factors affecting the efficiency of the use of solar radiation

8/2/2019 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of the Use of Solar Radiation

1/12

Parties: 1,

2

Original

Publication: M

edical

Colombia,

1997, 28: 123-

129 - ISSN

1657-9534,

Reprinted with

permission:

Corporacin

Editora

Medica del

Valle,Universi

ty of Valle,

Cali,

Colombia

Summary

Materials and methods

Results

Discussion

References

SUMMARYVibrio cholerae were inoculated in bottles ofglass, plastic bottles and plastic bags containingwater, were

exposed to sunlight for 6 hours and measured thetemperature and UV-A. Upon reaching 30 , 35 , 40

and 45 C were sampled to determine the level of vibrios and thermotolerant coliforms.Impacts were

determined temperature, turbidity, container and concentration of vibrios. This bacterium is able to

inactivate gradually reach 45 C and 6 hours of sun exposure, with constant temperature of 30 C it took

100 Wh/m2, and 50 C only 10 Wh/m2. Turbidity is a factor that interferes with the processof SODIS,

with 40 105 UNT Wh/m2 needed, with 23 NTU, 91 NTU Wh/m2 and with 5, 36 Wh/m2 of UV-A to achieve

100% mortality . No differences were found with the type of container used, always achieve 100%

inactivation, no differences were observed in the inactivation with different concentrations of vibrio. It

achieved high correlations between the inactivation of thermotolerant coliforms and vibrios (0.86 and

0.99).

Keywords: Vibrio cholerae. Thermotolerant coliforms.

Drinking water. Solar disinfection. Solar radiation. Lightultraviolet.

********

Cholera has become important in America, it was established since 1991 and the end of that year was

Use of solar radiation (UV-A and temperature) on theinactivation of Vibrio cholerae in water for humanconsumption. Factors affecting the efficiency of the

Submitted byYezid Solarte Object1

Object3Object2
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtml#_Toc155332007http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtml#_Toc155332008http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtml#_Toc155332009http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtml#_Toc155332010http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtml#_Toc155332011http://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/vidrio/vidrio.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/vidrio/vidrio.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/vidrio/vidrio.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/termodinamica/termodinamica.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/termodinamica/termodinamica.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/administ-procesos/administ-procesos.shtml#PROCEhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/administ-procesos/administ-procesos.shtml#PROCEhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/natlu/natlu.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/natlu/natlu.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/usuario/perfiles/yezid_solartehttp://www.monografias.com/usuario/perfiles/yezid_solartehttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtml#_Toc155332007http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar.shtml#_Toc155332008http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtml#_Toc155332009http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtml#_Toc155332010http://www.monografias.com/trabajos905/uso-radiacion-solar/uso-radiacion-solar2.shtml#_Toc155332011http://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/vidrio/vidrio.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/termodinamica/termodinamica.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/administ-procesos/administ-procesos.shtml#PROCEhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/natlu/natlu.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/usuario/perfiles/yezid_solarte


2/12

extended by 16 countries 1. In Colombia, has caused several epidemics in human and economic losses,

the groupmost affected human is between 15-44 years 2.

Cholera, a disease that causesdiarrhea very intense and is considered one of the most severas1 intestinal

infections, 3, is produced by Vibrio cholerae has two biotypes: the classical and El Tor. In Colombia it was

found that 99.1% of isolates belong to subtype Inaba and one to subtype Ogawa2. The El Tor biotype is

much more resistant to environmental conditions and survive more time inthe water. We have seen that

thesebacteria can survive in water between 2 and 20 days at temperatures between 20 and 30 C,

although this depends on the presence of other microorganisms and the chemical composition of water.

Almost all bacteria are sensitive to radiation and combined application ofheat due to the synergistic effects

that offer both MEASURES4. Therefore, a combined application of these two processesin water treatment,

allows a new alternative for disinfecting water, particularly in remote areas of difficult acceso4, 5.

Solar disinfection (SODIS) is based on the use of two-liter bottles or 3 liters plastic bags that are filled with

water and exposed for 6 hours direct sunlight. With this exposure time is achieved reductions between 92%

and 99% of coliform termotolerantes6, 7 which are indicators of fecal contamination. Therefore, and

considering the level of pathogenic bacteria is much lower, it could achieve a reduction to negligible levels

for the healthof man.

In the field station of the Institute for Research and Development ofWater , Basic Sanitation and

Conservation of Water Resources (CINARA), there has been evidenceoflaboratoryand field with

thermotolerant coliforms as indicators ofefficiencyin the SODIS, with determined that the death rate, solar

radiation levels necessary to inactivate germs and the critical temperature which can cause increased

mortality of bacterias7-9.

With the results, we decided to investigate some factors that interfere with the inactivation of V. cholerae

and determine the potential use of SODIS in thecontrol of cholera, as this type of technology is universally

available,cost and low maintenance, and is used everywhere, but has some limitations due to atmospheric

conditions, the turbidity of water, the colors , the wall thickness and shape of recipiente10.

This article presents the results under laboratory conditions and discusses the potential use that could be

SODIS inactivation of V. cholerae.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The datain this document are part of a programof research (SODIS) is performed simultaneously in

several countries and is coordinated by the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and

Technology (EAWAG / SANDEC) and which participates in the evaluation CINARA both in the laboratory

and in the field. The experimental part was conducted in the CINARA Research Station during the period

August 1995 to April 1996.

Physical measurements. The turbidity was measured with the nephelometric method using a Hach 2100A

turbidimeter, whosevalue is given in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Suspended solids were

measured using the gravimetric method (mg / l) and glass fiber filters with a nominal pore size of 1.2

m11. The intensity of UV-A (Watt.hora/m2) was measured every 10 minutes with a radiometric sensor

104A-SD Macam type Cos, with a spectral response of 320-400 nm (ultraviolet A, UV-A), this sensor was

connected to a data logger and temperature was measured with a thermocouple type J.
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/verpro/verpro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/verpro/verpro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/dinamica-grupos/dinamica-grupos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/dinamica-grupos/dinamica-grupos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/diarreas/diarreas.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/diarreas/diarreas.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos901/evolucion-historica-concepciones-tiempo/evolucion-historica-concepciones-tiempo.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/bacterias/bacterias.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/transf-calor/transf-calor.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/administ-procesos/administ-procesos.shtml#PROCEhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/administ-procesos/administ-procesos.shtml#PROCEhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/valoracion/valoracion.shtml#TEORICAhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/index.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/desorgan/desorgan.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/derecho-al-agua/derecho-al-agua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/derecho-al-agua/derecho-al-agua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/romandos/romandos.shtml#PRUEBAShttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/romandos/romandos.shtml#PRUEBAShttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/informe-laboratorio/informe-laboratorio.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/control/control.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/control/control.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/coad/coad.shtml#costohttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/coad/coad.shtml#costohttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/colarq/colarq.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/basda/basda.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/basda/basda.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Computacion/Programacion/http://www.monografias.com/Computacion/Programacion/http://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/nuevmicro/nuevmicro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/verpro/verpro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/dinamica-grupos/dinamica-grupos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/diarreas/diarreas.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos901/evolucion-historica-concepciones-tiempo/evolucion-historica-concepciones-tiempo.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/problemadelagua/problemadelagua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/bacterias/bacterias.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/transf-calor/transf-calor.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/administ-procesos/administ-procesos.shtml#PROCEhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/valoracion/valoracion.shtml#TEORICAhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/index.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/desorgan/desorgan.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/derecho-al-agua/derecho-al-agua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/romandos/romandos.shtml#PRUEBAShttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/informe-laboratorio/informe-laboratorio.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/control/control.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/coad/coad.shtml#costohttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/colarq/colarq.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/basda/basda.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Computacion/Programacion/http://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/nuevmicro/nuevmicro.shtml


3/12

Microbiological tests. We used a strain of El Tor biotype of V. cholerae isolated in the Department of

Microbiology at the Universidad del Valle. This strain was maintained in nutrient broth at 35.5 C for 24

hours this medium was inoculated 1 ml in each bottle, before exposure to solar radiation.

Before and after sun exposure 5 tubes were inoculated for each concentration ofsample : 0.1, 1.0 and 10 ml

containing alkaline peptone broth to determine the most probable number (MPN). These tubes were

incubated for 8 hours at 35.5 C and tubes withbacterial growth, were sampled with a handle that was

inoculated in Petri dishes with TCBS agar, these boxes were incubated for 24 h at 35.5 C. Some typical

colonies for V. cholerae were identified in each box with five standard biochemical tests: TSI, LIA, urea,

motility and indol11, 12.

With the results of these biochemical tests determined the most probable number (MPN). The tests were

conducted with waters of different turbidities, and containers and different environmental conditions. The

solar radiation exposures were made between 09:00 and 17:00 h.

Impact of temperature. A glass bottle of 1.5 liter and 2 liter bottle plastic all black painted to prevent the

passage of sunlight while allowing greater accumulation of temperature. Each bottle completely filled with

water, was added 1 ml of V. cholerae which yielded a result of 11,000 MPN/100 ml.Every 15 minutes the

water temperature measured in the vessels, when it reached 35 C, 40 C, 45 C, the maximumtemperature (47 C) and at the end of the test samples were taken for sowing in tubes alkaline peptone.

We also determined the impact of two constant temperatures (with sun exposure) on the mortality of the

vibrios, were used for this quartz tubes of 30 ml and calibrated thermostat bath at 30 or 50 C.

Influence of turbidity. Three tests were performed with their respective replies, with differentqualityof

water (level of turbidity and suspended solids) and on different days, resulting in an experimental condition

variable. For tests with raw water (40 NTU) and prefiltered (23 NTU) was used four plastic bottles and four

glass bottles, while for filtered water (5 NTU) was used only one bottle of each type to make the respective

sample. All bottles were painted black on the bottom in a longitudinal plane. Samples for the first two tests

were taken at the beginning (22 C), reaching 45 C water at the end of the test and the next day once thedesired temperature was reached, pulled a bottle of each type. For the last test, the samples were taken at

the start, reaching 30 C water, 40 C, 45 C, 50 C and at the end of the experiment.

Influence of the type of container. Exposure to solar radiation was carried out with glass bottles (1.5 liters),

plastic (2 L) and plastic bags (3 liters) with the proceduredescribed above.

Influence of the concentration of V. cholerae. We used four plastic bottles (2 liters), to which were added

water and different initial concentrations of V. cholerae: 2.5 x 106, 2.5 x 105, 2.5 x 104 and 2.5 x 103

MPN/100 ml (final concentration in thevolumetotal was between 5 x 104 and 5 x 107 NMP).Temperatures

were measured every 15 minutes and samples were taken at the beginning 22 C, 30 C, 35 C, 40 C, 45

C and at the end of the test.
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/tebas/tebas.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos27/crecimiento-bacteriano/crecimiento-bacteriano.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos27/crecimiento-bacteriano/crecimiento-bacteriano.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/conge/conge.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/conge/conge.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/conge/conge.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/mapro/mapro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/mapro/mapro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/volfi/volfi.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/volfi/volfi.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/volfi/volfi.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/tebas/tebas.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos27/crecimiento-bacteriano/crecimiento-bacteriano.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/conge/conge.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/mapro/mapro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/volfi/volfi.shtml


4/12

RESULTS

Impact oftemperature. The initial concentration was reached, when inoculated with 1 ml of culture was

MPN/100 ml 16.000 V. cholerae (total concentration in thevolume used, ie, amount ofwaterconsumed by

apersonper day, was 320.000 NMP bottle glassand NMP 240.000 for plastic bottles).

Bothtests showed an increase in temperature slightly different between the two types of vessels due to the

different volumes used in the bottles, but the inactivation of V. cholerae was similar (Figure 1). The

temperature began to increase slowly and steadily, reaching over 50 C first in glass bottles (225 minutes)

and then in plastic bottles (240 minutes). The reduction ofbacteriawas drastic when it reached 40 C (3

log) in the water, after 45 C the bacteria level was


5/12

Influence of turbidity. As each test was performed on different days, different turbidities were obtained,

solar radiation, maximum temperature reached and different initial inoculum of V. cholerae. Thequalityof

the water (turbidity and suspended solids) the total radiation from UV-A and the initial concentration of

V. cholerae are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Experimental Conditions of the tests performed with Bottles and Three Types of Water.

Type of water

Raw Prefiltered Filtered

Turbidity (NTU) 40 23 5

Suspended Solids (mg / l) 75 24


6/12

The raw water tests were positive for V. prefiltered cholerae at 45 C. Significant differences were noted in

the radiation and thetimenecessary to inactivate vibrios in these two types of water. In raw water bottles

both plastic and glass, it took 105 Wh/m2 UV-A radiation to decrease 2.6-2.9 log (from 1.500 to 4 NMP

NMP) of vibrios in 270 minutes and it took 46 prefiltered water Wh/m2 52 C and UV-A for a 3.2-3.7 log

reduction (from 11,000 to 4 NMP NMP) of vibrios in 130 minutes.

Water with low turbidity (


7/12

OD -


8/12

With 48 C and 84 W/m2 UV-A (305 minutes) positive tubes were not discovered for V. cholerae (


9/12

Thermotolerant coliforms / V. cholerae glass bottles

2

2

variables80.0/99.9

99.6/99.7

91/46

105/105

270/270

310/110

0.92

0.90

Thermotolerant coliforms / V. cholerae plastic bags

2

2

variable99.99/99.9

99.99/99.3

78/78

54/54

250/250

140/140

0.99

0.99

DISCUSSION

The different tests showed that V. cholerae is sensitive to environmental conditions, this follows from the

results. The impact of just temperature increase caused drastic reductions in the vibrios (Figures 1 and

2). This same phenomenon already observed and Metcalf13 Ciochetti. On the contrary, thermotolerant

coliforms, the radiation is much more important than temperature, these bacteria resist temperature

increases to almost 50 C without causing mortalities apreciables14.

When combined temperature and solar radiation, the reduction starts at 35 C (lower turbidity) and 100

minutes when exposed containers only to temperature inactivation is initiated at 40 C and 135 minutes. In

a similar test conducted in Nigeria, it took about five hours to about 600 W/m2 UV-A for the complete

inactivation of V cholerae13, 15. MacKenzie et al.16 achieved a reduction of only 99.9% (3 log) of vibrios in

six hours of sun exposure, but this exhibition began at midday and was not determined temperature level

reached and the UV- A cumulative.

Increasing the temperature causes major changes in some physical and chemical parameters of water,

raises the rate of chemical and biochemical reactions, decreases the solubility ofgases and increases the

metabolic rate microorganismos17. These changes could be the cause of the destruction of cellular integrity,

while UV-A affects the breathing, transportthrough the membrane, nucleic acid replication and synthesis

of protenas18 and together with the dissolved O2 produces txicos19 compounds, therefore the

temperature and radiation are synergistic.

The influence of turbidity on inactivation of V. cholerae was similar to that found in the inactivation of

coliform termotolerantes8 because high levels of turbidity in the water it took higher doses of UV-A

radiation and temperature (exposure time) to completely inactivate vibrios. Odeyemi15 Alward14 and

showed that the bacteria are inactivated rapidly by solar radiation in waters with low turbidity, which in

high turbidity waters.

The comparison of results obtained with different turbidities indicated that raw water (high turbidity) took

nearly twice the radiation that the necessary pre-filtered water (turbidity average) to cause a small

reduction in the levels of vibrios. This even when the test was performed with raw water reached 50 C and

had a low initial concentration of vibrios.

Was also observed with prefiltered water was reached faster at 45 C (110 minutes vs. 140 minutes). This

suggests that high turbidity (suspended solids and) reduce theefficiencyof SODIS, so it is recommended to

reduce turbidity before the water exposed to radiation solar20, 21.

Generally, the lowerdensityof bacteria inactivation rate is higher. Odeyemi22 found high bacteria

reductions at low densities. The same author suggests that this is due to easy penetration and inactivation

caused by sunlight when the bacteria are dispersed and individually in the water, the opposite was found in

waters with high densities, because the cells can be found clustered , shielding many bacteria of UV-

A. However, in this investigation with V. cholerae inactivation seems not to be influenced by the density of
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/termodi/termodi.shtml#teohttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/transporte/transporte.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/transporte/transporte.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/estat/estat.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/estat/estat.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/estat/estat.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/termodi/termodi.shtml#teohttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/transporte/transporte.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/veref/veref.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos5/estat/estat.shtml


10/12

bacteria (Figure 1), because if the UV-A does not reach the bacteria, the temperature would be responsible

for inactivating.

Another important factor is proper SODIS recipiente7 rate, 9.10. The vessel walls serve as a filter UV-A: If

the container causes high reductions is necessary to use a longer exposure time, such as plastic bottles used

in theseexperiments to reduce about 30% of the UV- A, on the contrary, plastic bags reduced about 10%. In

addition, Sommer9 showed that plastic bags are heated much more than the other vessels in the area /

water column, which happens to be much greater than with the bottles.

When the comparisons between the inactivation of thermotolerant coliforms and vibrios, found high

correlations between the inactivation of thermotolerant coliforms and vibrios (between 0.86 and 0.99). The

lowest correlations were presented with plastic bottles and plastic bags higher. The difference between

these vessels could be the level of temperature was always higher in the water in plastic bags.

This makes evident that the impact of SODIS on the vibrios is much higher than for coliforms

termotolerantes9. These results suggest theusefulness of thermotolerant coliforms comoindicators of

mortality vibrios. These results are important because the costsof the methods used for isolation and

identification of V. cholerae, with respect to those used for thermotolerant coliforms.

Preliminary tests show that there is potential for SODIS on the control of this infection. These

considerations are also based on the results obtained by other researchers in Canad14, Suiza5 and Lbano4

with inactivation of thermotolerant coliforms.

SUMMARY: Vibrio cholerae WAS Inoculata in plastic and glass bottles and plastic bags. The containers

Were Exposed to sunlight DURING six hours.When temperature raised up to 30 C, 35 C, 40 C, and 45

C, samples of water Were taken. The Impact of: a) temperature, b) turbidity, c) container and d) initial

concentration of vibrio Were determined. The inactivated bacteria Were only with temperature, When it

raised up to 45 C. Whereas, With constant temperature of 30 C it WAS NECESSARY 100 Wh/m2 of the

radiation and at 50 C, only 10 Wh/m2. The turbidity Caused Interference with SODIS process: total

inactivation WAS Achieved with Different levels: 105 Wh/m2 (40 TNU), 91 Wh/m2 (23 TNU) and 36Wh/m2 (5 TNU). The container type and initial concentration of vibrio Different did not Have Influence on

the SODIS process. Thermotolerant coliforms Among Full correlation and V. cholerae inactivation WAS

always high (0.86 and 0.99).

REFERENCES

1.Ministry ofHealth. DIGESA. Collection and systematization of environmental conditions and

activities in the control of the epidemic of cholera.Ministry of Health of Peru. Volume V, 1994, 297 pp.

2.Agudelo CCA. Cholera in Colombia.Scienceand Technology 1994, 12: 3-5.

3.DNP.Planfor Prevention. Control and eradication of cholera. DNP-2527 document. UDS-UDV,MINSALUD. Bogot, 1991, 27 pp.

4.Acra A, Jurdi M, Muallem M, Karahagopian Y, Z. Raffoul Water disinfection by solar

radiation. Assessment and aplication. Technical Study 66e.Ottawa, Ont., IDRC, 1990, 75 pp.

5.Wegelin M, Canonica S, Mechsner K, Pesaro F, Metzler A. Solar water disinfection: Scope of the

process and analysis of radiation experiments Aqua 1994, 43: 154-69.

6.F. Sabbadini Evaluation of field tests Carried out in Cali, Colombia. Internal Report, EAWAG

Duebendorf / CINARA, 1994.
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/cuasi/cuasi.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/cuasi/cuasi.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/costo/costo.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/costo/costo.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/valoracion/valoracion.shtml#TEORICAhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/valoracion/valoracion.shtml#TEORICAhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/costos/costos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/costos/costos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/control/control.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/index.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/index.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/verpro/verpro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/verpro/verpro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/fciencia/fciencia.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/fciencia/fciencia.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/fciencia/fciencia.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/plane/plane.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/plane/plane.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/plane/plane.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/cuasi/cuasi.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/costo/costo.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos15/valoracion/valoracion.shtml#TEORICAhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/costos/costos.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/control/control.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/index.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/verpro/verpro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos10/fciencia/fciencia.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos7/plane/plane.shtml


11/12

7.Pfammatter R, Wegelin M. Solar water disinfection: Evaluation of field tests Carried out in Cali,

Colombia. Internal Report, EAWAG Duebendorf / CINARA, 1993.

8.Solarte And Dierolf C. Sodis reactortest report. Internal Report, EAWAG Duebendorf /

CINARA. 1994.

9.Sommer, B. Solar water disinfection: Impact on fecal coliforms and Vibrio cholerae. Internal

Report, EAWAG Duebendorf / CINARA. 1995.

10.TA Lawand. Opening remarks. Solar water disinfection In. Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the

Brace Research Institute, Montreal ,15-17 August. 1988, pp. 13-9.

11.APHA-AWWA-WPCF. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 18th

ed. 1992.

12.Shah AM. Identification and quantification of Vibrio cholerae. Manual 8. Training for the

prevention and control ofdiseasesin the water sector gastrointestinal. Mexican Institute of Water

Technology. IMTA. 1991, 50 pp.

13.Ciochetti D, Metcalf R. Naturally Contaminated water pasteurization of solar energy with. Appl

Env Microbiol 1984, 47: 223-28.

14.Alward R. Summary of Activities of INRESA network on simple solar water disinfection system

testing and evaluation. Solar water disinfection In. Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Brace

Research Institute, Montreal, 15-17 August. 1988.

15.Odeyemi O. An assessment of solar disinfection of drinking water in Nigeria. Report ofMRP No

86/120 ICA. The United Nations University, Tokyo. 1987. Pp. 1-34.

16.MacKenzie TD, Ellison RT, Mostow SR. Sunlight and cholera. Lancet 1992, 340: 367.

17.Tchobanoglous G, Schroeder ED. Water quality management. Water quality. Characteristics,

modeling and Modifications. University of California at Davis. Massachusetts, Addinson-Wesley

Publishing Company. 1985, 768 pp.

18.Peak JG, Peak MG, RW Tuveson. Ultraviolet action spectrum for aerobic and anaerobicinactivation of Escherichia coli strains resistant Specially sensitive to near ultraviolet and

Radiations. Photochemis Photobiol 1983, 38: 541-43.

19.RH Reed. Solar inactivation of faecal bacteria in water: The critical role of oxygen. Appl Microbiol

1997; 24: 276-80.

20.Odeyemi O. Guidelines for the study of solar disinfection of drinking waters in Developing areas of

the world. Publication No. u/86/24, INRESA Secretariat, Brace Research Institute, Ste Anne de

Bellevue, Quebec, 1986.

21.Odeyemi O. Use of solar radiation for water disinfection. Publication of INRESA Secretariat, Brace

Research Institute, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, 1986.

22.Odeyemi O. Prospect and limitation of using solar energy for water disinfection. In Solar waterdesinfection. Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Brace Research Institute, Montreal, 15-17

August, 1988.

Solarte1 Yezid , Martha Lucia Salas1 , Bernhard Sommer2 , Carlos Dierolf1 , Martin Wegelin2

1. Institute for Research and Development ofWater , Basic Sanitation and Conservation of Water Resources

(CINARA).Universityof Valle, AA 25157.

2. Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG), CH-8600, Duebendorf,

Switzerland.
http://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/proyinf/proyinf.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/proyinf/proyinf.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/mapro/mapro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/adpreclu/adpreclu.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/Enfermedades/http://www.monografias.com/Salud/Enfermedades/http://www.monografias.com/Salud/Enfermedades/http://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/restricciones/restricciones.shtml#mrphttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/restricciones/restricciones.shtml#mrphttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/desorgan/desorgan.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/derecho-al-agua/derecho-al-agua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/derecho-al-agua/derecho-al-agua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos4/proyinf/proyinf.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/mapro/mapro.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos/adpreclu/adpreclu.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/Salud/Enfermedades/http://www.monografias.com/trabajos14/restricciones/restricciones.shtml#mrphttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos12/desorgan/desorgan.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos32/derecho-al-agua/derecho-al-agua.shtmlhttp://www.monografias.com/trabajos13/admuniv/admuniv.shtml


12/12

factors affecting the efficiency of the use of solar radiation

Documents