A STUDY OF THE COODINATION OF SKILLS DEVELOPMENT WITH EMPLOYMENT NEEDS IN

THE GAMBIA

Project Mentor: Dr. PRINCE COLE

PRINCIPAL RESEARCHER: ANTHONY ADJIVON- University o f The Gambia RESEARCHER: OMAR SANNEH – GAMBIA COLLEGE

NGANSA TOURAY –University of The Gambia JERRO SAIDYKHAN – University of The Gambia

THE GAMBIA

Research financed by

Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA)

With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AAT – Association of Accounting Technicians ABE – Association of Business Executives AEEE – Applied Electrical and Electronic Engineering AMEEE – Applied Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Engineering CAT – Computer Accounting Technicians CSIP – Community Skills Improvement Project DoSE – Department of State for Education EBT – Enterprise – Based Training EI – Electrical Installation ESS - British Employer Skill Survey FDI – Foreign Direct Investment GAMCEL - Gambia Cellular Company GAMTEL – Gambia Telecommunications Company GC – Gambia College GCAA – Gambia Civil Aviation Authority GEC – Gambia Electrical Company Ltd GIA – Gambia International Airlines Ltd GPA – Gambia Ports Authority GSQF – Gambia Skills Qualification Framework GTMI - Gambia Telecommunications and Multi Media Institute GTTI – Gambia Technical Training Institute HRM – Human Resource Management IBAS – Indigenous Business Advisory Services ICT – Information Communication Technology ILO – International Labour Organisation IT – Information Technology MDI – Management Development Institute MEPID - Ministry of Economic Planning and industrial Development MIS – Management Information Systems MVS- Motor Vehicle Systems NAWEC – National Water and Electricity Company MDG - Millenium Development Goals NGO – Non Governmental Organisation NTA – National Training Authority PS – Professional Studies RVTH – Royal Victoria Teaching Hospital SME – Small and Medium Enterprises TVET – Technical and Vocational Education and Training UN – United Nations UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UTG – University of The Gambia

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to the members of the research team for doing such a wonderful work.. I am especially grateful to the undergraduate students (Ms. Ngansa Touray, Mr. Jerro Saidykhan, Mr. Ebrima Bah and Mr. Lamin Bayoh) from the University of the Gambia who though had no experience in research work were able to spend so much time with myself, Mr. Omar Sanneh , the mentor Dr. Prince Cole. Special thanks to the members of the Scientific Committee for their invaluable comments, recommendations and guidance. I would like to acknowledge the contributions made by some members of the National Training Authority (NTA), Indigenous Business Advisory Services (IBAS), and the Department of State, Labour, Employment and Industry who were very willing to release Policy documents without delay. My sincere thanks and appreciation to those heads of training institutions, employers and also the head of Engineering Gambia Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) for their willingness to grant interviews and hold discussions at very short notice. Special thanks to Mr. Ebrima Njie, Vocational Coordinator at the Gambia Technical Training Institute (GTTI) and Mr. A. Bittaye for their support and advice throughout this study. The students with whom we discussed were wonderful as they gave us their frank and honest opinions and assessment of their various institutions. I would not be fair if I fail to acknowledge the contribution made by students who had just completed their industrial attachment and those who were unfortunate to be placed. Finally, I wish to thank my wife, family, friends and the entire staff of ERNWACA National Coordination Office, Gambia Chapter, for their support encouragement and understanding shown during this study. …………………………… ANTHONY F. ADJIVON UNIVERSITY OF THE GAMBIA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE 1. INTRODUCTION ………………………… ………………………….. 6 1.1 Statement of the problem…………………………………………… 8 1.2 Aim and objectives …………………………………………… ….. 8 1.2.1 The objectives …………………………………………………… 9 1.3 Delimitations of the study………………………………………….. 9 2. Review of the relevant literature ……………………………………… 12

3. Methodology ………….. …………………………………………….…… 20 3.1 Introduction……………………………… …………………..… 20 3.1.1 Stage 1. The SWOT Analysis of the Employment sub-systems ………20 3.1.2 Data collection procedures …………………………………………….20 3.1.2.1 The duration of Stage 1 …………….…………………….......... 21 3.1.3 Stage II (A) The CASE STUDIES of the operation of the tertiary

Education and Training sub – systems …………………………… 22 3.1.3.1 Data collection procedures …………………………………………22 3.1.4 The interviews ………………………………………………………… 22 3.1.5 The observations ……………………………………………………… 22 3.2 STAGE II (B): The survey of the coordination system ……..…….…… 23 3.2.1 The duration of STAGE II (A & B) …………………………………….23 3.3 Data analysis ……………………………………………………………..23 3.4 The work plan …………………………………………………………….24 4. The Results …………………………………………………………………..25 4.1 The Results and the CONTENT ANALYSIS for STAGE I……………… 25 4.2 The Results of the CONTENT ANALYSIS for the CASE STUDIES and SURVEY …………………………………………………………………… 30 4.2.1 Industrial attachment ………………………………………….………..30 4.2.2The role of career and guidance counselling unit ……………………. .33 4.2.3 Record keeping …………………………………………………………34 4.2.4 Collaboration between employers and training providers …………….34 4.2.5 Access to ICT ………………………………………………………… 35 4.2.6 Gender equity ………………………………………………………… 35 4.2.7 The informal sector …………………………………………………… 35 4.2.8 Coordination of skills development and the labour market ………….. 36 5. Summary and Recommendations ……………………………………….39 5.1 Discussion of results …………………………………………….……… 39 5.2 Conclusions …………………………………………………….……… 41 5.3 Recommendations …………………… ……….……………………… 42

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5.3.1 Recommendations to the training providers ………………………… 42 5.3.2 Recommendations to the employers ……. ………………………… 43 5.3.3 Recommendations to the NTA ……………….……………………… 43 References …………………………………………………………………….45 Bibliograghy ………………………………………………………………… 49 APPENDIX I : Questionnaire for training institutions APPENDIX II: Some content of the interview guide for employers

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1. INTRODUCTION

It is widely acknowledged that efforts to co-ordinate employment policies with economic development strategies and social inclusion initiatives bring significant benefits. Policy co-ordination is one of the central determinants of social and economic development especially in developing countries (OECD, 2001)

For example, labour market programmes are more likely to be effective when they take into account the local characteristics of their target groups and seek to adapt them with local market needs. Information provided by local employers and representatives of target groups helps to guide labour market programmes as well as reducing substitution and the displacement effects that are associated with labour market policies.

The present Gambian Government’s strategic plan for socio-economic development, as incorporated in its Vision 2020 document (GoG, 1996), has emphasised “vocational and skill-based training” and the encouragement of entrepreneurship (“as a corner-stone for Human Resource Development”) coupled with “high quality academic and professional training”. In The Gambia, the centre-piece for Human Resource Development at middle level manpower was the Tertiary Education sector for it completes the last lap of the new 9-3-4 Education system (Joof, 2003; DoSE, 2003). The tertiary institutions that are in the Public sector in The Gambia are (a) the Government-maintained organisations, namely, the University of The Gambia (UTG), Gambia College (GC), The Gambia Technical Institute (GTTI), the Rural Development Institute, and the Management Development Institute (MDI); (b) the parastatal organisation: the Gambia Telecommunication and Multi-Media institute (GTMI). The Private Sector institutions include a number of NGOs that intervene in Education (such as the Canaan Technical Institute) and registered private Skills Training Centres (such as the Quantum Institute of Technology).

The above emphasis in the government’s vision is embedded in the public sector institutions’ strategic plans, so that, for example, the UTG (2005) plans to pursue programmes that are “relevant to the demands of the labour market”, to make arrangements for internships for students, and to establish an institute for enterprise development”, whilst the GTTI (2002) focuses on technical, vocational and professional training that meet the middle-level human resource requirements of the country.

This strategic direction of these tertiary institutions has strong support from international bodies such as the World Bank which affirms that technological changes and global competition in trade require higher skills and productivity and that the delivery of competency-based, skills training programmes open new markets for training systems (Johanson and Adams, 2004). For its part, the UNESCO’s World Conference on Higher Education has declared that the more knowledge becomes a key factor of productivity, the more higher education institutions are expected to

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regard co-operation with the world of work as a means of improving the education of students and, at the same time, their employment opportunities (Teichler, 1998). This co-operation might include, for example, the involvement of practitioners in Curriculum/ Programme development, internships for students, and the provision of Counselling services for students. Indeed, the UNESCO’s (1998) regional conferences on Higher Education had suggested the creation of “observatories to monitor changes in the labour market” and the harmonisation between labour market trends and higher education programmes. The underlying theory is that “better institutional links between employers and trainers” are needed to enable the education and training system to respond adequately to skill needs (Middleton et al, 1993).

Employment policy itself channels substantial resources to the local level. It is to be implemented networks of government offices and, in some cases, private organizations and NGOs in pursuing common objectives.

The employment administration also provides a range of services locally, such as labour market information, which plays an important role in the design of national development strategies. Labour market policy and economic development policy therefore strongly reinforce each other when developed in partnership. However, the extent to which partnership working actually occurs depends on a number of institutional features including the flexibility of policy instruments, the behaviour of the local employment administration and the capacity for other actors and organisations (such as economic development agencies, local authorities, employer associations, community-based organisations) to interact with the employment services in the design and implementation of programmes. A wide range of institutional features can affect the capacity of employment and labour authorities in this regard. They include (non exhaustively):

i) the degree of administrative flexibility; ii) The management style (e.g. management by objectives vs. management by

programmes); iii) the structure of funding mechanisms; iv) the characteristics of the accountability relationships within the labour

administration; v) the role of tripartite arrangements (NTA, training providers and Employers)

and vi) The structure of employment services (e.g. integrated vs. segmented

employment services and the linkages between employment services and training).

It was thus timely to identify the most effective ways to co-ordinate skills development and workforce needs in the Gambia. How can these policy areas be integrated to maximise benefits for the economy and society in general, with results for local prosperity and quality of life? Given the importance of the two policy areas

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at local level, identifying ways to harmonise skills development and employment policy represents a major step towards taking an integrated approach to local development and will possibly provide guidance to other policy fields in the Gambia. 1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM However, a recent empirical study of a sample of the tertiary institutions across both public and private sectors has revealed the “absence of effective linkages” between them and organizations in the country that are appropriate for the purpose of obtaining information about job opportunities, and securing placements for Work Experience (Joof, 2003). Earlier empirical studies (Bittaye et al,1996; Benett, 1997;2002) had identified similar deficiencies in the provision of technical education and vocational training in the country and bring to mind the World Bank’s recent finding that although state-sponsored training in Sub-Saharan Africa “frequently responds to the demand for more costly skills, particularly at the tertiary level”, it suffers from “a lack of connection with market needs” (Johanson and Adams, 2004).

It follows from the foregoing that what is now required is a more effective system than the one that exists at present for ensuring that the connection between tertiary education programmes and labour market needs is relevant and operational. The research question therefore boiled down to: in what ways can the effectiveness of the existing system be improved?

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim and Definitions of terms The aim of this study then was to identify the ways in which the system for this connection, that is the co-ordination between Tertiary Education and Employment, can be improved the term “system”, as used here, meaning the set of policies, strategies and programmes. This system is complex and includes sub-systems for both Employment and Tertiary Education; and for the purposes of this limited study, the key sub-systems on which the study concentrated are shown in Figure 1.

The term “Skills Development” in this diagram refers to the Cognitive skills, Professional skills, and Transferable life skills (such as problem-solving skills) which Tertiary Education institutions aim to develop; and, importantly, the Tertiary sector of Education includes both non-university, post-senior secondary school institutions and university institutions (Lamptey, 2005; UNESCO, 2002; King, 1991)

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Figure 1: Diagram illustrating the system for the co-ordination between Tertiary Education and Employment

The co-ordination system The Sub-Systems

Employment (a) The National Labour Market occupational information and

Counselling sub-system (policies, strategies, practices)

(b) The National Occupational Standards and Competency Testing sub-system

(c) The National Entrepreneurship promotion sub-system

Tertiary Education

(policies, strategies, and programmes for

(d) The Public sector Tertiary level delivery sub-system for the co-ordination

Skills Development)

(e) The Private sector Tertiary level delivery sub-system for the co-ordination

1.2.1 The objectives OBJECTIVE 1: Each of the Employment sub-systems was subjected to a critical analysis of its Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT), the objective being to recommend policies, strategies and programmes for enhancing the effectiveness of the sub-system, on the basis of the results of this analysis. This SWOT analysis for each sub-system therefore focused on issues such as: (a) its legislative basis and accountability; (b) its structure, management and modus operandi; (c) its usefulness; (d) its future development.

OBJECTIVE 2: In each of the Tertiary Education sub-systems, Case Studies were undertaken with the objective of evaluating the arrangements for ensuring that the education and training provided met the national labour force needs, and making recommendations for their improved effectiveness.

OBJECTIVE 3: To see how skills development and employment needs could be best co-ordinated and integrated at national level.

OBJECTIVE 4: To see how skills development and employment needs could croos-fertilise to meet business needs while providing sustainable solutions to the problems of the disadvantaged on the labour market.

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1.3 THE DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY As already indicated, the study was limited to the above sub-systems, given the limited resources (including time) allocated for it. Also, although all the six Public Sector tertiary institutions were targeted in this study, only some 12 registered Private Sector Tertiary institutions was intensively studied. They were randomly selected from Greater Banjul (the only urban area), and one rural area (the Lower River Division). However, a complementary survey of a large sample of the Private Sector Tertiary institutions in these two areas was undertaken and the research plan was to achieve a representative sample of such institutions in these areas using the method of stratified, random sampling based on their cross-classification by (a) type of institution (NGO/ Private) (b) subject area (Business/ Technical). Furthermore, a sample of employing organisations in the two socio – economic areas was similarly surveyed.

The survey was carried out well and to a very large extent the summary and recommendations reflects the situation across the country. However, there were some limitations to this study, they include:

a) Though all the training institutions visited were registered with the National Training Authority (NTA), some of them could be considered as substandard. Due to the lack of funding as they rely only on tuition fees they admit dropouts from grades ten and eleven and tend to confirm the saying that technical and vocational education is for school dropouts.

b) In some of the private institutions visited, there were no students registered in some of their programmes listed. They explained that the programme was cancelled this year either because no student registered this year or the number registered was not viable.

c) In the rural areas, some institutions admit students who lacked formal secondary education. This can be explained partially by the lack of funds by parents and guardians and also the lack of senior secondary schools in those areas or at times the senior secondary schools are located very far away.

d) It was really very hard to obtain relevant information. Authorities found it very difficult to fill out the questionnaire and a lot of time was spent waiting for them to fill the questionnaire. The researchers had to visit these institutions many times before they were able to collect the completed questionnaire. Some heads did not even bother to answer certain questions on the questionnaire. They however tried to answer them verbally by giving not very precise answers.

e) The employers were very slow to respond to the request for the semi structured interview or did not reply at all. However some who were very busy asked that the assistant be interviewed.

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f) In most cases, it was noticed that records are not kept properly and as a result, the answers to some questions were not very accurate or vague. Examples include:

i) Question. How many students did you accept on attachment for the past year? Answer. Just a few.

ii) Question. How many new workers do you think you will need in the next two years? Answer. I don’t know. It depends on a lot of factors

g) It was the aim of this study to do comparative analysis with regards to the coordination systems in Ghana and Nigeria. This was however not done due to the lack of time and also the lack of relevant literature.

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2. REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE

Before embarking upon an analysis of the policies implemented to coordinate skills development and employment needs at national level, was necessary to review relevant literature on technical and vocational educational education and also on the informal sector. Increasing attention has been given to technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in the last several years. Some of this interest has certainly been due to both popular and political convictions that TVET should be able to assist in the transition from school to work. In developing countries, policy makers and analysts have been aware that there is no single, most obvious modality for TVET and hence there has been very considerable debate about what forms of TVET might be most appropriate in different settings (Grierson, 1997). The question is, can training really help those hoping to become employed or even self employed? In virtually all quarters, the current view of training is a well justified mix of skepticism and enthusiasm (Grierson, 1997). The simple answer though and the answer that is the basis for most common practice and much of what follows, is that the possession of some kind of skill or technical or technical knowledge will make employment easier to enter and more productive (King, 1984). Increasingly, it is being recognized that market linkages through mechanisms such as apprenticeship and industrial attachments can help training programmes impact marketable skills while creating access to market opportunities (Caillods, 1994). The primary purpose of this study is therefore to investigate the linkage between training institutions and industry. In doing so it is also necessary to define the terms knowledge and employability. The skills demanded by employers are more readily related to an ‘employability’ criterion than to a ‘knowledge’ criterion (see Hillage and Pollard, 1998). It was noted that skills were merely one of the four facets of ‘knowledge’ (OECD, 2001d, p.18) described below: − Know-what: refers to knowledge about ‘facts’; − Know-why: refers to knowledge about principles and laws in nature, human kind and society; − Know-how: refers to skills (i.e. ability to do something); − Know-who: involved the social ability to co-operate and communicate with different kinds of people and experts. Since skills appear to correspond mainly to the ‘know-how’ dimension of knowledge, it is therefore the ability to perform tasks in the workplace that skills-

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upgrading seeks to address. On this basis, it is thus evident that the aim is not to improve cognitive and academic abilities, but essentially psychomotor ability of ‘doing’ abilities. The rapid changes in the global economic environment have induced a variety of new developments in the workplace, among them the growing use of technology (especially information and communication technologies), changes in human resource practices, and the growing competitiveness of product markets. In the past twenty years, developed and developing countries have experienced a marked shift in employers’ willingness to hire less-educated workers towards more educated workers. Whilst this trend is now widely reported, it is often argued that it is not matched by the design of effective education and training programmes. This is because of the lack of solid evidence on demand-side characteristics such as job availability and locations, and employer skill requirements and perceptions (Holzer, 1996; Campbell et al, 2001). It cannot be disputed that skill gaps and shortages result from market failure. Since skills-upgrading involves significant training requirements, it is by nature an investment, and for various reasons, such as the fear of poaching, or poor management strategies, many employers - especially Small and medium enterprises -are either unable or unwilling to bear the related cost (Booth and Snower, 1996). Employers opt for low value-added products and low-skilled methods of production. As a result, workers perceive little benefit in upgrading their skills and remain trapped in low-skilled, low-paid employment. These two mutually reinforcing economic failures are known in the literature as a ‘low-skill/low-wage equilibrium’ (Finegold and Soskice, 1988).Moreover, incentives to invest in formal education diminish at an increasingly rapid rate as a function of age, reflecting a shorter period to amortise investment costs and higher costs in terms of foregone earnings (OECD, 2001f; Social Research and Demonstration Corporation, 2001). Adult workers are thus even more at risk of being trapped in low-skilled employment when compared to their younger counterparts. Governments are increasingly realising the importance of these failures and are bringing about several institutional changes to refocus their active labour market policies on skills acquisition and lifelong learning (OECD, 2000b). For example, the Gambia Skills Qualification Framework (GSQF) recently approved by the NTA and the recent transfer of vocational and technical training from the Directorate for Technical and Vocational Training to NTA under the Department of State for Education illustrate the importance the Government of the Gambia attaches to skills training.

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For example, the British Employer Skill Survey (ESS) provides an analysis of the extent; causes and implications of skill deficiencies in England (see Hogarth et al, 2001). The survey makes a clear distinction between two different kinds of skill deficiency: − recruitment difficulties in the external labour market, focusing on reported hard-to-fill vacancies which are skill related. The latter are referred to as skill-shortage vacancies. − internal skill gaps, that is, a divergence between firms’ current skill levels and those which are required to meet firms’ business objectives. These are measured by questions about the lack of proficiency of current staff. The distinction is important as it implies that employers will consider different types of occupational categories, hence different type of workers according to the reported skill deficiency, possibly denying access to skill-shortage vacancies to their internal or local pool of disadvantaged labour force. The ESS 2001 finds that skill shortage vacancies are predominantly located in professional, associate professional and technical and skilled trade occupations. Internal skill gaps are identified and recognised as such by employers but the report also points to the fact that some skill gaps may go unreported or may be ‘latent’ in nature, taking the form of unrecognised deficiencies in the skills required to compete effectively in today’s world markets. The ESS showed that one in ten employers perceived a skill deficiency. Seven per cent of establishments reported an internal skills gap; 803,000 employees were estimated to be below the desired proficiency for their jobs at the time of the survey. The type of skills sought by employers for internal skill gaps tended to lean more towards generic skills than is the case for skill shortage vacancies. Communication skills were required for 41 per cent of all internal skill gaps, and team working, customer handling and technical/practical skills were cited for around a third each of all internal skills. Training was commonly cited as a response to skill deficiencies by employers (e.g. a response to 72% of internal skill gaps) and also as a cause of internal skill gaps in particular (‘failure to train and develop staff’ was cited as a cause of a third of all internal skill gaps). However, when asked about barriers faced in maintaining fully proficient staff, the most frequently cited barriers were a lack of time for training (31% of establishments), a lack of cover, and a lack of funding for training (both 23%). It is thus apparent that training, and thus the ability to upgrade skills, is both a factor in the cause and solution to skill deficiencies. Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is undergoing deep restructuring. One significant dimension of this process of change concerns the role of private provision in improving and expanding the overall

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quantum of vocational training in the economy. Such a conceptual shift is very much supported by advocates of a deregulated system, for whom the adoption of market principles in the area of TVE will lead to greater efficiency and effectiveness. Gradually, private providers have emerged in an unco-ordinated and unmonitored fashion and very little is known about the nature and operation of these entities. Yet, it was assumed that the private providers already made a significant contribution to training provision. It was also hoped that, in addition to relieving public finances, private-sector growth can promote useful competition, within the private sector but also with public institutions, eventually leading to cost reduction and better labour market responsiveness (Atchoarena, 2002) Employing over 60% of the labour force in sub – Sahara Africa (Tendler, 1989; ILO, 1994), and producing nearly 20% of its gross domestic product (Middleton, 1993), the informal sector by virtue of its status as the “Modern” or “underground” economy (Harper, 1987) or “ordinary” economy (Grierson, 1997) had been omitted from national planning and support. It operators had been victimized by laws and regulations, and training productivity held back by lack of access to credit, training and technology (Robinson, 1991) However, the informal sector, in particular the urban informal sector long neglected by governments and international agencies, is now beginning to command the attention of development experts and planners (King, 1990) as the main stay of urban employment and an important component of private sector growth, this sector is being seen as making a vital contribution not only to poverty alleviation, but potentially to the long- term economic development in the developing countries (ILO, 1993). In point of fact the informal sector has now taken on a new role (Middleton, 1993). The role is “that of a safety net and of an increasing critical source of alternative income for many household”. However, its impact on economic growth has been limited by low productivity, capitalization and technology (Assurcao, 1993). According to the ILO (1993), poor access to resources and markets, and stringent regulation, explain why the sector continues to operate outside the mainstream economy, and is thereby denied the opportunity to participate to its full potential in the natural economy (Turnham, D. et al, 1990). Yet, the ILO (1990) report on the promotion of self employment, suggest that those involved on the margins of the formal economy in trading and other enterprises ought to be recognized for their positive contribution. The report implies that such activities ought to encourage since they have the potential for absorbing a large pool of labour. But what is the informal sector? The term has been used and is still used to designate a wide variety of different activities and of people engaged in such activities.

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Importantly, although as yet no universal accepted theories and concept about the informal sector have emerged (Dessoto, 1990), the term “ informal sector” continues to be used albeit with different connotations. A host of criteria have been put forward to identify and define those businesses that are neither formal in structure nor traditional in their business activities. The definition can be grouped in three categories which focus respectively on:

i) the legal status of the business, ii) the structure of the business and iii) the technical attributes of business (Neizert and Hoston, 1992).

For the purpose of the study, the informal sector refers to the “shadow economy” (McLaughlin, 1989), a term usually reserved for those small enterprises which utilize the most rudimentary, traditional technology and business practices. These enterprises are known to the Government; this fact allows the owner to evade all tax obligations as well as other Labour regulations (Bose, 1990). Also, these enterprises make heavy use of unpaid family labour. The operators in the sectors are highly flexible in both entering and exiting particular economic activities, in response to market demands. Most poor people in developing countries can only dream of a job in the modern sector. Not only are there insufficient jobs, but poor people often do not have access to the kind of training required for such jobs. To them, the obstacles – such as obtaining a formal elementary educational qualification – are impossible to overcome. Even in the informal sector, many people’s productive and social potential remains untapped, thus hindering the development of this sector. In urban areas, and more so in rural areas, there is a lack of opportunity for the development of skills which are adapted to the specific working and living environment of the poor and which are geared towards empowering them to voice and represent their interests (GTZ, 2005). Institutional networks such as linkages between tertiary institutions and industries provide the preconditions for management and implementation of skills development initiatives for the poor to generate broad- based impacts on the economy. These initiatives • enable people to participate in economic and social processes; • take into account the specific socio-cultural and economic environment; • adapt to the specific and fast-changing life circumstances of the different target groups; • take into account the different needs of urban and rural areas, and • are designed with the direct involvement of the target groups. This makes skills development programmes more effective, with a broader impact. Poor people are able to tap their own potential and earn a living either as employees

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or through self-employment. They learn to voice their interests and to represent them to the authorities and their local decision makers. The economic and social re-integration of marginalized groups can contribute significantly to stabilizing a country socially (GTZ, 2005). In spite of shortcomings, traditional apprenticeship brings important skills to huge numbers of young people, particularly in West African countries. A strategy to improve traditional apprenticeship training might have to involve the following elements:

(a) Improving the image of traditional apprenticeship, (b) Starting with market surveys, (c) Assisting the poor to finance apprenticeships; (d) Improving basic education, (e) Upgrading the skills of masters; (f) Providing supplementary training for apprentices; (g) Evaluating and certifying the skills obtained and (h) Post-training support (Fluitman et al, 2001)

The emergence of independent, self-sustained training markets for the informal sector seems a long way off, however. Subsidies are likely to be necessary, except for certain services to existing businesses. Efforts therefore should focus on keeping unit costs to a minimum. Donor-assisted projects have demonstrated that informal sector enterprises can be upgraded through carefully targeted skill development efforts. However, sustainability and large-scale growth have rarely been achieved, so far. Future project work should concentrate on resolving these twin issues--financial sustainability and going to scale. Training is a necessary but insufficient condition for improved productivity, incomes, and livelihoods in the informal sector. Training enables other inputs, such as credit or land, to be used effectively. Follow-up services such as providing business advice, and measures to facilitate access to markets and technology, are often critical in helping small and medium enterprises survive and prosper (Fluitman et al, 2001) Training interventions tend to be more effective if beneficiaries participate in their planning. Informal sector associations have shown that they can be instrumental in addressing common problems of skill shortages, for example by organizing supplementary training and common examinations for workshop trainees among their membership.

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Basic education, of decent quality, and for all, is and remains utterly important. Literacy, numeracy and livelihood skills must be improved for micro-entrepreneurs to be trainable and to have a better chance of success in their business. Combining literacy with livelihood skills training during childhood should be considered as part of strategies for improving conditions in the informal economy (Fluitman et al, 2001). According to the Department of State for Education of The Gambia, fifty per cent of the Gambian population is functionally illiterate; indicating that around half the work force is illiterate. Therefore the Gambia Skills Qualification Framework (GSQF) recognizes this statistic and provides inclusive training opportunities to match the needs of the illiterate adult (Launch of GSQF, 2006). The central theme of the 2005 Human Development Report for the Gambia is “ Capacity Building” for the attainment of the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs). Skills can help to achieve:

• promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment, • combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, • ensuring environmental sustainability.

The informal sector of African economies absorbs the vast majority of new entrants to the labour market and it is growing annually. Many men and women in search of work and income find that there are not enough jobs to go around and, eventually, create their own employment. That is, they start a micro-enterprise, usually in an urban area, in which they will work alone, or with one or two others, possibly apprentices. The multitude and diversity of unincorporated, household-based, small ventures are typically unregistered, and, at least initially, overlooked by public authorities (Fluitman et al, 2001) Unsophisticated perhaps, they are producers and traders providing essential goods and services to large numbers of customers, in markets, along major highways, and wherever their peers have their homes, sell whatever sells, dress the nation, make pots and pans, paint signs and dye clothes, repair mobile phones, run local restaurants, open barber shops, and, increasingly, cyber cafés and so on, and so forth. They are the working poor in what is now widely known as the urban informal sector, or informal economy (Fluitman et al, 2001). Both technical and management skills appear badly needed in the informal sector to raise productivity and incomes, and hence help in reducing poverty. Moreover, training might improve product quality, contribute to diversification, and enhance occupational safety and health. Particularly women, large numbers of whom work in small and medium enterprises (SME), would benefit from acquiring additional skills.

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This is one of the areas in which the Indigenous Business Advisory Services (IBAS) has been working over the years. Another area, in which IBAS is working, is in enhancing prospects for job creation and self-employment in the context of productive engagement within the informal economic sector. IBAS is a Government institution established in a1975 under the Ministry of Economic Planning and industrial Development (MEPID) but now operating under the Department of State for Trade, Industry and Employment.

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3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction

The aim of this study was to collect data from a two-stage approach as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The two stages of the proposed approach to Data Collection

At STAGE I:

A SWOT Analysis of the three targeted Employment sub-systems (see Figure 1)

At STAGE II:

(A) CASE STUDIES of the Tertiary Education delivery sub-systems in a sample of institutions made up of:

(a) all the Public Sector Tertiary institutions (n = 6) (b) a small number (n=12) of Private Sector Tertiary

institutions (see Figure 1) (B) a SURVEY of a large sample of Private Sector Tertiary institutions and of employing organisations

3.1.1 Stage 1: The SWOT Analysis of the Employment sub-systems

3.1.2 Data collection procedures (a) The SWOT Analysis This analysis focused on the relevant policies, strategies, processes and contents that characterise each sub-system. Relevant issues were studied through:

(i) on-site observations of the operation of the sub-system in practice. (ii) probing questioning during face-to-face, semi-structured, interviews of:

• key officials responsible for each sub-system • a small sample (n=12) of male and female users of the sub-system.

An Interview Guide was developed for each sub-system and different Guides were developed for Officials and Users, respectively. The Interview Guides are informed by the Literature Review (see below) and by the professional experience of project team. The areas of questioning for the interviews included the following, for example:

■ for the Labour Market Information sub-system: the methods used to develop projections of occupational employment, the access to and use of the occupational information available in Counselling and in Planning, the possible procedures for improving the quality and delivery of the information.

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■ for the Occupational Standards sub-system: the agencies and methods used for establishing standards for skills testing and for certification, the technical assistance available to local training organisations to ensure that job analyses, occupational standards and tests are valid and reliable.

■ for Entrepreneurship promotion sub-system: The Counselling, Training and Financial support programmes for entrepreneurs, the gender differential, the barriers to establishing enterprises, the effects of technology on labour substitution, and the attraction of qualified labour force to the rural regions.

Confidentiality was protected and anonymity preserved throughout.

(b) The Literature Review

In addition to the theoretical literature (e.g. Middleton et al, 1993; Johanson and Adams, 2004; Ashton et al, 1996, 1990; Field and Drysdale, 1991), relevant local, official, recent documents associated with each sub-system, such as the following, were closely studied:

(i) Acts of Parliament (i.e. the National Assembly); the New Education Policy; the new National Training Policy. (ii) Reports of the relevant Departments of State’s Working Groups, National

programmes for programmes for programmes for programmes for programmes for Surveys, meetings of experts, NGOs, Private Sector organisations, UN organisations, I.L.O, and International Technical Assistance and Funding Agencies,

(iii) other relevant “primary” and “secondary” source materials.

3.1.2.1 The duration of STAGE I

Seven consecutive working weeks was allocated for the study and the written report for each of the three sub-systems. Each study was undertaken by a Researcher jointly with a Research Trainee under the supervision of a Mentor; and the three pairs of researchers worked in parallel.

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3.1.3 STAGE II (A): The CASE STUDIES of the operation of the Tertiary Education and Training sub-systems 3.1.3.1 Data collection procedures

A multi-method approach was used consisting of appropriate interviews, observations, and a sample survey, as explained below.

3.1.4 The interviews

An on-site study was undertaken of the links between Tertiary Education and Employment in the achieved sample of institutions through face-to-face, semi-structured, interviews of the following, at each institution, using appropriate Interview Guides and in some cases informal discussions were also conducted: ■ The Principal, the Counselling and Guidance Officer (if any), the Programme

Leaders for the Business and Technical subject areas, respectively, and a sample (n=6) of male and female learners, per subject area (Business / Technical). The interviewees were questioned on such issues as the following:

A) the liaison with employment agencies, and the institution’s employer surveys,

B) the placement of graduates of the institution by Programme area, in related employment.

C) The involvement of Professional bodies, particularly with regard to expectations about Occupational Standards.

D) The balance in the Programmes between Practical elements, Academic elements and Professional elements.

E) The career Counselling and Employment services provided on admission to and on departure from the institution.

F) The initiatives for promoting employment generation, such as training for Small Businesses on established Programmes of study.

3.1.5 The observations

Multiple observations were made of the operation of the sub-systems in practice (such as the arrangements for Counselling and Guidance and for Supervised Work Experience). Immersion in the setting enabled the researcher to experience the realities of the operation.

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3.2 STAGE II (B): The survey of the co-ordination system

As explained in Section 3.1, only some 12 registered Private Sector Tertiary Education institutions was studied in depth, on-site, but the research plan was to fill gaps in the data through a survey of a large sample of registered Private Sector Tertiary institutions combined with a survey of a sample of employing organisations. For this purpose, the Programme Leaders for Business and Technical subjects, respectively, of the sampled institutions and the Personnel Managers of the sampled employing organisations were asked in person to complete appropriate questionnaires centred on issues such as whether: (a) local employers participate in the development of the training programmes that the institutions offer and are represented on the Governing Bodies (b) Work Experience for learners is mandatory and is supervised, (c) tracer studies of the first destinations of the institutions’ graduates are undertaken (See Appendices I and II)

3.2.1 The Duration of STAGE II (A & B)

Twelve consecutive working weeks was allocated for completing STAGE II (including the writing of the report for this stage). The three pairs of researchers agained work in parallel as explained in the Work Plan (in section 3.4)

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

The following analyses were undertaken:

a) a CONTENT ANALYSIS of the interview, observational and documentary data at both STAGES attempted to deconstruct the “discourse” about the Co-ordination between Tertiary Education institutions and Employment, at the level of policies, strategies and practices, and evaluate the effectiveness of these in terms of achieving their aims and objectives. In particular, the impact of the co-ordination system on meeting the need for a qualified Labour force was explored. (a) a STATISTICAL ANALYSIS of the survey data gave Frequency Counts

of responses to each variable that was derived from the questionnaire items. Relevant cross-tabulations of the categorical variables was made to determine the statistical significance of any relationships between the independent background variables (such as type of institution) and the derived dependent variables (such as the level of co-ordination achieved as measured by a set of dichotomised indicators), and using the appropriate Chi-Squared test. Descriptive statistics (Means and Standard Deviations) computed for the derived continuous variables which enabled relevant comparisons to be made.

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(b) a COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: qualitative Comparisons of the delivery of the identified Co-ordination systems was made between the following, as will tentative, first – order, comparisons, with what obtains in Ghana and in Nigeria with regards to their Co-ordination systems:

(i) the socio-economic areas (rural / rural – urban, / urban) (ii) the Public sector institutions and the Private sector institutions (iii) the subject areas (Business / Technical).

3.4 THE WORK PLAN The sequence of project activities over time (excluding Christmas vacations) is shown below. Figure 3: the planned sequence of activities over time

(1 week) (7 weeks) (12 weeks) (8 weeks) The three Research Trainees and the three Researchers worked in pairs and their deployment was as follows. The three pairs worked in parallel. For STAGE I each of the three pairs researched, respectively, one of the three Employment sub-systems as it operates nationally. For STAGE II A&B , because the Public and Private sectors Training institutions as well as industry and commerce are concentrated in the urban area of Greater Banjul, whereas a concern of this study was with the supply of a skilled workforce not only in that area but also in the rural areas, the plan was for two of the pairs to focus on the Public and Private sectors Tertiary institutions and on employers in Greater Banjul, whilst the third pair attended to the research in the selected rural areas (the Lower River Region and the North Bank Region).

Inception and

orientation

STAGE I activities (Desk Study and SWOT Analysis); Interim Report I

STAGE II A & B activities

(Case studies and survey);

Interim Report II

Completion of the project

(including report writing,

validation workshop, and dissemination)

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4. RESULTS OF THE STUDY 4.1 The results and the CONTENT ANALYSIS for STAGE 1 The Study was conducted as stipulated in the project proposal but with some slight modifications. It was realized that some of the training institutions had ceased to exist or that they did not have a viable number of students in some of the programmes and as a result some programmes were cancelled. The survey of this study was conducted taking into account some of the skills recommended by the National Training Authority:

1. ICT USERS 2. Professional Studies – AAT, ABE, ICM, CAT, HRM etc 3. Technical programmes– Motor Vehicle Systems, Electrical Installation,

Electrical & Electronics etc 4. The informal sector – welding, fabrication, Tailoring, Clothing & Textiles,

Embroidery, Tie & Dye etc. 5. Hotel, Tourism and Restaurant 6. Secretarial studies and typing

This survey was carried out in forty three training Institutions in the Urban areas of Banjul and Greater Banjul, also three in the Lower River Region and one in the North Bank Region which are rural areas. These institutions cater for three thousand, five hundred and seventy two (3572) students. Within the subgroups, the number of full time enrolled students for the 2006/2007 academic year is shown in table 1 and figure 3. Table 1. Number of full- time students by Group and Gender Gender/Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

male 538 420 604 17 115 0 1694 female 631 457 149 62 90 96 1485 Total 1169 877 753 79 205 96 3179

Table 1 This represents a total of three thousand one hundred and twenty seven students of which 1694 are male students and 1433 female students

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In graphical form this data can be shown using the following key: KEY GROUP PROGRAMME

1 ICT Users 2 Professional Studies 3 Technical programmes 4 Informal sector 5 Hotel, Tourism Studies etc. 6 Secretarial studies

Figure 3. Number of full -time students by Group and Gender

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1 2 3 4 5 6

MALEFEMALE

For part time students the corresponding figures were very small and using the same key, it is represented in table 2 and figure 4

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Table 2 Number of part -time students by Group and Gender Gender/Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

male 122 61 45 0 0 0 228 female 82 52 3 0 0 28 165 Total 204 113 48 0 0 28 393

This gives a total of 393 students of which 228 are male students and 165 female students Figure 4 Number of part -time students by Group and Gender

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2 3 4 5 6

MALEFEMALE

They survey of the employing organisations was also conducted with fifteen employers from the various groupings listed above. This number was targeted because most of these organizations employ graduates from three or four of the groups of skills mentioned above. For example, hotels employ graduates from programmes such as hotel administration and management, Information processing, Accounting technicians, Electricians and secretaries, whereas, tour operators employ graduates also from motor vehicle systems. From each group at least three employers were interviewed.

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The results of the survey clearly show the prevalence of males in the traditional areas such as on the technical programmes for both full time and part time students. It is worth noting that female students on these programmes were found mostly in Electrical & Electronic Engineering and Electronic Servicing representing about 12%. In Motor Vehicle Systems only five female students were found, which represents about three percent of students in that programme. The survey showed that enrollment in Secretarial Studies is 100% female for both full time and part time. It also showed that enrollment in this programme has declined as compared to enrollment during the past years. It was explained that this decline can be attributed to a decline in the demand for secretaries because of technological advances and the rapid growth of computer literacy of the managerial cadre. In the rural areas the need for hotel and restaurant workers was found to be very small as over ninety per cent all the large hotels and restaurants are situated in the Greater Banjul area. The tourists who visited the historical sites in the rural areas were catered for by tour operators who were based in the Greater Banjul area and the hotels were managed by some of the leading hotels based in the Greater Banjul area. In the informal sector, the majority were female students in traditional female areas such as tie & dye, sewing, embroidery, textiles etc. Majority of training institutions visited offer modular programmes in professional studies but in most of them, enrollment was very low in some of these programmes e.g. human resource management (10 – 15 students) and CAT (10-12). The most popular programmes were AAT and ABE, where enrollment was nearly the same for male and female students. In marketing (ICM) also a popular programme there are more female students (70%) than male students (30%). The situation for ICT programmes showed some interesting trends in enrollment. For example in software applications there were 842 registered students of which 610 are female students representing 72%. For computer hardware, information processing technology and maintenance and repairs enrollment of male students was 297 representing account for about 91%. Some female students revealed that they would like to become secretaries but prefer to enroll in the software applications programme. There has been some kind of cooperation between training Institutions and employers in recent times. This can be seen as important since the cooperation is not only between government institutions and parastatals with public training institutions but also with private institutions in some instances, government institutions awarded very favourable training packages for their staff. A couple of examples include:

1. The training of management staff of Gamcel in 2006 by a small private but NTA approved and accredited training institute.

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2. The training of the RVTH senior management by a private training provider rather than the Management Development Institute (MDI), which is the main public training institution in professional studies in the Gambia.

In the technical areas employers pay a lot of attention to the main public technical institution i.e. GTTI, not only to train their staff on specific tailor - made programmes such as programmes for generator repairs and maintenance and training programmes for machine operators but also on general programmes such as those for Electrical and Electronic engineering and electrical Installation. According to the interviews done at various institutions, it was revealed that the Gambia Technical Training Institute (GTTI) also has Contracts to service vehicles, electrical equipment of some government institutions such as the University of the Gambia (UTG) and also private organisations such as Goodwill International Fitness & Training Services. These Contracts are carried out by both members of staff and the students and this further improves the skills of both staff and students. Chamen Electrical Institute, which is a private Electrical Institute attracts mainly employers from the National energy provider –the National Water and Electricity Company (NAWEC) and other parastatals such as the Gambia International Airlines, Gambia Telecommunications Company Ltd (Gamtel) and the Gambia Ports Authority (GPA) as they are usually mature students who find it very difficult to adapt to the classroom atmosphere at the GTTI. It also offers part time classes which GTTI does not offer. A major success story is the recently opened Quantum Net Institute of Technology which emerged from the Quantum Net Training Centre. This is a private institution but collaborates with recognised institutions such as St. Mary’s University in Halifax Canada and the UTG. It is emerging as the largest and most promising provider of ICT education in the Gambia. Its main advantage apart from having highly qualified tutors is that it offers 24-hour learning with the most flexible time table. Therefore workers whose employers are unwilling to release them from work before the closing time are now able to pursue evening classes instead. Secondly, Quantum Net is a growing ICT business concern in the country, which is rapidly expanding into the sub region. It is one of the leading employers of ICT specialists and technicians and therefore provides for the constant upgrading of employees to meet the changing demands in the ICT labour market. It also boasts of modern and state of the art equipment and very excellent ties to the ICT industry. Another example of cooperation between government and training institutions is the awarding of Building and other Construction and Fabrication Contracts to some training institutions such as GTTI. In the execution of such Contracts, students in

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programmes such as electrical installation, engineering skills (welding and fabrication) were fully involved in wiring and installing electrical fittings, welding and fabrication of door and windows. This gave the students real hands on experience.

4.2 The Results and CONTENT ANALYSIS for the CASE STUDIES and SURVEY 4.2.1 Industrial attachment

The relevance of industrial attachment cannot be overemphasized. The present NTA policy on industrial attachment is not very clear. In 2004 NTA has assumed the responsibility of coordinating industrial attachment. There are some successes in placing students and a lot of failures. Presently the NTA is understaffed and ill prepared to assume this responsibility as there is only one officer for industrial attachment It is also not very clear for which programmes industrial attachment is mandatory and at what stage during the period of studies the students should go on attachment. Some institutions such as GPA and Gambia Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) annually send out letters to most training institutions and the NTA reminding them that they it is against their Rules and Regulations to accept final year students; that for continuing students the period of attachment is limited to only twelve weeks and that students cannot be attached more than once in these institutions during the student’s period of study. The questions here is, is twelve weeks sufficient for all programmes? The answer is, twelve weeks is perhaps not sufficient for programmes such as mechanical, electrical and electronic engineering and also electrical and electronic engineering where there are three and two components respectively and students should spend at least twelve weeks on each of these components. For motor vehicle systems, the period should be at least nine months as this will give the students adequate time to acquire enough practical experience. Placement is a serious problem, as the NTA is not in the position to place more than 5% of the students in tertiary technical and vocational training centres directly. At present, the students themselves go around, arrange for the placement, have it confirmed and then go to the NTA for the formal letter and logbook. This process is very labour intensive and the successful outcome depends on the contact the student can make through parents, guardians, relations or acquaintances. Ninety five per cent of those who relied entirely on NTA for placement at the end were not placed. This was true especially for professional studies and to some extent ICT students. The interviews with employers revealed that over the years when the training institutions were responsible for placements, there was a lot of chaos as every

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institution was writing letters without any coordination. The training institutions had some interest in the performance of their students and therefore made attempts to visit the students on attachment occasionally. Now, this responsibility has been taken over by the NTA and the officer in charge has not embarked on such an exercise. This has led to a breakdown in communication between employers and training institutions. The training institutions are always happy when visited by employers who sponsor some of their employees in their institutions. They see it as a means of selling their programmes and as a result try as best as they can to display the best facilities they have inorder to convince the employer to continue sponsoring employees.

During the period of attachment students try their best to catch the eyes of senior management and as a result they become potential candidates for employment at their places of attachment. They become possible competitors to those already in employment and as a result in some cases the relationship between students on attachment and low level workers in the workplace is not very cordial.

Placement in Banks and some other financial institutions such as insurance companies is extremely difficult as the bankers are afraid that confidentiality of their clients will not be kept very securely and also for some other related matters. These officials even recommend that students should not request for attachment but apply directly for employment.

In the technical areas there are some successes in placing students. Students pursuing the Technician Diploma in Motor Vehicle Systems (MVS) and Technician Certificate in Electrical & Electronic Engineering (AEEE) and Technician Certificate Mechanical, Electrical & Electronic Engineering (AMEEE) are placed on attachment for nine months and as a result, the NTA officer is able to visit these students at least once during the period of attachment. Placing these students is not difficult as the students enrolled in the required level in MVS are thirty; AEEE -56 and AMEE – 42. These students can be placed in the various institutions and after twelve weeks, they are rotated inorder to look at another component of their programme. Also, not all students opt for industrial attachment and instead try to seek employment directly or continue the programme in training institutions where industrial attachment is not considered mandatory. In short placing technical students - MVS, AMEEE, AEEE, Electrical Installation (EI) and construction technicians is not a problem as the employers do not require office space for them. These students are easily moved from place to place depending on where the employer has some job to carry out at the time; examples include wiring and electrical installation services, maintenance of telephone and electrical cables, etc. Servicing of vehicles is usually carried out in garages etc. This explains why institutions such as GAMTEL, NAWEC, GCAA, Gambia Electrical Company Ltd

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(GEC) accept a lot of students on attachment annually and at any time in the academic year. The case studies revealed that placing students in Hotel, Home Management and Tourism studies is also relatively easy. Gambia is a tourist destination and there are a lot of hotels and restaurants. These hotels and restaurants are always willing to have students placed the whole year round in groups spending twelve weeks each. Infact training institutions which cater for the hotel / tourism industry place their students directly into hotels and restaurants. They are usually very successful as the placement is not limited only during the summer holidays when most students go on attachment but at any time in year because their teaching schedule takes that into account. These students are usually visited by assessors from their training institutions assess their performance directly on site

Placement for students of Professional Studies and Information and Communication Technology is usually difficult. This was explained by inadequate or lack of office space for the students to occupy or the limited number of computers available in these offices. The most difficult situation is with financial institutions who are very reluctant to allow students to go through their financial documents either because of confidentiality or maybe because the records are very badly kept. The interviews with employers highlighted some complaints about some students on industrial attachment, these included:

a) Lack of practical competencies from young school leavers students from private technical institutions who had no previous working experience. They found it hard to use measuring instruments accurately or could not translate their theoretical background knowledge effectively into practice.

b) Financial institutions complain about students having little or no knowledge of certain accounting programmes or packages such as Quickbooks and Sage

c) Hotel and restaurant managers and guests are very much concerned about food safety and hygiene and also the slow manner in which students serve customers. As a result, these hotels and restaurants lose potential customers to other reputable places.

d) The reliance of training institutions on some UK based programmes is also a point of concern for some employers. In the Gambia, the City & Guilds of London Institute’s certificate and diploma combined with that of the training institution are the requirements for applying for the position of a technician or data entry clerk, etc.

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During discussions with employers, some had some reservations about the following programmes:-

I) The Technician Diploma and Technician Certificate in Motor Vehicle Systems do not take into account recent technological advances in auto electronics and as a result the students find it very hard to service electronic controlled vehicles, which have onboard computers controlling all the major operating components of these vehicles.

II) The Certificate and Diploma in Software Applications and Information Processing Technology do include present topics such as the Internet, Networking and graphic designing. These competencies are very much in demand nowadays. Students were also unable to write proper computer programmes as they only relied on ready-made software packages and programmes.

III) The Certificate in Electronic Servicing dedicates about twenty five per cent of the time allocated for the programme on analogue electronics and relatively shorter time on digital electronics. This was clearly evident on the course contents. Nowadays the whole world is moving towards digital electronics therefore resulting in the students’ inability to service recent electronic devices very well.

Indeed, City & Guilds of London Institute has withdrawn the above mentioned programmes but they have not yet been replaced by newer programmes and as a result, our institutions continue to run these programmes which have lost part of their relevance in the industry. In all the industrial institutions visited no discriminatory practice was recorded against females. The salaries, wages and positions of both sexes were virtually at par. Infact there is a tendency or slight bias in favour of females especially in male dominated areas of specialisation. It was explained that such a situation exists just as an incentive to attract females to these areas. 4.2.2 The role of career & guidance counselling unit About twenty five per cent of the training institutions visited claimed to have this unit but unfortunately the students never made use of these services. Some students when interviewed confirmed that they had registered for their programme just because some of their friends from the same senior secondary school opted for that programme. Some students do not even know where the career & guidance counseling unit is located. In three institutions visited, the students confirmed that on entry they were given a talk by the Counselor and that was the end and most often, when they are in need of counseling they turned to their lecturers because they were

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closer to these students. This showed that this unit in such cases is not very efficient. In institutions with enrollment less than one hundred students, there was a lot of interaction between the members of staff and the students and in such cases the students turn to the head of the institution for advice and counselling. Tutors also assumed this role but this was usually very informal as these tutors were usually not professionals in counselling. 4 2.3 Record keeping It was evident that in institutions with student enrollment less than one hundred students, records were sometimes kept very well either manually or computerized. In such training institutions, the administration gave first hand and accurate information about the student enrollment in each of the programmes, academic achievements because the administrators interact a lot with the small number of enrolled students. It was evident that as the number of students increase, records keeping became difficult. An institution recorded that it has a well established Management information systems (MIS) in place but when students were asked the ease with which they obtained records about their academic performance inorder to prepare transcript, attestation or testimonial, or even about their financial records with regards to tuition fees these students complained that was very hard. The students replied that in most cases they were asked to bring along copies of report forms issued to them earlier and they were able to get the required documents from the institution only after passing on the said documents to the MIS. The authorities at the MIS later confirmed that indeed their system had broken down over a year ago and that they do not have the expertise to revitalize the system. However, they confirmed that it was easy to confirm a student’s identification number. In over seventy per cent of the institutions visited, records of members of staff were not properly kept or not kept at all. Some record show members of staff who had left the institution many years ago . 4.2.4 Collaboration between employers and training providers

The survey shows that thirty five of the training institutions surveyed had engaged in some type of collaborative effort with employers. This collaboration varied vastly but it was clear that it mostly involved training institutions approaching employers and convincing them to send their employees to them to upgrade their skills. In most cases the training institutions are successful in winning these Contracts from the employers. Training providers are now locked in a very serious and aggressive advertisement campaign as they are many and the labour market is limited. This trend can be explained by the fact that these training providers are cash scrapped and therefore must lobby these employers very hard inorder to remain in business.

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Not surprisingly, the study showed that tuition fees usually represent a major source of income for private institutions. However, none of them benefited from government subsidies and tax incentives. Church and Islamic related training providers and other NGOs sometimes benefited from substantial donations from abroad. In some cases, these training providers seem to be more responsive to labour market demand so as to remain in business. The study could not confirm that quality control can be enforced through market mechanisms. Pure market mechanism cannot operate here due to the high social demand for training and the absence of information about cost and performance. There is little or poor regulation and as a result, in some of the private training providers are sub-standard. Registration and accreditation are essential functions of the NTA and presently it does not have the real capacity to perform those tasks. This is very crucial for the genuine expansion of private training institutions. 4.2.5 Access to ICT Computer applications were encouraged by making it an examinable study. For non – examinable computer awareness courses or use of computer applications in other courses as an enrichment because of its wider range of application in a cluster of occupations, computer applications merit support on wider grounds. All the training institutions surveyed reported that the minimum access the students had to computers was two hours. However, when asked why the time was limited to only two hours, over fifty per cent replied that it was because of the high cost of maintaining these computers, the limited number of these computers and the high running cost, that is, electricity bills. The administrators acknowledged that they could not afford to use generators for a long time because of the costs involved but as the situation had changed in recent times, the time allocated to students will be increased. Students in ICT programmes had an average of six to eight hours access to computers. 4.2.6 Gender equity

The study showed also that enrolments in technical & vocational courses are often strongly gender biased as can be seen from the data collected. This was very clearly seen in the technical areas.

4.2.7 The informal sector Overall, the application of new skills can enhance growth, innovation and productivity in informal sector enterprises. However, most training as currently

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provided under government auspices is inappropriate for work in the informal sector because of the lack of adequate practical competencies. Without detracting from ensuring such high-quality training as actually needed for modern sector growth and competitiveness, the Gambia may, therefore, want to review and broaden its national training objectives and target training either in the formal or informal sector. Training systems would be far more relevant than they are today if they were to shift some or most of their attention and resources towards the people who are forced to make ends meet in the informal sector. An important role for government can be to facilitate the development of training activities for the informal sector. One way of doing this is to reorient existing, conventional training institutions so that they meet new purposes and new clients. This would require that these institutions do things differently, and that they do different things. For example, they should get acquainted with what goes on in local labour markets; involved in training beyond the usual trades, if only to avoid market saturation; include business skills training; favour short-duration, competency-based training, and adapt training materials for the uneducated; provide for certification based on skills acquired rather than on length of training and so on. In practice, such reorientation has proven difficult to bring about, as most of the existing institutions lack flexibility and incentives for change. These notions are in line with the recently approved Gambia Skills Qualification Framework (GSQF). Another approach is to stimulate a supply response by private sector providers and independent trainers, such as carefully selected skilled crafts-people. Networking and collaboration among small training providers appears to be a promising means to raise quality. The effect of migrant workers especially from the sub region Senegal, Guinea and Mali in the labour market is very important. This was true in both the formal and informal sectors. The survey showed that this effect is very visible in the informal sector which is mostly dominated by migrant workers. In tailoring most of the migrants were from Senegal and Guinea; painting and decoration from Guinea Bissau and tie and dye from Mali. These workers play an important role in the socio-economic development of the Gambia. However employers were unable to give clear reasons for the high number of migrant workers in this sector. Some suggested that this can be attributed to the relatively peaceful and stable atmosphere in the Gambia.

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4.2.8 COORDINATION OF SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AND THE LABOUR MARKET The Gambia Skills Qualification Framework (GSQF, 2006) acknowledges that the majority of skills training being carried out in the Gambia at present is done through informal apprenticeships, attachments, Community Skills Development and the other donor Project Schemes and for it to be successful and sustainable, it needs to form the main strategy for the

• NTA Attachment Policy • NTA Apprenticeship Policy • Department of State for Education Adult Literacy Policy • National Economic Development Project Proposals by budgeting for Human

Resource Development. This shows that the NTA is in the process of coordinating the informal sector which is presently being taken care of by Community Skills Improvement Project (CSIP). This Project is the successor of the former Women in Development Project and some other government agencies. In March 2007, the CSIP organized training on tie and dye for twenty four adults – twenty two women and two men. This was a training of trainers on how to improve the tie and dye products to march those from the sub-region. Prior to that, the CSIP completed a training of carpenters (The Point Newspaper, March 27, 2007). In March 2007, the Reliance Financial Services embarked on the training of Gambian Women in Business through the Gambia Chamber of Commerce and Industry (GCCI). The main aim and objective of this training was to equip women in basic book keeping and thereby empower them on how to manage their businesses and keep records properly. These are examples showing that presently the coordination of skills and employment needs in the informal sector is being done by Community Development Projects. The GSQF also is in the process of designing a training plan aligning curriculum to the GSQF standards and the needs of the client. The NTA presently in the process of completing coordinating skills development with employment needs especially in the formal sector. It established Standards Panels for the following;

• Hotels • Motor Mechanics • Electrical Installation • ICT Users • Horticulture • Key Skills

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These Panels were set up to bridge the gap between training and employment needs. they comprise of specialists and representatives from the related industry, training institutions, NTA and Stakeholders. They were assigned the task of reviewing the present curricula to see if they were in line with the needs of the industry. However, its progress is being slowed down by the lack of capacity. At present, the NTA is expanding and recruiting more personnel. The study was able to predict that within the next five years, the NTA will be in a very good position to perform such an important function as mandated by the NTA Act of 2002.

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5. DISCUSSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Discussion of results This section of the discussion is principally concerned with formal sector medium and relatively large-scale enterprises. Enterprise-based Training (EBT) or In – plant training engenders employer-sponsored training during employment, including formal and informal on-the-job training and off-the-job training (but not training by employees at their own expense). This type of training is important because it is: a) directed at the current active labour force; b) market responsive, and c) a viable complement to existing public and private sector provision.(Grierson, 2001) The formal sector is "limited" in size and scope and virtually contracting in the Gambia. The survey showed that In – plant training is substantial - it is the most common form of skills training, with in-firm informal training predominant. It is used to address both firm-specific and general skills needs, with general training relatively common and widespread. From observations and interviews, the survey tends to show that large and medium enterprises train more than small enterprises; parastatals train more than public enterprises. For highly skilled training that cannot be provided in the Gambia such as the engineering areas and aviation industry the Gambia Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) prefers to send their employees to other institutions in the Sub region especially in Senegal, Ghana, Sierra Leone and Nigeria. At times they send their employees to South Africa or to Europe if the need arises for highly skilled areas such as air traffic control. More training is provided to those in high-skill occupations and to those with more education (i.e. "key" employees). Liberalisation and growing competition (i.e. globalisation) are creating a growing demand for increasingly sophisticated in – plant training. This type of in –plant training is virtually non existence in the Gambia. The interviews showed that employers are increasingly dependent upon in-plant training. Training is increasingly firm-specific and competency-based, with a corresponding decline in interest in certification (i.e. trade testing). There was no apparent tendency for "associations" or other forms of collective action emerging to address broader (e.g. industry-wide) enterprise skills training needs. (Lewis, 1987) There is clear evidence of limited and declining interaction with the public sector, including, for example, declining off-the-job sponsorships, and the virtual disappearance of formal (i.e. statutory) apprenticeship. Rapidly changing

40

technologies, increasing population growth rates and growing demands for skills make apprenticeship even more relevant today. (Amponsah, 2006) An interesting observation was the fact that only two training institutions have provision for the physically challenged and it is limited to having all their classes on the ground floor. The institutions visited had no facilities for this group of individuals either because the institutions are cash strapped or no physically challenged student had earlier applied for acceptance into any of the programmes offered.

Training providers, policymakers, and employers alike are developing an increasing awareness of the educational and economic benefits of joint planning and coordination between the providers of vocational and technical training and the labour market. However, some basic differences between the goals, planning procedures, and operating practices of the public and private sectors have, in many cases, made efforts to establish and implement cooperative technical / vocational education and labour market programmes difficult.

Presently there is only one in-plant training officer at the NTA. This was supposed to be an industry-education coordinator, who functions as part of an economic development team, facilitates industrial training by arranging class-size training with an educational institution and applying for NTA levy from training institutions for customized training in occupations in which there are not enough trained workers.

All learning mechanisms have a positive impact on productivity, with in – plant training amongst the most efficient mechanisms, even in very small enterprises. Large enterprises with strong linkages continue to invest in substantial in - plant without government support, and parastatals also continue to do the same. Much of this training will be general training as enterprises strive to overcome the handicap of the low overall quality of labour. They have no choice; neither adequately qualified labour nor adequate skills training facilities are readily available.

There are some barriers of coordination between vocational / technical education and the employer’s needs such as the lack of information from some training providers about their programmes and the modular structure of some of the programmes. Strategies for overcoming them are proposed, the overall status of joint planning and coordination, and the results that can be obtained once the barriers to cooperative planning have been overcome.

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5.2 CONCLUSIONS

The objectives of skills training are to ensure employability and guarantee productive use of people in creating productivity. The labour market is in dire need of skilled workers who will sustain and develop the market and the society in general. The NTA serves as an observatory for the coordination, supervision and monitoring of all training in the Gambia. As it is mandated to supervise, monitor and coordinate the training programmes of TVET institutions in the Gambia, this report will go a long way in aiding NTA in finding its feet and to accomplish its main programme of activities which is to liaise between the training providers and the labour market.

In the main, NTA’s responsibilities must include:

• Developing a code of practice for inspection process of technical institutions • Investigating the state of readiness of assessment and training centres to deliver

vocational qualifications • Evaluating the competency of trainers and instructors working within TVET,

especially for delivering and assessing competence – based qualification investigate systems (and organizations) for awarding NVQs in The Gambia

• To research suitable modes of delivering NVQs with particular attention to rural needs and disadvantaged sections of the population which may not be fully catered for within existing systems

• To prepare draft guidance material on design principles for writing curricular programmes prepare draft guidance on writing competence – based, modular standards identify the levels and content of qualifications required to meet industry needs in The Gambia

• To develop modular, competence-based vocational standards and develop qualifications based on the vocational standards

• To validate the qualifications • To develop delivery and assessment materials for the qualifications (using

materials which are already available) • To devise a strategy for develop qualifications for disadvantaged groups. To

develop (draft) criteria for approving centres to deliver the qualifications. (in addition, a strategy for the continued monitoring of centre should be developed)

• To develop a quality assurance strategy. The quality assurance strategy should build on the successful features of the existing system and also introduce systems and methodologies for quality assuring a competence-base system of qualifications, including internal and external verification.

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5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

The need for further research about skills development in The Gambia cannot be disputed. It is therefore worth reflecting briefly on the issues that could usefully be explored to enhance decision-making capacity in this field. Firstly, it would appear imperative that the assumptions behind the skills development agenda are explored. To what extent can it be assumed that increasing the skills level of the workforce will lead to economic growth and poverty reduction?

Technical & vocational education's comprehensive curriculum, with its co- and extracurricular activities, stands in sharp contrast to the specialized, concentrated, and short-term skill training typically provided by most employers. Perhaps even more important are the significant differences between the evaluation outcomes used to assess the two types of programmes (Lewis 1987). Technical & vocational education is typically evaluated in terms of a wide range of outcomes (including whether students continue their education, the contributions of skill training to basic skills, students' mastery of basic life competencies, and employment outcomes), whereas programmes suggested or carried out by employers place more emphasis on employment-related outcomes (earnings, employment status, relationship of training to job obtained, job satisfaction, employer satisfaction, programs' abilities to meet employers' needs).

5.3.1 Recommendations to the training providers

Therefore the following are recommended to the training providers:

1. improve communication, by keeping the employers informed about programmes

2. have joint meetings and do more joint planning 3. be responsive to the demands of the labour market 4. be more flexible and responsive to the needs of the employers 5. offer more short – term and open-entry/open-exit tailor made

programmes, 6. upgrade and update programmes 7. improve relationships among state agencies responsible for providing

training and employment 8. improve relationship with the NTA 9. coordinate better within technical and vocational education itself

example, by exploring the possibility of private training providers using public training provider’s workshops in high cost training areas.

10. fund programmes jointly etc

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11. organize field trips to the industries from time to time 12. organize open day every year so that all stakeholders can have the

opportunity to know more about the programmes offered, the success and failures and also the difficulties the institution is facing.

13. improve or establish links with other institutions with well established and effective career guidance and counseling units, with qualified personnel to periodically give talks to students.

5.4.2 Recommendations to the employers

The following suggestions and recommendations can be made to the employers:

1. Expand their concept of training, shifting focus from on-the-job training to more in-depth instructions. Provide in off-the job training

2. reduce the bureaucracy to simplify the process of training employees 3. conduct joint planning with training providers 4. keep an open mind when selecting training providers 5. try to minimize politicizing training programmes especially when

selecting training institutions 6. improve relationship with the NTA 7. encourage some of their experienced staff members to lecture some

hours, maybe 2-4 hours in the institutions

5.4.3. Recommendations to the NTA

Joint planning and coordination of programmes should be made through the NTA. Under the NTA Act, the NTA is to collect a training levy and also it receives subventions from government. A portion of the funds collected should then be spent on subsidizing training providers who have already demonstrated their ability to deliver high quality training and also to fund joint planning and coordination of programmes between training providers and employers.

The following can be recommended to the NTA:

1. the NTA should take a leading role in the promotion and participation of girls in traditionally male dominated programmes such as engineering and construction;

2. the NTA should only give approval and accreditation to training institutions that have all the prerequisites, i.e. tutors, equipment etc

3. the NTA should provide technical and financial support to those training institutions who cater for the physically challenged as the

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institutions themselves are not in the position to finance these special programmes and activities.

4. the NTA should improve ties with employers and in so doing, will be able to place students on attachment.

5. provide staff development programmes for both instructors and managers. This can be implemented to support a proper development of the private sector.

Joint Programmes at the tertiary Level is very vital. Technical and vocational training is highly structured in nature, has extra- and co-curricular activities, and is committed to serving the entire in-school population. The relationship between these training providers and the employers is best limited to one in which training institutions function as recipients of the services of employers rather than training providers. The following types of joint programmes, in which the resources of employers are targeted toward students in tertiary technical and vocational institutions can allow vocational and technical training providers and employers to collaborate, if not coordinate, to meet mutual goals: institution -to-work transition programmes to assist students with career counselling and guidance, job placement, and employability skills; work-study programmes for students needing financial assistance; partnership programmes that promote involvement of business and industry, labour organizations, community-based organizations, and government (as employer) with education; and cooperative education, experience-based education, and other types of work experience programmes (Kinoshita 1987).

A remedial education programme is a joint programme that can be suggested. Under such a programme, the employers can provide funds for the purchase of say a computer system and software to address basic and remedial education for eligible youth and adults and the training institutions carry out the training.

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APPENDIX 1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

1. Name the specific programme on which this questionnaire focuses ……………………………………………..…..……………. ……………………………………………….….…………… 2. Location of Institution: (Please underline appropriate) Rural / Urban / Rural-Urban 3. How many trainees are enrolled on this programme during

the academic year 2006/2007? Full - time Part - time Male Female Male Female

4. How are the trainees recruited? (Please underline) Entrance exams / Interview / WASSCE results / ……………………………. THE CURRICULUM 5. How much information do you (or your centre) provide to local employers about this

programme? Very much Much Some None

4 3 2 1

6. (a) Have local employers participated in your programme? Y /N (b) If yes, then to what extent have they participated actively in :-

To a very large extent

To a large extent

To some extent

Not at all

(i) identifying this programme as one that the Centre should offer

4

3

2

1

(ii) the development of this programme 4

3 2 1

7. To what extent have local employers contributed to the resourcing of this programme?

To a very large extent

To a large extent

To some extent

Not at all

(i) through the loan of equipment that is not available at the Centre for this programme?

4

3

2

1

(ii) through enabling their employees to lecture/ teach on occasions on this programme?

4

3 2 1

(iii) in other ways (please specify) ………………………………………………………….

4 3 2 1

8. Is supervised work experience in industry / business/the public service, mandatory on this programme? Y / N 9. How much time is allocated for this supervised work experience? __________weeks/ months

Code (for office use only) Business Technical Both

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10. Do you visit your students on such supervised work experience? Y / N If Yes, then how do you assess their performance? ……………………………………. ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11. Do you have a career, Guidance and Counselling unit? Y / N

If Yes, how much learner support (through Counselling and Guidance) do you (and/or your programme staff) provide to this programme?

Much A little None

(i) On entry 3 2 1

(ii) During the Programme 3 2 1

(iii) Towards the end of the Programme 3 2 1

12. Do you have females in your Programme? Y / N What percentage do they represent? ……………..% 13. Has your Centre made any effort to recruit women on your programme:

a) Women in traditionally male subject areas (such as Engineering & Construction)

Very strong effort

Strong effort

Some effort

No effort

4 3 2 1 Please list briefly these efforts here: …………………………………………………………………………………………………..… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

a) Women who want to return to formal education and training?

Very strong effort

Strong effort

Some effort

No effort

4 3 2 1 Please list briefly these efforts here: …………………………………………………………………………………………………..… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14. Do your students have access to ICT ? Y / N If Yes, how many hours a week can they access the computers? …………hrs.

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15. Do you have any provisions to accommodate the physically challenged? Y/N If yes, what provisions do you have? ………………………………………………………………………………………... 16. How do you manage your records? Manually (filing) / computerized / Combination. 17. What computer package do you use to manage your information system? Please specify. ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 18. Is there a Quality Assurance System in place in your Centre / Institution? Y / N If Yes, how effective is it?

Very effective Effective Satisfactory Unsatisfactory 4 3 2 1

If No, how is quality guaranteed? Circle the appropriate A. Rely on the qualification and experience of the tutors B. Rely on the output of the students (Exams results) C. Rely on comments from employers D. Others, please

specify……………………………………………………………………….

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APPENDIX II: SOME CONTENT OF THE INTERVIEW GUIDE FO R EMPLOYERS [Note: (a) The total time allocated for this interview is only about half-an-hour (b) prior to the interview, obtain from the employer the number of graduates of the local Tertiary Education institutions he/she has employed in the last two years by: (i) Age (approx) of employee(s) (ii) Gender (iii) Qualifications] 1. Ask the employer / Personnel Manager how great is his/her need for a skilled workforce at the higher technological level e.g. ask:

(a) how many graduates of the local Tertiary institutions would he/she need in the next two years or so; and for which departments in his/her business.

(b) What can such graduates do if they do not obtain employment or become self-employed. (c) What are the new occupational areas that require such high – level skills?

4. Ask his/her links with the Tertiary Education institutions; and Probe whether:

(a) He/she makes use of any of these institutions’ Consultancy Services e.g. to identify skills shortages and manpower training needs.

(b) He/she has participated in planning and developing these institutions’ Curricula locally and/or any particular programmes

(c) He/she has provided resources (human, physical, material, financial) to these institutions locally e.g. whether he/she

(i) has loaned equipment to these institutions (ii) has enabled employees to lecture at these institutions (iii) has offered placements to their students

(d) he/she sponsors students at these institutions

5. Ask about the National Trade Testing scheme and its link to the wage structure for the low-level work force; and, Probe the consequences for:

(a) employment (b) the Private Skills Centres’ sustainability

6. Ask whether he/she conducts in-house training (a) for the low-level workforce (b) the high-level workforce; and, Probe: in what ways he/she could be encouraged to do more in-house training for each level. 7. Ask his/her views about the skills of migrant workers; and Probe: the impact of migrant workers on the development of a skilled labour force