ERNWACA Research Grants Programme

Edition 2008/ 2008 edition

PEACE EDUCATION AND GENDER EQUITY AMONG NIGERIAN SO UTH-SOUTH YOUTHS

Researchers

• Dr. Ime Effiong Emah • Dr. (Mrs.) Eno Etudor-Eyo • Mr. Uduak D. Akpanumoh • Mrs. Eno Gabriel Akpan • Miss Wisdom Inibehe Jude

Mentor: Dr. (Mrs.) Grace Koko Etuk

Country NIGERIA

Research financed by

Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA)

With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands

ROCARE/ERNWACA ⋅Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 15 ⋅BPE 1854, Bamako, MALI

Benin ⋅Burkina Faso ⋅Cameroun ⋅Centrafrique⋅ Cote d’Ivoire ⋅Gambia ⋅Ghana ⋅Guinée ⋅Mali ⋅Mauritanie ⋅Nigeria ⋅Niger ⋅Sénégal ⋅Sierra Leone ⋅Togo

www.rocare.org

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The study aimed at determining the potency of peace education in fostering gender equity. It

specifically sought to foster gender equity through the use of filmed drama as a peace education

technique. The research questions sought to find out the attitudes of youths towards gender equity

before and after their exposure to peace education (the filmed drama), the difference between the

attitude of male and female youth towards gender equity before and after exposure to peace

education, and the effectiveness of the peace education programme.

This study was premised on the observation that fostering gender equity through peace

education (and particularly filmed drama which readily catches learners’ interest) is a very crucial

issue particularly now that women are pressing hard for fair treatment in a violence-ridden world of

today, and gender issues are taking the centre stage in national and international discussions.

To achieve the purpose of the study, a quasi-experimental study was conducted with a

sample of 400 students randomly drawn from six schools in three south-south states in Nigeria.

Questionnaire on attitude to gender equity was administered on them after which they were exposed

to the experimental treatment, the filmed drama, with accompanying discussion, then the

administration of the same questionnaire (as post-test). Student t-test analysis and descriptive

statistics were employed. Focus group discussions were also undertaken.

The results showed that the respondents had fair to negative attitude to gender equity before

their exposure to the experimental treatment, and more positive attitude after their exposure. It was

also shown that males differed from their male counterparts significantly in their attitude towards

gender equity before exposure, but after exposure there was no significant difference between them.

On the whole post-test attitude towards gender equity was significantly higher than the pre-test

attitude, showing a significant improvement in their attitudes attributable to exposure to peace

education via the filmed drama. Cultural factors also influenced attitudes to gender equity, such as

family size and parental education.

It was concluded that filmed drama was an effective peace education instrument for improving

attitude to gender equity among youths. It was therefore recommended, among others, that filmed

drama and related techniques like role play, case study and simulation games should be effectively

employed in peace education programmes to ensure appropriate attitudinal change.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Cover Page………………………………………………………………………………………….. i

Executive Summary………………………………………………………………………………. ii

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………. iii

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………. v

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study………………………………………………………………… 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………….. 1

1.3 Statement of Purpose…………………………………………………………………… 2

1.4 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………….. 3

1.5 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………. 3

1.6 Research Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………… 3

1.7 Scope of Study…………………………………………………………………………… 4

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms……………………………………………………….. 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………… 5

2.1.1 Skinnerian Behaviour Modification Theory …………………………………………… 5

2.1.2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory………………………………………………….. 6

2.2 Conceptual analysis of peace education, gender equity and attitudinal change….… 6

2.3 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Employment……………………………….. 8

2.4 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Human Rights……………………………….. 9

2.5 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Health Care………………………………….. 10

2.6 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Education…………………………………….. 12

2.7 Chapter Summary 13

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD

3.1 Research Design………………………………………………………………………….. 15

3.2 Population………………………………………………………………………………….. 15

3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique……………………………………………………….. 15

3.4 Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………………….. 15

3.4.1 Validation of the Instruments……………………………………………………………… 16

3.4.2 Reliability of the Instrument………………………………………………………………… 16

3.5 Procedure for Data Collection……………………………………………………………… 16

3.6 Data Analysis Technique………………………………………….………………………… 16

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 17

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

5.1 Summary of findings ……………………………………………………………………… 22

5.2 Discussion of Results………………………………………………………………………. 22

5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………… 24

5.4 Limitations of Study…………………………………………………………………………. 24

5.5 Suggestions for Further Study……………………………………………………………… 24

5.6 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………. 25

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………………………… 26

APPENDICES

I Peace Education and Gender Equity Questionnaire…………………………………… 28

II Summary of filmed drama (CD attached)…………………………………………………. 30

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Sampling Frame of Respondents………………………………………….. 15

Table 4.1: Attitude of youths toward gender equity before and after exposure to peace education……………………………………………… 17

Table 4.2: Attitude of males and females toward gender equity before and after exposure to peace education……………………………………. 17

Table 4.3: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender equity in employment……………………………………………… 18

Table 4.4: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender equity in employment……………………………………………… 18

Table 4.5: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender equity in health care………………………………………………….. 19

Table 4.6: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender equity in education……………………………………… 19

Table 4.7: Results of independent t-test analysis of attitudes to gender equity based on gender before exposure to peace education……………………. 20

Table 4.8: Results of independent t-test analysis of attitudes to gender equity based on gender after exposure to peace-education……… 20

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

It may be difficult to achieve the growth and development of human societies where peaceful

co-existence of the people is lacking. In other words, peace is a sine qua non for development. The

convention on the Rights of the Child calls for the elimination of all forms of both overt and structural

violence and the creation of a society based on the principles of justice and peace (Fountain, 1999).

Fountain (1999) also cited Hick’s definition of peace to encompass the presence of social,

economic and political justice. Structural violence is regarded as such injustice as poverty,

discrimination and unequal access to opportunities that are at the root of much conflict in the world.

This means that where the rights of humans are not recognized and injustice prevails, there can be

no meaningful peace. And where peace is lacking, the well being of every man, woman and child

cannot be secured. Human rights, peace and sustainable development are therefore inextricably

interwoven.

Gender mainstreaming advocates for women to speak in their own voices, on the basis of

their own experiences and values, and eventually transform patriarchal structures. These issues

inform the need for peace education, which entails the process of promoting knowledge, skills,

attitudes and values needed to bring about what will enable youths and adults to prevent conflict and

violence, both overt and structural; to resolve conflict peacefully; and to create the conditions

conducive to peace.

Of particular concern in this study is the issue of gender discrimination and conflict, which is a

leading source of violence in societies. It has been reported that around the world, at least one

woman in every three has been abused in one way or another in her lifetime, whether physically,

sexually, psychologically, economically or otherwise (Population Reports, 1999). It appears some

cultures tend to promote gender-based structural conflict depending on their beliefs and norms. This

is a matter of much concern, which this study sought to resolve.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The term “gender” refers to all the characteristics of men and women which a particular

society had determined and assigned each sex. The characteristics are therefore culturally or socially

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constructed. In most societies males and females differ in the activities they undertake, in access to

and control of resources and in decision making (Ajaero, 2003). Gender inequality and discrimination

are exhibited in various aspects of life in African societies, from educational to employment

opportunities and daily life encounters. The female gender is often associated with weakness and

thus not given equal rights with their male counterparts. Even in the home some men treat their wives

with disdain, sometimes asserting that their over-bearing role is divine. Women therefore have tried to

strive against these discriminatory practices, to gain some emancipation. But if appears the degree of

success in this direction is not substantial. More so in our society that is bearing more violence ridden

by the day. Currently violence in various dimensions has become a very thorny problem that has

threatened the co-existence of families, communities, organizations, the nation and world at large. It

appears cosmetic measures aimed at reducing conflicts have not been very fruitful, given the fact that

people have matured with some idiosyncrasies and attitudes that cannot be readily changed. If the

tenets of peaceful co-existence were learnt early enough, it might be easier to minimize and resolve

all forms of violence and conflicts amicably. Gender-based conflict is a very subtle type of violence

that grows with the individual in one’s family and culture, hence the need to address it early enough.

The employment of appropriate educational tools in promoting knowledge, skills, attitudes and values

that can promote prevention of violence and ensure peaceful resolution of conflicts cannot therefore

be overstressed. Particularly, if young minds are “caught young” with appropriate knowledge, skills

and values, future generations may have less gender-based conflict, discrimination and violence to

contend with. The choice of youths in this study is informed by this need.

1.3 Statement of Purpose

The purpose of the research was to foster gender equity in terms of education, employment,

healthcare and general human rights among secondary school youths in south-south zone of Nigeria

through peace education.

The specific objectives therefore are to:

1. Pre-test attitudes of the youths’ attitude towards gender equity in terms of education,

employment, health care and general human rights.

2. Teach peace education with the content of gender equity using filmed drama.

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3. Test youths’ attitude towards gender equity after their exposure to the peace education

programme.

4. Assess the difference in the attitude of male and female youths towards gender equity, before

and after this exposure to the peace education programme.

5. Determine whether the experimental treatment of filmed peace education is effective or not.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study will engender behavioural change among the younger generation, and

subsequently among the older ones. This informed our choice of school children as the target

population. It was believed that with appropriate teaching-learning strategies, attitudes towards

gender equity could be patterned and modified as necessary. When learners are active participants in

their learning process through filmed drama and discussions, attitudes could be changed in desirable

directions. Peace education aims to help students acquire skills for non-violent lifestyle, conflict

resolution and to reinforce these skills for active and responsible action in the society for the

promotion of values and peace.

1.5 Research Questions

To achieve the purpose of the study, the following research questions were formulated:

1. What is the attitude of youths towards gender equity before their exposure to peace

education?

2. What is the attitude of youths towards gender equity after their exposure to peace education?

3. What is the difference between the attitude of males and females towards gender equity?

4. What is the difference in youths’ attitude towards gender equity before and after their

exposure to peace education programme?

5. Was there any improvement in youths’ attitude towards gender equity?

6. Was peace education programme effective?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide this study.

Ho1: There is no significant difference between youths’ attitude towards gender equity before and

after their introduction to peace education programme.

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Ho2: There is no significant difference between the attitude of male and female youths towards

gender equity before and after their exposure to peace education.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study covered youths of secondary schools in south-south zone of

Nigeria. Among the six states of the south-south zone which are within the Niger Delta area, three

states – Akwa Ibom, Rivers and Bayelsa were chosen for the study. These states formed a cross

section of the area.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

In order to avoid misunderstanding of words, the researchers found it necessary to define

operationally the terms as used in the context of the study.

Peace Education

As used in this context, it is the process of promoting the knowledge, skills and attitudes

needed to bring about behaviour change that will enable youths to prevent gender-based conflict and

violence, both overt and structural; and create the conditions conducive to peace, whether at an

interpersonal or national level. It will be operationalized by the content of the pre-organized scene on

the film clip.

Gender Equity

This means fairness in the appropriation of societal roles, rights and responsibilities to both

males and females. Men and women need to be given equal opportunities in terms of education,

employment, health-care and general human rights, decision making, to name a few. Therefore, the

attitude of youths towards gender equity in these areas will be measured. This variable will be

operationalized by the sum of items on Peace Education and Gender Equity Questionnaire (PEGEQ).

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The chapter reviews some opinions and studies on peace education and gender equity. It also

presents the theoretical framework of the study. This chapter is organized into:

2.1 Theoretical Framework

2.1.1 Skinnerian Behaviour Modification Theory

2.1.2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

2.2 Conceptual Analysis of Peace Education, Gender Equity and Attitudinal Change

2.3 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Employment

2.4 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Human Rights

2.5 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Health Care

2.6 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Education

2.7 Summary of Literature Reviewed

2.1 Theoretical Framework

This section presents the theories that give foundation to this study, namely, Skinnerian

behaviour modification and Bandura’s social learning theories.

2.1.1 Skinnerian Behaviour Modification Theory

Burrhus Frederic Skinner has contributed much to the behaviour modification theory. The

central thesis of Skinner’s operant conditioning, as it concerns behaviour modification is that an

undesirable behaviour can be extinguished by removing the reinforcer, and replaced with a desirable

behaviour by reinforcement (Boeree, 2006).

Again, Wertheim as cited in Etuk, Etudor, Akpanumoh and Ngerebara (2007), identified the

assumptions that underly operant conditioning, some of which being that:

• behaviour following by positive consequences tend to be repeated and behaviour followed by

negative consequences tends to extinguish…;

• some of what we learn is not the direct result of reinforcers but rather the result of observing

others and the consequences of their actions and by modelling our behaviours after them (pp. 16

– 17).

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This latter assumption lends credence to the choice of Skinnerian behaviour modification theory as

the foundation for this study, which involves the use of filmed drama as a tool for observing the

behaviour of others and the consequences of their actions and modelling our attitudes and

behaviours accordingly.

2.1.2 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Bandura’s social learning theory provides the basis to this study, and it states that individuals

are social animals operating within a given cultural orientation, involving learning in a social context

about somebody or something or form something or somebody (Enang, 2006). Enang (2006) further

explains that the theory uses modelling in learning, classified into real life and symbolic models. It

involves learning by observing our parents, peers, filmed pictures, drama, and the life, listening to

radio and audiotape, reading models or observing printed picture. In the process, the learner

internalizes aspects of the models behaviours that are appealling to the observer. Enang (2006) citing

Nwankwo explains that observing life models help people to acquire vast number of behaviours

including social etiquettes and role behaviour as men and women socially approved behaviour and

helps in elimination of unapproved behaviours. Filmed modelling has been viewed as a very effective

method in behaviour modification often employed to address attitudinal problems.

Filmed models possess the quality of giving the behaviour modifier room to structure and

determine what is to be modelled, allowing for flexibility and repeatability, and usage in a variety of

setting (Essieman, Nwanogu & Nwachukwu, 1990). It involves learning by observing films or video-

taped behaviours of persons. Just as aggressive behaviour may be practiced by youths who watch

models of wrestlers, boxers and warriors, gender-based attitudes can be modified in desired

directions through pre-organized filmed scenes that can excite the learners. This theory is significant

to this study, because peace education involve change in attitudes, that is, changing from negative

attitudes to positive attitudes that can bring peace to the society.

2.2 Conceptual Analysis of Peace Education, Gender Equity and Attitudinal Change

The issues of peace and gender equity are attitudinal variables. Park (2007) defines attitude

as a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object, subject or concept which pre-

disposes one to respond in some preferential manner, and classified attitude into three components

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namely: the cognitive or knowledge element, the affective or feeling element, and a tendency to

action element. Park (2007) adds that attitudes are difficult to change, and showers the responsibility

to develop healthy attitudes on teachers, among others.

Revisiting Park’s (2007) classification of attitudes, the three components are very significant.

Acquired characteristics of an individual include: the knowledge handed down from generation to

generation, which in the context of this study informs the individual’s tendency to favour or reject

particular groups of individual (the second component). The feelings then manifest in actions such as

discrimination, conflict and violence (the third component). The enigma now lies in how to modify

attitudes that have been formed over time.

The inclusion of peace education and gender equity in the educational system can be traced

back to World War I (1914 – 1918) in which the United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO, 1946) worked on the idea of peace as an aftermath of the war.

Dungan and Dennis (1996) defined peace education as an interdisciplinary area of education

whose goals are institutionalized and non-institutionalized teaching about peace and for peace.

Peace education refers to the process of promoting the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values

needed to bring about behaviour changes that will enable children, youth and adults to prevent

conflict and violence, both overt and structural, to resolve conflict, peacefully, and to create the

conditions conducive for peace whether at intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, national or

international level (Biggs, 1995; UNICEF Croatia, 1997; Salomon and Nevo, 2002; Allan, 2004).

Peace education encompasses the key concepts of education and peace. Positive peace,

according to Reardon (1997) involves the development of a society in which except for the absence

of direct violence, there is no structural violence or social injustice. Peace education is concerned

with helping learners to develop an awareness of the processes and skills that are necessary for

achieving understanding, tolerance, and goodwill in the world today. It aims at helping students

acquire skills for non-violent conflict, resolution and to reinforce these skills for active and responsible

action in the society for the promotion of the values of peace.

Therefore, unlike the concept of conflict resolution, which can be considered to be retroactive,

that is, trying to solve a conflict after it has already occurred, peace education has more proactive

approach. It prevents a conflict in advance or rather educates individuals and a society for a peaceful

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existence on the basis of non-violence, tolerance, equality, respect for difference and social justice.

Peace education also offers topics and issues that touch the lives of our students everyday such as

resolving conflicts, clarifying values, and understanding diversity.

Educating for peace means examining and discussing our values and attitudes towards

diversity, cultural differences, tolerance and human dignity, developing language and social

interaction skills to promote peaceful relations among people, and also learning to solve problems

(Duffy, 2009). Peace itself is either positive or negative. Negative peace is the absence of large scale

physical violence, the absence of condition of war. Positive peace involves the development of the

society in which, except for the absence of direct or social injustice (Aspeslagh, 1996).

2.3 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Employment

According to Peretomode and Peretomode (2005) employments include recruitment,

selection, placement, compensation, promotion, appraisal, staff discipline, and results in collection of

wages and salaries. Thus when skills are built in our youths, they will be gainfully employed in

industries and they will receive wages and salaries to take care of themselves. UNICEF’s peace

education-related activities form an integral part of comprehensive approach to fulfilling the right to

quality education for all children (UNICEF, 1999). This also coincides with the approach adopted by

the 1990 world declaration on education for all (EFA), (The Jomtien Declaration) which framework of

Aetia calls for the promotion of an education that helps the youths to acquire skills for gainful

employment as well as peaceful resolution of conflicts besides social and ethical values.

According to PMAU Briefing paper 5 (2009), the average woman’s wage is between 40% and

50% of those of the average men. The paper adds that women depend more on primary sector of

work, and sees education as a tool that can bring about positive effect on the earning capacity of both

sexes. In recent study on gender wage gap conducted in Uganda using 2002/2003 National

Household Survey (UNHS) data, women were discovered to earn only 16% while men earn 30%

more. The data however shows that 26% of wage gap is accounted for by low earning capacity and

the remaining 74% explained by usage discrimination. The discrimination analysis shows that the

bulk of discrimination against women is in the form of underemployment for the same job (PMAU

Briefing paper 5, 2009). It was then recommended that there was need for emphasis on gender

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equity, on universal secondary education and enhancement of support to encourage women

participation in post secondary education to enhance thin employment opportunities.

2.4 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Human Righ t

In 1948 human rights were declared by the United Nations irrespective of sex, race, colour,

language, religion, political, or other opinion. In 1993 a world conference of 171 states (99%) of world

population reaffirmed its commitment to human rights (Carson, and Lange, 1997; Reardon, 1997).

Human rights are basic standard such as respect to human life and human dignity without which

people cannot live in dignity as human beings, and are foundation of freedom, justice and peace.

Human rights involve the struggle for freedom and equity (Reardon, 1999; Reardon, 1997).

Human rights are those basic standards without which people cannot live in dignity as human

beings. Human rights are the foundation of freedom, justice and peace. Human rights do not have to

be bought, learned or inherited, they belong to people simply because they are human. Human rights

are inherent to each individual and are the same for all human beings regardless of race, sex,

religion, political or other opionion, national or social origin (Reardon, 1997).

The modern liberal theory puts the individual’s equality, values and rights in the centre of a

successfully functioning society (Reardon, 1999). This is why this study seeks to explore the

philosophy and practical protection of human rights from the individual’s psychological point of view.

In the educational system educating a person does not mean transmitting only the facts, but it

includes the complete social, emotional and moral development of an individual, the development of

a positive self concept and positive self esteem, and the acquisition of knowledge and skills to accept

responsibility for one’s own benefit as well as the benefit of society. The development of a positive

self-concept is the foundation for the development of sympathy for others and building trust, as well

as the foundation for developing awareness or interconnectedness with others. In that sense a social

individual is a starting point and a final target of peace education efforts.

According to Jardine (1997) and Reardon (1997) the conceptual core of peace education is

gender equity, the control, reduction and elimination of violence, while the conceptual core of human

rights education is human dignity, recognition, fulfillment and unversalization. Human rights education

is not only a corrective complement to education for peace. It is adaptable to study of positive peace,

the social, political and economic condition, most likely to provide environment and process for social

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cohesion and non-violent conflict resolution. Human rights are rights of every citizen including the

citizen of Nigeria of which the citizens of south-south zone are included. According to Nigerian

Constitution (2000), every citizen, male or female has a right to life, right to freedom, right to vote and

be voted for. But in many instances women are discriminated against in politics, public offices, so with

peace education for the youth gender discrimination will be eradicated.

Education for peace should be prescriptive and it is human right that can offer the most

appropriate route through which to move from problem to prescription in all approaches to peace

education because human rights provide the learners with knowledge and opportunities for specific

correction that can fulfill prescriptive requirements of education for peace.

Carson and Lange (1997), Hicks (1988) and Jardine (1997) observed that the framework of

human rights include the political violence of oppressive system that enslave and intimidate based on

power, the women and marginalization, destruction of particular human identity, sexism and gender

inequality. They emphasized the inclusion of human rights in the curricula of peace education.

Human rights bring about total reform in education and implies the learning and practice of

human right. Reardon (1999), Carson and Lange (1997) and Jardin (1997) suggested that

implementation of human right along side peace education and teaching through both content

transmission and experiences and should provide opportunity for youth to develop and practice the

skills of human right. Peace education involves dealing with key elements of individual and group

identity formed by historical and cultural heritage, balancing the values of both of these, and trying to

teach people how to enjoy their own rights without endangering the rights of others and especially,

how to advocate for the rights of others when such rights are threatened. This motivating element of

defense and advocating for the rights of others is the foundation of shared responsibility for the

process of building peace.

A holistic global peace education needs to integrate the core issues of human rights, such as

gender equity into the classrooms. According to Reardon (1988), peace education can assist in the

development of social harmony equity and social justice as alternatives to tension and wars.

2.5 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Health Car e

In most African societies, and even in some other parts of the world, males and females are

patterned from early childhood to exhibit gender-biased abilities and aspirations. This is why the

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family is often credited with the good physical health and mental alertness of its members. This

linkage of an individual’s health status with his or her family background goes to buttress the essence

of peace education in both formal and informal institutions. This is to combat gender-role differential

that forms a way of life in families and invariably affects health care services to the ‘disfavoured’

gender. Hence, the family is the first institution saddled with the responsibility of renewing the

population when members die off and also to socialize children into the culture of the society

(Izuorah, 2004).

However, peace education has to do with the process of promoting knowledge, skills,

attitudes and values needed for behavioural changes that will enable individuals or youths to prevent

conflict, marginalization and violence for coexistence in the society (Alan, 2004). It is in recognition of

this that the Millennium Development Goals numbers 4 and 5 of the United Nations were formulated,

which according to Ikpeze (2007) are as follows:

“Goal 4: To reduce child mortality. It is very clear that the rate at which children under the age of 5

years die is extremely high (estimated 11million per year, from preventable and treatable causes).

“Goal 5: To improve maternal health. This takes cognizance of the fact that over 500,000 women die

every year as a result of complications of pregnancy and delivery.

From the forgoing, it is obvious that the issues raised have to do with women more than men. This is

because children under five and being looked after by their mothers and of cause pregnancy and

delivery is the preserve of women.

A society already embedded in gender discrimination to the detriment of the women folk,

without a well systematically structurized healthcare delivery scheme will often result in a high death

toll of women. This is because the most vulnerable gender (women) are often marginalized in the

planning and implementation in all aspects of societal development, healthcare inclusive.

However, it can only take the process of peace education to disabuse the minds of youths and

individuals in the society from their religious, cultural and traditional beliefs on gender biases that has

been from generation to generation. This definitely needs to be given a long and sequential

procedure to completely eradicate such philosophy from our society.

One gender-based practice in the African society is female genital mutilation, a traditional

practice with serious health consequences. This according to Olumba (2005) is a violation of

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internationally accepted human rights, stressing that the norms of care and behaviour in our society

are sometimes based on gender and social class not minding whether it is harmful to the individuals

or not. He added that the preference of sons or the high value placed on sons may lead to

discrimination against girls with serious health consequences for them. Until the tool of peace

education for gender equity is used, such traditional practices of the female genital mutilation and

traditional payment of bride price which makes men to regard their wives as their properties will

continue to reinforce the inequity suffered by girls and women in the communities where they are

practiced.

Although health care is the vehicle for the actualization of the policy on health for all by the

year 2000 and beyond, gender inequity remains a cog in the wheel of progress of the programme in

Nigeria. It will only take a complete re-orientation through peace education in both formal and

informal school settings to gradually stop the discrimination and condemnation of roles played by

women in the implementation of health care programme since its inception.

2.6 Peace Education and Gender Equity in Education

The right to education is a basic human right enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human

Rights of 1948. Other declarations or pronouncements worldwide have emphasized the importance of

promoting equal access to educational opportunities for both males and females, such as the

convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and Beijing Conference on

Women (1995). These pronouncements increase in the face of persistence of discriminatory

practices against females in access to education. Fidell and Delamater (1971) observed that the

problem of gender differences starts from childhood where differential socialization leads girls

towards dependency and inferior self-image which can result in their being denied certain priviledges.

Family setting and responsibilities have also been found to be strongly associated with gender

discrimination in education and other spheres of life. For instance, birth order, number of siblings,

parenthood and its responsibilities, among others, have been found to influence participation or

access to educational opportunities (Joof, 1991). Increased family responsibilities for instance are

more detrimental to women education given some socio-cultural antecedents.

The negative feelings that one is being discriminated against just for belonging to a particular

groups lead to a sense of deep injustice and discrimination. The discrimination and injustice do not

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stop with the individual but is passed on from generation to generation, and it is peace education that

can eradicate this. Peace education advocated for gender equity and tried to teach the youth how to

enjoy their own rights without endangering the right of others and how to advocate for rights of others.

This is the function of shared responsibility for the process of building peace (Stephan and Cookies,

1984).

According to Burns and Aspeslagh (1996) peace education embodies gender equity, violence

in schools, international securely cooperation as ideal for the future from the question of human rights

to the teaching of sustainable development and environmental protection. They also emphasized the

issues of conflicts and conflicts resolution which the youth can be taught to take creative approach to

the conflict and how to find different possibilities for the self-esteem and respect for others.

According to Savmel and Salomon (2005), Salomon and Nevo (2002), peace education aims

at helping students acquire skills for non-violent conflict resolution and to reinforce these skills for

active and responsible action in the society for the promotion of the values of peace. It aims at

preventing violence in advance. That is, it involves educating individuals and a society for peaceful

tolerance, equality, respect for differences and social justice. Peace education is most effective when

the skills of peace and conflict resolution are learned actively and are modeled by the school

environment (Baldo and Furniss, 1998).

2.7 Chapter Summary

The chapter set out with an examination of Bandura’s social learning theory where the

importance of changing attitudes through observing filmed drama was highlighted. The enigma in

effecting attitudinal change was also brought to fore. The review examined the concept of peace

education and gender equity and showed how concerned a number of individuals and bodies such as

UNICEF are in promoting peace and gender equity.

As regards gender equity in employment, most literature observed existing disparities in

employment and wages that were not favourable to the females and the need to boost their education

for subsequent empowerment. It was also observed that human right abuses exist in which the

woman, among others is a usual victim. Researchers saw the need for human rights education as a

key component of peace education. Gender-based problems in health care were identified, such as

14

female genital mutilation, and proper education was proffered as the panacea. On the whole peace

education was seen as a potent tool for fostering gender equity.

15

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter presents the procedural aspects of this study.

3.1 Research Design

Quasi-experimental design was used for this study. This design involved the administration of

a pretest (O1) to a sampled group. Afterwards, the group was exposed to a treatment (x), and post-

tested (O2).

3.2 Population

The population for this study comprised all the senior secondary 2 students in the south-south

zone of Nigeria being about 5,900 students.

3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique

A sample of 400 senior secondary Two students was used in the study. A simple random

sampling technique was employed to select 3 out of 6 states (50%) in the south-south zone of

Nigeria. From the 3 selected schools, a purposive sampling technique was employed to select two

schools from each state, while a simple random sampling was used to select at least 30% of the

senior secondary two students from each school selected. Since the study is quasi-experimental,

involving a treatment (filmed drama), the sample was limited to two schools in each state to ensure

effective pretest, treatment and posttest. The sampling distribution is presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Sampling Frame of Respondents

STATE SCHOOL SSII POP.

SAMPLE PERCENTAGE

Akwa Ibom State A B

200 190

80 80

40% 42%

Bayelsa State A B

151 140

60 60

40% 42%

Rivers State A B

160 155

60 60

37% 39%

3.4 Instrumentation

The questionnaire named “Peace Education and Gender Equity Questionnaire (PEGEQ) was

employed for data collection.

The PEGEQ was made up of two main sections, A and B. Section A was constructed to

16

gather demographic information such as sex, age, class and name of school. Section B contained 40

items measuring the key variables being education (10 items) employment (10 items), human rights

(10 items) and health care (10 items) respectively.

Also used was the focus group discussion. This was organized using seven students from

each of the selected schools under study.

Staff members and students of the Department of Theatre Arts, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom

State, were employed to stage a drama on the key variables of the study. The drama was staged,

filmed and edited by experts in this field. The filmed drama constituted the treatment to which

students were exposed in the study, which was accompanied with discussions (See Annexure 2).

3.4.1 Validation of the Instruments

The five research associates, associates’ mentor and the national secretary to ERNWACA –

Nigeria, ascertained the face and content validity of the instrument.

3.4.2 Reliability of the Instrument

The instrument, PEGEQ, was administered to 20 subjects who did not participation in the

main study. The data obtained were analysed using Cronbach Alpha formular. The reliability index of

0.71 was obtained which showed that the internal consistency of the instrument was adequate.

3.5 Procedure for Data Collection

The research associates and 12 research assistants were involved in data collection. The

questionnaire was first administered to the students. Then the treatment package was introduced

which was subsequently followed by the administration of the same questionnaire items. In order to

capture attention of the subjects, a good public relations approach was adopted. This helped to

eliminate the mortality of the instrument.

3.6 Data Analysis Technique

The responses to the instrument were placed on a four-point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (4

points), Agree (3 points), Disagree (2points), and Strongly Disagree (1point) for positively worded

items and vice versa for all negatively worded items.

Descriptive statistics was used to answer the research questions, while student t-test was

used to determine the difference between pretest and posttest; and to determine whether treatment

(x) was effective on the respondents or not.

17

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

Quantitative Analysis

The results of this study and their interpretations are presented according to the research

questions and hypothesis stated.

Table 4.1: Attitude of youths toward gender equity before and after exposure to peace

education

Before Exposure After Exposure

Sub-variable Mean score

Mid-point score

Deviation from mid-point

Mean score

Mid-point score

Deviation from mid-point

Remark

Attitude to gender equity in employment

29.3125 25 +4.312 (17.25%)

31.1675 25 +6.1675 (24.67%)

Fair improvement

Attitude to gender equity in human rights

35.55 25 +10.55 (42.2%)

37.75 25 +12.75 (51%)

Much improvement

Attitude to gender equity in health care

24.6 25 -0.4 (-1.6%)

26.32 25 +1.32 (5.28%)

Fair improvement

Attitude to gender equity in education

30.055 25 +5.055 (20.22%)

31.9275 25 +6.93 (27.7%)

Fair improvement

The results in Table 4.1 show that there were some fairly positive attitudes toward gender

equity in some sub-variables prior to treatment. When compared with the mid point score of 25, some

were marginally above average (i.e. attitudes to employment, human rights and education) while the

attitude to health care was negative. But after the exposure to peace education through filmed drama

and accompanying discussions, there were improvements in their attitudes in all the sub-variables.

The deviations from mid-point scores were higher that what were obtained before exposure to peace

education, showing some improvement on their attitude.

Table 4.2: Attitudes of males and females towards g ender equity before and after

exposure to peace education

Before exposure After Exposure Gender

Mean score

Mid point score

Deviation from mid-point

Mean score

Mid-point score

Deviation from mid-point

Remark

Males (n = 201)

122.368 97.5 +24.86 130.417 97.5 +32.917 (33.76%)

Much improvement

Females (n = 199)

125.64 97.5 +28.14 (28.86)

132.82 97.5 +35.32 (36.22%)

Much improvement

18

When the attitude to gender equity were analysed on the basis of gender (as shown in Table

4.2), it was found that before and after exposure to peace education, the females had fairly more

positive attitude to gender equity, (as the percentage of deviation from the mid-point scores shows).

Table 4.3 Results of dependent t-test analysis of p re-test and post-test attitudes to gender

equity in employment.

Properties Pre-test Post-test

Mean 29.312 31.167

Variance 30.626 25.397

N 400 400

DF 399

T stat. -7.1416

P(T<=t) two tail 4.3991E – 12

T critical two tail 1.9659

In Table 4.3, the calculated t value (-7.1416) is higher than the critical t-value for two –tailed test

(1.9659), therefore there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test attitude to

gender equity in employment. The post-test mean attitude is therefore significantly higher than the

pre-test mean attitude.

Table 4.4: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender

equity in human rights.

Properties Pre-test Post-test

Mean x 35.55 37.75

Variance 60.0325 46.7756

N 400 400

DF 399

t stat. -7.1130

P(T<=t) two tail 5.29089E – 12

T critical two tail 1.9659

19

In the Table 4.4, the calculated t-test value (-7.1130) is higher than the critical t-value (1.9659),

meaning that there is a significant difference in the mean attitude to gender equity in human rights

between pre-test and post-test attitudes, with the post-test attitudes being higher.

Table 4.5: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender

equity in health care

Properties Pre-test Post-test

Mean x 24.6 26.32

Variance 32.15 23.24

N 400 400

DF 399

t stat. -7.532

P(T<=t) two tail 3.37163E - 13

T critical two tail 1.9659

Table 4.5 Shows that the calculated t-test value (-7.532) is higher than the critical t-value (1.9659),

meaning that there is a significant difference in the mean attitude to gender equity in health care

between pre-test and post-test attitudes.

Table 4.6: Results of dependent t-test analysis of pre-test and post-test attitudes to gender

equity in education.

Properties Pre-test Post-test

Mean x 30.055 31.9275

Variance 30.508 30.378

N 400 400

DF 399

t stat. -7.194

P(T<=t) two tail 3.12113E - 12

T critical two tail 1.9659

20

Results in Table 4.6 show that the calculated t-test value ( -7.194) is higher than the critical t-value

(1.9659), meaning that there is a significant difference in the mean attitude to gender equity in

educational opportunities between pre-test and posttest attitudes, with the post-test attitude being

higher.

Table 4.7: Results of independent t-test analysis o f attitudes to gender equity based on

gender before exposure to peace education.

Properties Male Female

Mean x 122.368 125.638

Variance 216.431 249.242

N 201 199

DF 398

t stat. -2.1434

P(T<=t) two tail 0.03268

T critical two tail 1.9659

In Table 4.7, the calculated t-test value (-2.1434) is higher than the critical t-value (1.9659), therefore

there was a significant difference between the males and females’ attitude to gender equity prior to

exposure to peace education.

Table 4.8: Results of independent t-test analysis o f attitudes to gender equity based on

gender after exposure to peace education.

Properties Male Female

Mean x 130.4179 132.8241

Variance 223.9744 286.70

N 201 199

DF 398

t stat. -1.506

P(T<=t) two tail 0.013278

T critical two tail 1.9659

21

In Table 4.8, the calculated t-test value (-1.506) is lower than the critical t-value (1.9659), meaning

that there was no significant difference between the males and females in their attitude toward

gender equity after exposure to peace education.

Qualitative Analysis

Focus Group Discussion

Two focus group discussions were carried out. The findings obtained from the two groups

show that there is increased awareness among youths of the need for males and females to co-exist

peacefully and carry out their responsibilities without infringement on one’s rights. On employment

opportunities, the females in the groups spoke vehemently in support of giving the females ample

employment opportunities. They however observed that there are some lines of work, such as marine

engineering, which most women in this part of the world may not like to enter. The males shared the

same view on this. This further attests to the culturally-based differential socialization which can result

in the avoidance of ‘masculine’ occupations.

On provision of educational opportunities, the females in the groups observed that female

children provide greater care to their aging parents than the male children, hence the need for them

to be well educated. They observed too that such factors as birth order, number of siblings and

parenthood responsibilities and parental education influence females’ access to educational

opportunities and control of resources negatively. The usual practice in African societies, as observed

by members, has been to give preference to the male children in the face of social and economic

constraints. For instance some males in the groups were of the opinion that given a choice to be

made between the male and female child in educational pursuits in the face of financial constraints,

they may opt for the male child. However, after further discussion, all groups members agreed that

other criteria such as the child’s academic performance and age should be considered, not gender.

Group members also observed that gender discrimination against the females had cultural

antecedence and that it was fading away with increased civilization. They even noted that it appeared

there are more females than males in most of our secondary schools now. Group members also

noted that some men are still violent against the females and suggested more effective education of

the people against such discriminatory practices.

22

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the summary of findings and discussion of the results.

5.1 Summary of Findings

The findings of this study are summarized as follows:

1. Before exposure to peace education (via filmed drama), the respondents had fairly positive

attitude towards gender equity in employment, human rights, and education, and a fairly

negative attitude towards health care.

2. After exposure to peace education, the respondents had much more positive attitudes

towards gender equity in all the sub-variables earlier mentioned.

3. Before and after exposure to peace education, the females had fairly more positive attitude

towards gender equity than the males.

4. There was a significant difference in the attitudes to gender equity in employment, human

rights, health care and education between the pre-test and posttest scores; meaning that the

treatment (i.e. exposure to peace education through filmed drama) produced significant

improvements in their attitudes towards gender equity.

5. Before exposure to peace education, there was a significant difference in attitude towards

gender equity between the males and females.

6. After exposure to peace education there was no significant difference in the attitude towards

gender equity between males and females.

5.1 Discussion of Results

5.1.1 Attitude of Youths to Gender Equity before Ex posure to Peace Education

The findings of the study showed fair to negative attitudes to gender equity prior to exposure

to peace education. This finding underscores the general observation in many quarters of the

existence of gender discrimination in many facets of life in our society. For instance, it agrees with

Ogueri and Nwankwo’s (2007) observation that women have been so neglected that they have

become very impoverished particularly in the rural communities. Discrimination in employment, health

care, education and human rights in general can have very disheartening consequences reflected in

23

poverty that must be addressed early in life such as suggested from this study. However, there has

been increasing awareness of the need to narrow the gap between the two sexes, which was very

wide in the distant past. This was one of the observations of the focus group discussants.

The study also showed that females were more disposed to gender equity than males before

exposure to peace education. Even during the focus group discussions, this picture was portrayed by

the discussants. Males tended to defend their gender roles and rights, as females did. But with more

information and explanations the gap narrowed towards the end of the discussion. This finding further

alludes to the importance of education in minimizing or even eradicating gender discriminations.

5.1.2 Attitude of Youths to Gender Equity after Exp osure to Peace Education

The study found out that there were significant improvements in attitudes to gender equity

after the respondents were exposed to the filmed drama. The role of education in changing behaviour

cannot be over-emphasized, particularly when the interest of the learners are captured by the kind of

education they are exposed to. Peace is an issue that touches the lives of people on a daily basis,

involving resolving conflicts, clarifying values and understanding diversity (Duffy, 2009).

Education that borders on such an issue would normally be of interest to people if well

presented. The choice of filmed drama therefore, was borne out of the general interest youths have in

drama, which usually translates into modelling some of their behaviour after some actors, actresses

and actions. In the filmed drama, the discrimination practices were exposed and debunked,

particularly in education, health care, employment and human rights. This obviously influenced the

post-test attitude of the respondents who significantly improved on their attitude towards gender

equity.

As regards the post-test attitudes of males and females measured with respect to sex, there

was no significant difference between them, contrary to what was found prior to the exposure. After

the exposure, males no more significantly from females in their attitudes. Both had obviously learnt

the need to honour each other. Even though the mean scores of females’ attitudes was marginally

higher than that of the male respondents, the difference was not statistically significant, still lending

credence to the effectiveness of the peace education they were exposed to.

24

5.2 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:

1. Ministries of Education and their relevant parastatals should develop peace education

curriculum and integrate same into the Nigerian school curriculum right from the primary

school level. The integration need not take the fashion of introducing a separate subject but

integrating the concepts into the relevant subjects such as Social Studies and the newly

introduced Values Education.

2. The didactic methods of teaching the social sciences including the newly introduced peace

and conflict studies in tertiary institutions should be complemented with more student-oriented

methods such as role play, drama, and the like to ensure relevant attitudinal change. These

participatory and interest-stimulating methods should be employed at all levels of education,

starting from the nursery/primary level. It is note-worthy that attitudes may not readily change

by just talking to people (or learners) but by the experiences they acquire through creating

such learning situations in which the learner can confront value judgements and examine his

own attitudes.

3. Massive education of the public on issues of peaceful co-existence between the sexes should

be undertaken at all levels of education and communities, using drama just as some

programmes like action against human trafficking is discouraged via drama in the media.

5.3 Limitations of the Study

One key limitation of the study was the difficulty of securing more periods of time from the

busy school time-table to expose the respondents to the treatment, that is the filmed drama. It was

difficult to secure more than three sessions for each set of students to be exposed to the filmed

drama and its accompanying discussions. However early instructions were given to the students so

as to secure their attention in the sessions used for the treatment. This was to maximize the usage of

the sessions given the time constraints.

5.4 Suggestions for Further the Study

The following are suggested for future studies:

1. A longitudinal approach is suggested whereby a smaller sample can be exposed to a series of

25

filmed drama over a long period of time, say three or more months to ascertain attitudinal

change.

2. Apart from filmed drama, subjects may be exposed to other related activities such as role play

and case studies in peace education and their effects measured.

3. Researchers in education could design simulation games on the subject of gender equity and

employ same in a study to determine its potency in engendering attitudinal change.

5.5 Conclusion

One general conclusion that arose from the study is that attitudes can be modified through

adequate education. Specifically, peace education is a potent tool for effecting improvement in

attitudes to opposite sexes, particularly the females. Moreover, observation of films or video-taped

behaviours of persons for some time can engender attitudinal change, such as witnessed in this

study.

26

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ANNEXURE I

Questionnaire on Peace Education and Gender Equity (PEGEQ) Dear Respondents, This study is conducted to ascertain the role of peace education in fostering gender equity in employment, education, human rights and health care. Your candid response to the underlisted items will be highly appreciated and treated in strict confidence.

SECTION A (1) Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] (2) Age: 12 – 15 [ ] 16 – 18 [ ] 19 and above [ ] (3) Class: (4) Name of School:

SECTION B Please tick ( ) the column that best expressed your opinion on the items provided. Key: SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree.

S/N Items Employment/Work

SA A D SD

5 Women should be paid less salary than men. 6 Women’s larger share of reproductive work should not be valued. 7 Men should be paid more then women for performing the same task

for pay.

8 Women should be paid more than men for performing the same task for pay.

9 Women are not productive at work. 10 Men are not productive at work. 11 Only men should be allowed to work. 12 Women should also work. 13 Men should be paid less than women. 14 Women should work more in the kitchen.

Human Rights

Men and women have equal right to: 15 Vote during election. 16 Respect to physical body. 17 Hold public office. 18 Work. 19 Fair wages (equal pay). 20 Own property. 21 Education. 22 Serve in the military. 23 Enter into legal contact. 24 Privileges in the marital home. 25 Parental privileges. 26 Religious privileges. Health Care

27 Female genital circumcision is a good practice. 28 It is the man’s right to beat a woman. 29 Rape can be allowed in some circumstances. 30 Men are free to undergo emotional torture. 31 Women are free to undergo emotional torture. 32 There is nothing wrong with forced prostitution. 33 Women trafficking is a good practice. 34 Men trafficking is a good practice.

29

S/N Items Education

SA A D SD

35 Government should make education compulsory for male children alone.

36 Female education should not be encouraged. 37 Female should not read up to Ph.D level. 38 Gender equality should not be encouraged in education. 39 It is a waste of time to educate female children. 40 A woman who follows a career can rarely expect to have a happy

home

41 It does not make sense to make a large investment in a woman’s education, because she is likely to marry and not use her advanced training.

42 A wife’s career is just as important as her husband. 43 Woman’s place is in the home. 44 Every woman is free to take to the career of her choice.

30

ANNEXURE II

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT: THE FILMED DRAMA ON GENDER EQUITY

ACT ONE

The first scene is that of a family in which the female child is very promising academically,

having performed well in her secondary school and has gained university admission, while the male

child is academically weak and can not obtain the necessary credits in his school certificate

examination. But their father favours the male child and does not allow the girl to proceed to the

university, saying she should rather prepare for marriage. When the mother intervenes, she is beaten

by the husband. The girl is not happy about her father’s behaviour but sympathizes with her brother

and encourages him to work harder.

Interlude: A short interactive session with the respondents to examine the lessons from the film.

ACT TWO

In another scene, the father makes an arrangement to hire out one of his little girls to serve

someone in the town at a token fee. The lady trafficker conveys this girl in a bag, disregarding her

health. But she is intercepted on the way by officials of National Action Against Human Trafficking,

following a report by the girl’s mother.

Interlude: Short interactive session with the students.

ACT THREE

This consists of an office scene in which applicants of both sexes are interviewed for

employment. The girl applicant performs better than the boy but the boy insists that he should be

favoured instead of the girl, trying to bribe his way in through a friend. But the manager insists on

excellence and decides to employ the girl.

Interactive Session: The respondents are asked to express their feelings about the drama and the

researchers respond accordingly and make their contributions.