associated with Kanem, which had achieved imperial status in theLake Chad basin by the 13th century. Kanem expanded westward to include the area that


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became Borno. The mai (king) of Kanem and his court accepted Islam in the 11th century, asthe western empires also had done. Islam was used to reinforce the political and socialstructures ofthe state although many established customs were maintained. Women, forexample, continued to exercise considerable politicalinfluence.

The mai employed his mounted bodyguard and an inchoate army of nobles to extend Kanem's

authority into Borno. By tradition the territory was conferred on the heirto the throne togovern during his apprenticeship. In the 14th century, however, dynastic conflict forced thethen-ruling group and its followers to relocate in Borno, where as a resultthe Kanuri emergedas an ethnic group in the late 14th and 15th centuries. The civil warthat disrupted Kanem inthe second half ofthe 14th century resulted in the independence ofBorno.

Borno's prosperity depended on the trans-Sudanic slave trade and the deserttrade in salt andlivestock. The need to protectits commercialinterests compelled Borno to intervene inKanem, which continued to be a theater of warthroughoutthe 15th century and into the 16thcentury. Despite its relative political weakness in this period, Borno's court and mosquesunderthe patronage of a line of scholarly kings earned fame as centers ofIslamic culture andlearning.

[edi 1 ] Hau 2 a states

Map of Nigeria (source 3 CIA'sThe World Factbook)

Hausa-Fulani Sokoto Caliphate in the19th century

Main article4Hausa Kingdoms


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By the 11th century some Hausa states - such as Kano, Jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir- haddeveloped into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture ofvarious goods. Until the 15th century these small states were on the periphery of the majorSudanic empires of the era. They were constantly pressured by Songhai to the west andKanem-Borno to the east, to which they paid tribute. Armed conflict was usually motivated

by economic concerns, as coalitions of Hausa states mounted wars against the Jukun and

Nupe in the middle belt to collect slaves or against one another for control of trade.

Islam arrived to Hausaland along the caravan routes. The famous Kano Chronicle records theconversion of Kano's ruling dynasty by clerics from Mali, demonstrating that the imperialinfluence of Mali extended far to the east. Acceptance of Islam was gradual and was oftennominal in the countryside where folk religion continued to exert a strong influence.

Nonetheless, Kano and Katsina, with their famous mosques and schools, came to participatefully in the cultural and intellectual life of the Islamic world. The Fulani began to enter theHausa country in the 13th century and by the 15th century they were tending cattle, sheep,and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani came from the Senegal Rivervalley, where theirancestors had developed a method of livestock management based on transhumance.Gradually they moved eastward, first into the centers of the Mali and Songhai empires and

eventually into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulbe converted to Islam as early as the 11thcentury and settled among the Hausa, from whom they became racially indistinguishable.There they constituted a devoutly religious, educated elite who made themselvesindispensable to the Hausa kings as government advisers, Islamic judges, and teachers.

[edit] Pre-colonial states, 1500-1800

Main article: History of Nigeria (1500-18005

[edit] Savanna states

During the 16th century the Songhai Empire reached its peak, stretching from the Senegal and

Gambia rivers and incorporating part of Hausaland in the east. Concurrently the SaifawaDynasty ofBorno conquered Kanem and extended control west to Hausa cities not underSonghai authority. Largely because of Songhai's influence, there was a blossoming of Islamiclearning and culture. Songhai collapsed in 1591 when a Moroccan army conquered Gao andTimbuktu. Morocco was unable to control the empire and the various provinces, including theHausa states, became independent. The collapse undermined Songhai's hegemony over theHausa states and abruptly altered the course of regional history.

Borno reached its apogee undermai Idris Aloma (ca. 1569-1600) during whose reign Kanemwas reconquered. The destruction of Songhai left Borno uncontested and until the 18thcentury Borno dominated northern Nigeria. Despite Borno's hegemony the Hausa statescontinued to wrestle for ascendancy. Gradually Borno's position weakened; its inability to

check political rivalries between competing Hausa cities was one example of this decline.Another factor was the military threat of the Tuareg centered at Agades who penetrated thenorthern districts of Borno. The major cause of Borno's decline was a severe drought thatstruck the Sahel and savanna from in the middle of the 18th century. As a consequence Bornolost many northern territories to the Tuareg whose mobility allowed them to endure thefamine more effectively. Borno regained some of its former might in the succeeding decades,

but another drought occurred in the 1790s, again weakening the state.


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Ecological and politicalinstability provided the background forthejihad ofUsman danFodio. The military rivalries ofthe Hausa states strained the regions economic resources at atime when drought and famine undermined farmers and herders. Many Fulanimoved intoHausaland and Borno, and their arrivalincreased tensions because they had no loyalty to the

political authorities, who saw them as a source ofincreased taxation. By the end ofthe 18thcentury, some Muslim ulema began articulating the grievances ofthe common people. Efforts

to eliminate or controlthese religious leaders only heightened the tensions, setting the stageforjihad.[16]

[edit] Akwa Akpa

Main article6Akwa Akpa

The modern city ofCalabarwas founded in 1786 by Efikfamilies who had leftCreek Town,further up the Calabar river, settling on the east bankin a position where they were able todominate traffic with European vessels that anchored in the river, and soon becoming themost powerfulin the region.[17] Akwa Akpa became a center ofthe slave trade, where slaveswere exchanged for European goods.

[18]Most slave ships thattransported slaves from Calabar

were English, and around 85% ofthese ships being fromBristol and Liverpool merchants.[19]

The main ethnic group taken out ofCalabar as slaves were theIgbo, although they were notthe main ethnicity in the area.[20]

With the suppression ofthe slave trade, palm oil and palm kernels became the main exports.The chiefs of Akwa Akpa placed themselves underBritish protection in 1884.[21] From 1884until 1906 Old Calabar was the headquarters oftheNigerCoast Protectorate, after whichLagos became the main center.[21] Now called Calabar, the city remained an important portshipping ivory, timber, beeswax, and palm produce until 1916, when the railway terminus wasopened atPort Harcourt, 145 km to the west.[22]

[edit] A British sphere ofinfluence

Main article 7 Colonial Nigeria

Stamp ofSouthern Nigeria, 1901


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Colonial Flag of Nigeria

Following theNapoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In1885, British claims to a West African sphere ofinfluence received international recognition;and in the following year, the Royal NigerCompany was chartered underthe leadership of SirGeorge Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company's territory came underthe control oftheBritish Government, which moved to consolidate its hold overthe area of modern Nigeria. OnJanuary 1, 1901,Nigeria became a British protectorate, part ofthe British Empire, theforemost world power atthe time.

In 1914, the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the Northern and Southern Provinces andLagos Colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceededmore rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences feltin Nigeria's politicallifeever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism anddemands forindependence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Governmentmoved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. On1 October, 1954, the colony became the autonomous Federation ofNigeria. By the middle ofthe 20th century, the great wave forindependence was sweeping across Africa.

[edit] Independence

Main article8History of Nigeria (1960-1979)

Jaja Wachuku, First Nigerian Speaker of the House 8 1959-1960


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The Federation of Nigeria was granted full independence on the 1st October 1960 under aconstitution that provided for aparliamentary government and a substantial measure of self-government for the country's three regions. From 1959 to 1960, Jaja Wachuku was the First

blackSpeakerof the Nigerian Parliament - also called the "House of Representatives".Wachuku replaced Sir Frederick Metcalfe ofGreat Britain. Notably, as First Speaker of theHouse, Jaja Wachuku received Nigeria's Instrument of Independence - also known as

Freedom [Charter - on October 1, 1960, from Princess Alexandra of Kent, the Queen'srepresentative at the Nigerian independence ceremonies.

The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense, foreign relations, andcommercial and fiscal policy. The monarch of Nigeria was still head of state but legislative

power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet,and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court. Political parties, however, tended to reflectthe make up of the three main ethnic groups. TheNigerian People's Congress (NPC)represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa interests, and dominated the NorthernRegion. TheNational Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) was Igbo- and Christian-dominated, ruling in the Eastern Region, and the Action Group (AG) was a left-leaning partythat controlled the Yoruba west. The first post-independence national government was formed

by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC, with SirAbubakar Tafawa Balewa, aHausa, becoming Nigeria's first Prime Minister. The Yoruba-dominated AG became theopposition under its charismatic leader ChiefObafemi Awolowo

[edit] First Republic

Main article: Nigerian First Republic

In October 1963 Nigeria proclaimed itself the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and formerGovernor GeneralNnamdi Azikiwe became the country's first President. From the outset

Nigeria's ethnic and religious tensions were magnified by the disparities in economic andeducational development between the south and the north. The AG was maneuvered out of

control of the Western Region by the Federal Government and a new pro-government Yorubaparty, theNigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), took over. Shortly afterward the AGopposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was imprisoned on treason charges that werelater admitted to be without foundation. The 1965 national election produced a majorrealignment of politics and a disputed result that set the country on the path to civil war. Thedominant northern NPC went into a conservative alliance with the new Yoruba NNDP,leaving the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a progressive alliance. Inthe vote, widespread electoral fraud was alleged and riots erupted in the Yoruba West whereheartlands of the AG discovered they had apparently elected pro-government NNDPrepresentatives.

[edit] Firstperiod of military rule

Main article: Nigerian Civil War

On 15 January 1966 a group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the prime minister and the premiers of the northern andwestern regions. The federal military government that assumed power under General JohnsonAguiyi-Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to allsections of the country.[23] Its efforts to abolish the federal structure and the renaming thecountry the Republic of Nigeria on 24 May 1966 raised tensions and led to another coup bylargely northern officers in July 1966, which established the leadership of Major General


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Yakubu Gowon. The name Federal Republic of Nigeria was restored on 31 August 1966.However, the subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds ofthousands of them to return to the southeast where increasingly strong Igbo secessionistsentiment emerged. In a move towards greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups themilitary divided the four regions into 12 states. However the Igbo rejected attempts atconstitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east. On May 29, 1967 Lt. Col.

Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region who emerged as the leader ofincreasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as theRepublic of Biafra. The ensuingNigerian Civil Warresulted in an estimated one milliondeaths before the war ended with the famous "No victor, no vanquished" speech in 1970.[24]

Following the civil war the country turned to the task of economic development. Foreignexchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of1973-74. On July 29, 1975 Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of officers staged a

bloodless coup, accusing Gen. Yakubu Gowon of corruption and delaying the promised returnto civilian rule. General Mohammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced atimetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. He was assassinated onFebruary 13, 1976 in an abortive coup and his chief of staff Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo

became head of state.

[edit] Second Republic

Main article: History of Nigeria (1979-19999

A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was publishedon September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. In 1979, five political

parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of theNational Partyof Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the NationalAssembly. In August 1983 Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslidevictory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state

governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread voterigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.[25]

On December 31, 1983 the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major GeneralMuhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), thecountry's new ruling body. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC'sthird-ranking member General Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985. Babangida (IBB) cited themisuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and thegovernment's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications forthe takeover. During his first days in office President Babangida moved to restore freedom ofthe press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-montheconomic emergency plan he announced pay cuts for the military, police, civil servants and

the private sector. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage publicparticipation in decision making by opening a national debate on proposed economic reformand recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to aneconomic rec.

[edit] The abortive Third Republic

Main article: Nigerian Third Republic


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Head of State, Babangida, promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which waslater extended until January 1993. In early 1989 a constituent assembly completed aconstitution and in the spring of 1989 political activity was again permitted. In October 1989the government established two parties, theNational Republican Convention (NRC) and theSocial Democratic Party (SDP) - other parties were not allowed to register.

In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and69 accused plotters were executed aftersecret trials before military tribunals. In December1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite lowturnout there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of thecountry, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.

In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previouslybanned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August. These were canceled dueto fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. Allannounced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new electionformat was selected. The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993 with theinauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth

anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power.

In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to beNigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiolawon a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a

pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 were killed inriots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an interim government on August 27, 1993.He later attempted to renege this decision, but without popular and military support, he wasforced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan wasto rule until elections scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida'sTransitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's economic

problems or to defuse lingering political tension.

[edit] SaniAbacha

With the country sliding into chaos Defense MinisterSani Abacha assumed power and forcedShonekan's resignation on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutionsand replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration ofcivilian rule he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following theannulment of the June 12 election the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeriaincluding travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and militaryassistance Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain fullcertification for its counter-narcotics efforts.

Although Abacha was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly.Opposition leaders formed theNational Democratic Coalition (NADECO), whichcampaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. On June 11,1994 Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola declared himself president and went into hidinguntil his arrest on June 23. In response petroleum workers called a strike demanding thatAbacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringingeconomic life around Lagos and the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatenedstrike in July theNigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August


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after the government imposed conditions on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994 thegovernment dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unionsunder appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders.

The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in acoup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo

and his deputy, retired General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal most of theaccused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down. In 1994 thegovernment set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try Ogoni activist KenSaro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four Ogoni politicians. Thetribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death and they were executed on November10, 1995.

On October 1, 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule.Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections inDecember 1997 was under 10%. On December 21, 1997 the government arrested GeneralOladipo Diya, ten officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. The accused weretried before a military tribunal in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death.

Abacha enforced authority through the federal security system which is accused of numeroushuman rights abuses, including infringements on freedom of speech, assembly, association,travel, and violence against women.

[edit]Abuba@

ar's transition to civilian rule

Abacha died of heart failure on June 8, 1998 and was replaced by General AbdulsalamiAbubakar. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar commuted thesentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almostall known civilian political detainees. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written in1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. NeitherAbacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989constitution was not implemented. The judiciary system continued to be hampered bycorruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problemsAbubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms.

In August 1998 Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, thenational assembly, and president. The NEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998,January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. For local elections nine

parties were granted provisional registration with three fulfilling the requirements to contestthe following elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the AllPeople's Party (APP), and the predominantly YorubaAlliance for Democracy (AD). Former

military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civiliancandidate and won the presidential election. The PRC promulgated a new constitution basedlargely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the newcivilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the

National Assembly consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-memberSenate.


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[edit] Fourth Republic

The emergence of democracy in Nigeria on May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive militaryrule. Olusegun Obasanjo inherited a country suffering economic stagnation and thedeterioration of most democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for hisstand against the Abacha dictatorship, his record of returning the federal government to

civilian rule in 1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.

The new President took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctionalbureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returningquietly to the barracks. The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officersholding political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rightsviolations, released scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded numerousquestionable licenses and contracts left by the previous regimes. The government also movedto recover millions of dollars in funds secreted to overseas accounts.

Most civil society leaders and Nigerians witnessed marked improvements in human rights andfreedom of the press under Obasanjo. As Nigeria works out representational democracy,conflicts persist between the Executive and Legislative branches over appropriations andother proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been the growing visibility of stategovernors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the state capitals over resourceallocation.[26]

Communal violence has plagued the Obasanjo government since its inception. In May 1999violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir resulting in more than 100deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi, Bayelsa State and killedscores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna inFebruaryMay 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminalShar'ia in the State. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern

Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. InOctober 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence thatspread across the states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001 Obasanjoannounced the formation of aNational Security Commission to address the issue ofcommunal violence. Obasanjo was reelected in 2003.

The new president faces the daunting task of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whoserevenues have been squandered through corruption and mismanagement. Additionally, theObasanjo administration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religious tensions if it hopes to

build a foundation for economic growth and political stability. Currently there is unrest in theNiger delta over the environmental destruction caused by oil drilling and the ongoing povertyin the oil-rich region.

A further major problem created by the oil industry is the drilling of pipelines by the localpopulation in an attempt to drain off the petroleum for personal use or as a source of income.This often leads to major explosions and high death tolls.[27] Particularly notable disasters inthis area have been: 1) October 1998, Jesse, 1100 deaths, 2) July 2000, Jesse, 250 deaths, 3)September 2004, near Lagos, 60 deaths, 4) May 2006, Ilado, approx. 150-200 deaths (currentestimate).[28]


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Two militants of an unknown faction shot and killed Ustaz Ja'afar Adam, a northern Muslimreligious leader and Kano State official, along with one of his disciples in a mosque in Kanoduring dawn prayers on 13 April 2007. Obasanjo had recently stated on national radio that hewould "deal firmly" with election fraud and violence advocated by "highly placedindividuals." His comments were interpreted by some analysts as a warning to his VicePresident and 2007 presidential candidate Atiku Abubakar.[29]

In the 2007 general election, Umaru Yar'Adua and Goodluck Jonathan, both of the People'sDemocratic Party, were elected President and Vice President, respectively. The election wasmarred by electoral fraud, and denounced by other candidates and internationalobservers.[30][31]

[edit] Yar'Adua's disappearance and Jonathan's succession

Yar'Adua's presidency was fraught with uncertainty as media reports said he suffered fromkidney and heart disease. In November 2009, he fell ill and was flown out of the country toSaudi Arabia for medical attention. He remained incommunicado for 50 days, by which timerumours were rife that he had died. This continued until the BBC aired an interview that wasallegedly done via telephone from the president's sick bed in Saudi Arabia. As of January2010, he was still abroad.

In February 2010, Goodluck Jonathan began serving as acting President in the absence ofYaradua.[32] In May 2010, the Nigerian government learned of Yar'Adua's death after a long

battle with existing health problems and an undisclosed illness. This lack of communicationleft the new acting President Jonathan with no knowledge of his predecessor's plans.Yar'Adua's Hausa-Fulani background gave him a political base in the northern regions of

Nigeria, while Goodluck does not have the same ethnic and religious affiliations. This lack ofprimary ethnic support makes Jonathan a target for militaristic overthrow or regionaluprisings in the area. With the increase of resource spending and oil exportation, Nigerian

GDP and HDI (Human Development Index) have risen phenomenally since the economically-stagnant rule of Sani Abacha, but the primary population still survives on less than $2 USDper day. Goodluck Jonathan called for new elections and stood for re-election in April 2011.He won and is currently the president of Nigeria.[33]

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