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Final Report Study to review the configuration of the 450-470MHz Band in the UK
December 2008
abc
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Ofcom Riverside House 2a Southwark Bridge Road London SE1 9HA
STUDY TO REVIEW THE CONFIGURATION OF THE 450-470MHZ BAND IN THE UK
December 2008
Issue and Revision Record
Rev Date Originator
Checker
Approver
Description
1 29 February 2008 Mark Redman Sean Kennedy Susan Sweet Final Draft
2 21 July 2008 Mark Redman Sean Kennedy Susan Sweet Revision
3 16 December 2008 Sean Kennedy Susan Sweet Susan Sweet Final
This document has been prepared for the titled project or named part thereof and should not be relied upon or used for any other project
without an independent check being carried out as to its suitability and prior written authority of Mott MacDonald being obtained. Mott
MacDonald accepts no responsibility or liability for the consequences of this document being used for a purpose other than the purposes for
which it was commissioned. Any person using or relying on the document for such other purpose agrees, and will by such use or reliance be
taken to confirm his agreement to indemnify Mott MacDonald for all loss or damage resulting there from Mott MacDonald accepts no
responsibility or liability for this document to any party other than the person by whom it was commissioned.
To the extent that the report commissioned is to be based on information supplied by other parties, Mott MacDonald accepts no liability for
any loss or damage suffered by the client, whether contractual or tortious, stemming from any conclusions based on data supplied by parties
other than Mott MacDonald and used by Mott MacDonald in preparing this report.
Mott MacDonald Ltd Information, Communications and Media Division
Victory House Trafalgar Place Brighton
BN1 4FY United Kingdom
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About the authors
Mott MacDonald prepared this report for the Office of Communications (Ofcom). Mott
MacDonald, wish to thank Ofcom for their assistance and for providing expert comments on
the draft. We also wish to thank the Stakeholders who participated in our interviews and
questionnaires.
This report represents the work of Mott MacDonald Ltd and does not necessarily represent
the views of Ofcom or any other group.
abc
Mott MacDonald is a world-class multi-disciplinary engineering,
management and development company delivering solutions
touching many facets of everyday life – from transport, energy,
building, water and the environment to health and education,
industry and communications. Further information can be found at
www.mottmac.com
ATDI is a radiocommunications software components solution
provider providing radio networking planning and consultancy with
a focus on radio and the technologies and systems that use radio
spectrum. Further information can be found at www.atdi.co.uk
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List of Contents Page
0 Executive Summary 1
0.1 Introduction 1
0.2 UHF2 Band in the UK 1
0.3 Regulatory Environment for UHF2 2
0.4 UHF2 Technology and Market 3
0.5 UHF2 Stakeholders 3
0.6 Interference in the UHF2 Band 4
0.7 Cost Benefit Analysis of different Options for the UHF2 Band 5
0.8 Recommendations 6
1 Introduction 8
1.1 Aims and Scope 8
1.2 Background 9
1.3 Catalyst for change 9
1.4 Overview of this study 10
2 Spectrum Management of the UHF2 Band 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 UHF2 Band in the UK 11
2.3 Types of service 11
2.4 Licences 14
2.5 Users in UHF2 band 17
2.6 Geographic and User Split 21
2.7 Summary & Conclusions 24
3 Regulatory Environment 25
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 25
3.3 European Regulatory Framework 25
3.4 Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) 26
3.5 UK Regulatory Environment for UHF2 29
3.6 Summary & Conclusions 31
4 Technology and Market 32
4.1 Introduction 32
4.2 Technology and Services 32
4.3 Projected Sales of PMR Terminals 38
4.4 Summary & Conclusions 40
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5 Reconfiguration drivers and challenges 41
5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Drivers and challenges for band alignment 41
5.3 Stakeholders current views on the UHF2 band 42
5.4 Summary & Conclusions 46
6 Interference environment 47
6.1 Introduction 47
6.2 Interference challenges for UHF2 spectrum 47
6.3 Analysis of the continental interference environment 48
6.4 Analysis of the affects of interference in different spectrum configurations 50
6.5 Economic evaluation of Interference 54
6.6 Future interference environment 55
6.7 Summary & Conclusions 57
7 Economics, Costs, Demands and Benefits of Reconfiguring the UHF2 band 58
7.1 Introduction 58
7.2 Measuring Costs and Benefits of UHF2 spectrum reconfiguration 58
7.3 Methodology for measuring the costs and benefits of Band Alignment 62
7.4 Review of previous research on the costs of band alignment 63
7.5 Review of previous research on the benefits of band alignment 68
7.6 Distribution of costs and benefits 76
7.7 Summary & Conclusions 77
8 Options development and CBA 80
8.1 Introduction 80
8.2 The options for band alignment 80
8.3 The major cost and benefit categories 80
8.4 Interference Costs and Benefits 87
8.5 Results 89
8.6 Conclusions 97
9 Conclusions and Recommendations 99
9.1 Introduction 99
9.2 Summary of Findings 99
9.3 PEST Analysis 102
9.4 Summary of Conclusions 103
9.5 Recommendations 104
Appendix A: Stakeholder Engagement A-1
Appendix B: Interference B-1
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Appendix C: UHF2 Interference Regulation C-1
Appendix D: Modelling Interference D-1
Appendix E: Narrowband Interference Modelling Results E-1
Appendix F: Wideband Interference Modelling Results F-1
Appendix G: Spectrum Trading and Liberalisation Modelling G-1
Appendix H: Cost Benefit Analysis Assumptions H-1
Appendix I: Glossary I-3
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0 Executive Summary
0.1 Introduction
This report presents the findings of a study on the configuration of the UHF2 band (450-
470MHz), undertaken for Ofcom by Mott MacDonald Ltd and ATDI Ltd. The configuration of
the UHF2 band in the UK is not harmonised with its European neighbours, leading to
challenges around continental interference and the introduction of digital technologies.
The opportunity presented by the Emergency & Public Safety Services vacating most of its
use from the UHF2 band, recent technological and regulatory changes means that now is
the right time for a policy review to ensure the highest value use of the UHF2 spectrum.
0.2 UHF2 Band in the UK
The UHF2 band supports a number of business and mission critical systems. The
configuration of the spectrum enables the deployment of on-site systems, wide area systems
and national/regional systems for use by land mobile services. The UHF2 spectrum in the
UK is suited to narrow band systems with channel spacing ranging from 6.25 kHz to 25 kHz,
due to the configuration and management of the band. The benefits of this spectrum are
realised by both businesses and public safety organisations.
Emergency and Public Safety Services
(E&PSS);
Scanning Telemetry (ST);
Business Radio (BR), including Maritime
radio on board ships;
Programme Making and Special Events
(PMSE);
Short Range Devices (SRD).
BR
33%
ST
10%PMSE
20%
E&PSS
32%
SRD
5%
We concluded the following main points concerning the UHF2 band:
���� Spectrum used in the UHF2 band in the UK supports the operation of multi-
billion pound businesses which benefit from the use of the spectrum in its
current configuration and any disruption to the full time operation of these
systems could result in very costly and very complex changes to critical
national infrastructure;
���� There is high utilisation of the UHF2 band with a growing number of licensees
with thousands of mobiles operating in the band. This indicates the demand
for use of the band and cost effectiveness as an attraction for business type
use;
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���� The current configuration of the band is complex with many small fragmented
portions spread throughout the band in a reverse aligned arrangement. The
large number of duplex splits makes network development difficult and limits
use to narrowband type systems, excluding wideband systems.
0.3 Regulatory Environment for UHF2
The regulatory environment has moved at a fast pace and will continue to do so, with Ofcom
introducing liberalisation and trading policies, coupled with simplification of the licensing
processes. These changes have in effect handed much of the future re-configuration of the
UHF2 band into the hands of the market by enabling the configuration of the band to be
managed by licensees within the regulatory framework set by Ofcom. In addition, we drew
the following main conclusions:
���� The 450-470MHz band will become an IMT-2000 band, where IMT2000
wideband technology may be deployed in neighbouring countries in the
future, which may increase interference received from the continent. The UK
will need to ensure that its services in the band are protected from
interference;
���� Liberalisation and Trading will be established as a market mechanism for the
market to decide how the band should be used in the future, allowing
licensees the opportunity to re-configure the band as they wish;
���� Most of the UK’s continental neighbours have adopted ECC Recommendation
TR25-08, but the UK has not adopted this Recommendation, which could lead
to co-ordination problems in the future, thereby necessitating the need for the
UK to proceed with developing an MoU in the UHF2 with its continental
neighbours;
���� The 6-month notice period set by Ofcom for Band Alignment of the UHF2
band still remains an issue that is outstanding and would need to be
addressed to give stakeholders certainty on their security of tenure in the
band.
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0.4 UHF2 Technology and Market
The market has risen to the challenge of un-harmonised spectrum by introducing either
flexible digital technology in the form of DMR or indeed has altered existing TERTA products
to fit the UK specific configuration. The diagram below illustrates that either DMR or TETRA
will meet the demands of all market sectors for narrowband technology, where it is expected
that the market will effectively churn
from analogue to digital rather than a
growth in overall market. However,
the introduction of wideband
technology will remain difficult owing
to the lack of aligned contiguous
spectrum with the necessary
spectrum masks.
We concluded the following main points on UHF2 technology and markets:
���� For the introduction of narrow band digital technology, a 10MHz duplex split is
no longer required;
���� Digital PMR technology will out sell analogue over the next two years in the
UHF bands;
���� DMR will be the digital narrowband technology of choice over the next few
years, which will increase capacity of networks, with users benefiting from
new features;
���� There is a market for narrowband Digital PMR technology in the UK now and
in the future;
���� CDMA450 is seen as a technology to deliver 3G services to rural areas.
0.5 UHF2 Stakeholders
We conducted stakeholder interviews from a cross section of the industry on what the future
policy of the UHF2 spectrum should be, where we drew the following conclusions:
���� The original drivers for the alignment project are mainly irrelevant in the light
of new regulation and technology development. The main drivers are now
economic benefit and interference which will be reviewed in the following
chapters;
���� The future spectrum manager of the E&PSS will have a key role to play in the
future re-configuration of the UHF2 band as they will manage the largest
amount of clear spectrum for potential re-assignment;
Market Catagories Vertical Markets EuropeanDigital Radio Standards
European Analogue Standards
Public Safety/ Mission Critical
Professional/ Business Critical
Commercial & Light Industrial
Emergency Services
Public Transport
Airports/Ports Utilities
Local Government
Mining
Petrochemical
Manufacturing
Taxi/Logistics
Construction Radio Hire
Private Security
Retail
Hospitality
Warehousing
Agriculture
TETRA: Release 1
DMR Tier 1: Licence Exempt
DMR Tier 2: Licensed Conventional
DMR Tier 3: Licensed Trunked
TETRA: Release 2 (TEDS)
CDMA: PAMR
PMR446
Standard PMR (EN 300 086)
MPT 1327 & Standard PMR
Other technology
TETRAPOL
Military
TIA Project 25
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���� There is a demand for narrowband technology, which does not need to be re-
configured;
���� The introduction of wide band systems, would probably need at least 2 x
5MHz and would need a review of the adjacent channel and international co-
ordination measures to make it attractive to new entrants;
���� Stakeholders would like clear guidance on the future policy of the UHF2 band;
���� Operators of mission critical services within the band would need a
compelling reason and assurances for funding the re-configuration of the
band and would also need to develop mitigation techniques to avoid
interference risks to their services;
���� There is little appetite for any re-configuration within the band from incumbent
licensees.
0.6 Interference in the UHF2 Band
We reviewed current and future interference scenarios that could potentially impact services
in the UHF2 band. We also looked at the procedures that are in place to manage
interference both nationally and internationally. The main element from our analysis was the
geographical area covered in the UK by continental interference, this interference raises the
noise floor by 3dB and gives an indication of how interference impacts coverage areas – see
the diagrams below.
Through our analysis of the interference environment, we concluded the following main
points:
���� There is significant interference from the continent into UK base station
receivers when modelling the current realistic scenario (UK CEPT reversed
with 1% time and Base station antenna is 30m agl);
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���� The effect of interference on service area to narrowband systems is around
70% of the noise for which the following coverage areas are lost due to the
noise; 30% in the south of England, 0% in the Midlands and 1% in the North;
���� The UK would benefit from a Memorandum of Understanding for the UHF2
band over and above the procedures contained in the HCM agreement;
���� The introduction of wide band systems into the UHF2 band would have a
dramatic effect on the existing narrow band users not only in the trading
coordination aspect but also in the noise levels rising from 3 to 8dB
depending on the separation distance between the systems. These
degradations will change depending on the separation distances and
geographic terrain between the various co-channel systems;
���� There is an economic impact to the UHF2 band to consider if the UK were to
suffer significant continental interference;
���� Guard bands and geographical separation would be necessary if the UK were
to adopt partial alignment in some areas in the UK;
���� Users of UHF2 spectrum in the UK currently do not suffer continental
interference due to the low level of radio communications activity in the UHF2
band on the continent. It is has been found that if the UK were to become
CEPT aligned, any future potential interference could be greatly reduced.
0.7 Cost Benefit Analysis of different Options for the UHF2 Band
A number of options were used to carry out our Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) for the UHF2
band. From a case of a ‘do nothing option’ to ‘Partial alignment’. The results of this are
outlined in the table below.
Rank Net Benefit
1 Base case (do nothing) -
2 Partial alignment (narrowband) – Block C only -£2.1M
3 Partial alignment (narrowband) – other blocks -£6.7M to -£22.4M
4 Partial alignment (wideband) -£80M
5 Full alignment – managed -£189M
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The CBA was developed from previous studies commissioned by different organisations and
agencies such as the Government, the Radiocommunications Agency (RA) and Ofcom and
drew on information from recent auctions, information on new technology and the impact of
regulatory changes.
0.8 Recommendations
The Band Alignment project was withdrawn by Ofcom in 2004. This project was generally a
process of partial alignment steps, through which these steps are taken through the use of
vacant spectrum as a result of the Emergency Services migrating out of the band, for which
over a period of a few years would have resulted in full alignment. We do not believe that
this process would have been suitable to either industry or indeed Ofcom due to the
upheaval, uncertainty and cost over a long duration this would have had on industry. We
believe that if now Ofcom were to opt for partial or full alignment of the band, then the use of
an Overlay auction process would be attractive, allowing notice to be served on incumbents
of the UHF2 band and allowing the market the option to migrate to new services and new
spectrum. However, our analysis leads us to conclude that a policy of no regulatory
intervention should be maintained, due to the introduction of flexible digital technology, the
CBA results and the regulatory measures currently in place should enable the market to
reconfigure the spectrum should they wish.
Based on the findings of the report, we concluded that Ofcom should not manage any re-
alignment within the UHF2 band. We also recommend the following:
���� Ofcom should not directly intervene in any alignment of the UHF2 band and
should enable the market to align through market mechanisms such as
trading and liberalisation, assisting where necessary;
���� Ofcom should assist the E&PSS spectrum manager (Post 2009) in working
closely with UHF2 stakeholders in any re-configuration of the band;
���� MASTS should be modified or processes put in place to assess the impact of
aligning a channel within unaligned spectrum and amendments to the
algorithm for a guard band and geographical separation needed between co-
channel users. This tool should also be used to assist in any future re-
configuration of the band;
���� Ofcom should proceed with developing an MOU with the its continental
neighbours to avoid any future interference;
���� Ofcom must decide and communicate the future policy for the UHF2 band in
order to remove uncertainty over the band to users;
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���� Ofcom should continue to monitor interference that may be caused by any
future deployments of wideband networks from the Continent and the impact
this would have from current licensees;
���� If Ofcom does decide to proceed with alignment, we would recommend Partial
Alignment where users of the UHF2 band are least impacted and further
detailed analysis is carried out.
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1 Introduction
1.1 Aims and Scope
One of Ofcom’s key statutory duties is to ensure the optimal use of the radio spectrum under
its management. Radio spectrum is a major asset to the UK, contributing some £24bn to the
economy each year and underlying many aspects of our lives.
In line with its principal statutory duties, Ofcom seeks to further the interests of citizens in
relation to communication matters and to further the interest of consumers in relevant
markets, where appropriate, by promoting competition. In relation to spectrum management,
Ofcom is required to secure the optimal use of the spectrum.
Ofcom does not manage the entire spectrum as some bands are managed by the
Government for defence and other purposes.
In carrying out its spectrum management duties Ofcom has responsibility for:
���� Enabling the availability of spectrum;
���� Understanding current and future demand for spectrum;
���� Promoting efficient management and use of the spectrum;
���� Understanding the economic and other benefits arising from its use;
���� Facilitating the development of innovative services through the use of
spectrum; and
���� Facilitating competition in electronic communications services.
This study investigates and addresses at a high level the optimum balance between the
factors affecting the optimum management of the 450-470MHz (UHF2) spectrum.
Objectives and considerations include:
���� maximising the socio-economics benefit for the UK;
���� minimising regulatory intervention;
���� examining the impact of the adopted policy on the user community;
���� relating the objectives to Ofcom's market led management policy; and
���� taking into account the needs of industry.
This study builds upon previous studies and uses a methodical approach to the development
of future policy options for the spectrum management of UHF2.
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1.2 Background
The UHF2 band in the UK is occupied by two distinct communities: a wide variety of narrow
band business radio users and the Emergency and Public Safety Services operating mission
critical systems.
Prior to 2003, a key part of the UK’s spectrum strategy was alignment of the UHF2 band with
the rest of Europe1 and the Radiocommunications Agency (RA) initiated a project to align the
UHF2 band by 2006. This alignment would have significantly reduced the interference from
the continent into the UK, in particular in the coastal regions and on occasion in London and
the Midlands. Additionally it would have created the potential for the existing systems to grow
and enabled the introduction of new digital systems to facilitate more technical and
economically efficient use of the band.
In 2003, the RA, now part of the new communications regulator, Ofcom, was lobbied by the
industry to re-consider the UHF2 alignment project. Although the stakeholders understood
continental interference was a potential risk to the stakeholders operations, the cost and
disruption of alignment was seen as complex and prohibitive.
The alignment project was withdrawn in July 2004, due to industries’ concerns and the
approach not being in-line with Ofcom’s market approach to the management of spectrum2.
1.3 Catalyst for change
Since 2004, regulation and technology have moved on considerably, with Ofcom introducing
spectrum trading and liberalisation and the industry developing new innovative digital
technologies. In addition, the interference environment and how Ofcom quantifies this
through Spectrum Quality Benchmarking, the use of spectrum masks and latterly Spectrum
Usage Rights has now moved forward.
The UHF2 band currently has approximately 7MHz of spectrum allocated for Emergency and
Public Safety Services (E&PSS) use. Within the next 2 years, a significant portion of this part
of the spectrum will become unassigned owing to the majority of the current UHF2 E&PSS
users migrating onto the Airwave service. This migration of E&PSS to Airwave will leave a
considerable amount of UHF2 spectrum potentially available which could be re-assigned,
used as an aid to re-configuration through partial alignment or could assist any migration of
services through temporary assignment.
The opportunities presented by potential availability of E&PSS spectrum, technological
progress and regulatory change mean that now is the right time for a policy review of the
UHF2 band to ensure the highest value use of the spectrum.
1 CEPT Spectrum configuration as defined in ECC Recommendation TR25-08: www.ero.dk
2 Withdrawal of the Band Re-alignment Project: www.ofcom.org.uk/radiocomms/ifi/glines/pbr_cg/450_470_band_realignment
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1.4 Overview of this study
This project draws upon studies previously undertaken on the subject of band realignment
and supports the creation of a progressive approach to reviewing any reconfiguration of the
UHF2 band. The main challenges are explored and a method of assessing the Cost and
Benefits of chosen policy directions have been developed, taking into account concerns of
key stakeholders in this era of liberalisation and spectrum trading.
The study takes a three stage approach where we:
���� Understand the environment – Review the use of the UHF2 Band, the
regulatory environment, technical developments and assess the demand. In
addition, through key stakeholder engagement gain an understanding of any
challenges for re-configuration and explore any benefits. Stakeholders,
consulted or interviewed are listed at Appendix A.
���� Model the interference and Economics of UHF2 – The main challenges for
policy of the UHF2 band is the debate between interference and the
economics of policy decisions.
���� Draw conclusions and make recommendations - From the modelling and
understand and develop conclusions and recommendations for the future
policy of the UHF2 band.
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2 Spectrum Management of the UHF2 Band
2.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines how the 450-470MHz (UHF2 band) spectrum is used and services are
supported. We address key aspects of the licence regime used in the UK and the
complexities that exist due to the configuration of the spectrum. We also identify the main
industry sectors and stakeholders and discuss how they use the spectrum.
2.2 UHF2 Band in the UK
The UHF2 band supports a number of business and mission critical systems. The
configuration of the spectrum enables the deployment of on-site systems, wide area systems
and national/regional systems for use by land mobile services. The UHF2 spectrum in the
UK is suited to narrow band systems with channel spacing ranging from 6.25 kHz to 25 kHz,
due to the configuration and management of the band. The benefits of this spectrum are
realised by both businesses and public safety organisations.
2.3 Types of service
In the UK the UHF2 band contains many types of services that are categorised as follows:
���� Emergency and Public Safety Services (E&PSS);
���� Scanning Telemetry (ST);
���� Business Radio (BR), including Maritime radio on board ships;
���� Programme Making and Special Events (PMSE);
���� Short Range Devices (SRD).
Each service has its own spectrum allocation, within the UHF2 band. Figure 1 below, shows
the approximate percentage allocation by service.
Figure 1 UHF2 Band Allocations
BR
33%
ST
10%PMSE
20%
E&PSS
32%
SRD
5%
Source: Mott MacDonald
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2.3.1 Spectrum allocation and configuration
The UHF2 spectrum allocations are made up of different size blocks of spectrum for each
service. Each block is fragmented throughout the band as can be seen on the next page at
Figure 2, which shows the UHF2 band frequency allocations by service.
Figure 2 illustrates that the UHF2 spectrum configuration in the UK makes provision for
using dual frequencies and single frequencies. Dual frequency operation requires the use of
a duplex split (the frequency separation of a base station transmit frequency and a mobile
transmit frequency). The UHF2 band in the UK makes use of many duplex splits, however,
most of the UHF2 dual frequency channels are on 5.5 MHz and 6.5 MHz duplex splits.
The configuration of the UHF2 band in the UK is mainly the reverse of the European UHF2
allocation. This means the UK band is not in accordance with ECC recommendation T/R 25-
08 which recommends that the UHF2 band is formed of 1x10 MHz (450-460MHz) allocated
for Base Station Receive, and 1x10 MHz (460-470MHz) allocated for Base Station Transmit.
The European configuration of a single 10 MHz duplex split throughout the UHF2 band
makes efficient use of the spectrum and benefits from harmonisation throughout continental
Europe thereby limiting the probability of interference.
There are currently 48 different frequency duplex splits used within the band in the UK which
allows for a variety of different deployments, however we have found:
���� Approximately 16,500 assignments (including E&PSS) are duplex and would
have to retune to a 10 MHz duplex split if the UK were to move to the
European band plan.
Excluding E&PSS:
���� 10,250 assignments are duplex; of which,
� 2200 are the right way round (99% are 6.5 MHz, range 6.5 MHz – 17.8
MHz); and
� Approximately 8100 are the wrong way round (range 5.3 – 10 MHz).
���� 7400 assignments are simplex
���� 4 base stations have 10 MHz duplex split but are the wrong way round.
The diagram in Figure 2 and the statistics given above are indicative of the complexity and
high utilisation of the UHF2 band. If demand for use of this band increases, making
assignments and finding new frequencies will become increasingly difficult.
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Figure 2 UHF2 High Level UK Band Plan
Source: Mott MacDonald
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2.3.2 Spectrum management
The historical deployment of services in the UHF2 band with the many duplex splits has
helped enable the Business Radio community to meet the particular needs of businesses.
However, this has led to a complex UHF2 spectrum arrangement and the need for guard
bands. The guard bands aid the management of the spectrum and enable the different
services to co-exist. The guard bands provide sufficient protection between channels and
create a non-utilised, reserved set of spectrum allocating enough empty space so that users
either side of the guard band can operate without affecting each other. This spectrum
management technique is essential for making assignments to avoid harmful interference.
However, demand for spectrum will increase in the future and there will be a limit to how
much more spectrum will be available in the current configuration.
The fragmented allocations and variety of duplex splits in the UHF2 band make it extremely
difficult to deploy wide-band systems. This means that currently narrow band systems are
the only technologies accessing this spectrum. The variety of different services and
assignment types, discussed in Section 2.5, add another level of complexity for efficient
spectrum management.
2.4 Licences
Most business radio users requiring a licence must currently apply through Ofcom who
conducts the technical analysis and makes the frequency assignment. Recently Ofcom has
developed a licensing tool that enables new and existing licensees to apply for their licence
online. This facility eases the process of making new frequency assignments in the UHF2
band. In addition to Ofcom, spectrum is managed by other ‘Spectrum Managers’ that
provide the technical analysis to enable frequency assignments to be made. The UHF2
band has several band managers, the Joint Frequency Management Group (JFMG) for the
PMSE sector and the Joint Radio Company (JRC) and CSS Spectrum Management
Services for the Utilities sector. Spectrum Managers are expected to increase over the next
few years, with the next Spectrum Manger in the UHF2 band likely to manage the E&PSS
spectrum.
Ofcom publishes licence statistics to provide knowledge and an understanding of the amount
of spectrum that is occupied from year to year. The last set of published licence statistics for
Business Radio use within the UK was for 20063. This report provides an overview of the
latest business radio licence figures and spectrum availability. Key licence figures are
summarised in the following five tables.
3 Business radio licence class report for 2006:
www.ofcom.org.uk/radiocomms/ifi/licensing/classes/business_radio/information/brls06.pdf
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Table 1 provides information on the number of licences and mobiles for wide area Business
Radio licences operating in the UK.
Table 1 Business Radio Wide Area Licences 2005
Business Category Number of licences No of Mobiles
Ambulance & General Medical 260 5,657
Bus & Coach operators 97 25,213
Gas, electricity, coal & Nuclear 45 10,712
General (Wide Area Shared) 3,145 52,550
Local & Central Government 883 66,291
Motor/Pedal Cycle Despatch 126 7,810
Taxis & Private Car Hire 6,121 154,060
Water Industry 12 2,466
TOTAL 10,689 324,759
Table 2 shows the number of licences and mobiles for on-site Business Radio up to the end
of 2005 for Business Radio frequencies licensed to operate between 26 – 466 MHz.
Table 2 Business Radio On-site Licences 2005
Business Category Number of licences No of Mobiles
Ambulance & General Medical 955 10,274
Gas, electricity, coal & Nuclear 342 9,300
General (Single & Dual Frequency) 21,247 302,958
Local & Central Government 1,426 20,408
Water Industry 138 979
TOTAL 24,108 343,919
Table 1 and Table 2 show that for Business Radio:
���� Almost 60% of wide area mobiles are used by taxis and private car hire. This
represents about 40% to the total number of mobiles deployed in the UK.
Table 3 shows the number of mobiles deployed by the end of 2005 for wide area and on-site
licences. These numbers represent over 60% of the total number of mobiles deployed in the
UK.
Table 3 Number of mobiles in UHF2 band Licences 2005
Number of mobiles in UHF2 band
WIDE AREA LICENCE 24,712
ON-SITE LICENCE 184,082
TOTAL 208,794
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Table 4 below, shows for each type of use, the number of single and dual channels in the
453-462 block of the UHF2 band. It shows that the majority of single channels are available
for on-site shared systems, which typically includes single frequency data services such as
paging. Table 4 also shows that National channels account for almost 25% of all dual
channels available in 2005.
Table 4 Number of single and dual channels available in UHF2
UHF 2 453.00625-462.49375 MHz Single Dual
Wide area shared 0 15
On-site shared 57 30
National Public Mobile Data operators 0 14
National Channel users 1 41
Exclusive channel users 1 6
UK General 3 0
Short Term Hire 1 9
Parking and Demonstration 0 1
Short Term Hire/Parking and Demonstration 0 1
Limited availability channels 0 32
Split dual frequency channels 0 23
No assignments at present 8 36
TOTAL CHANNELS 71 208
Table 5 below shows the number of single and dual channels assigned for UHF2 licences at
the end of 2005. The majority of assignments were made for on-site licences which make up
over 80% of channels assigned in the UK.
Table 5 Number of single and dual channels for UHF2 Licences 2006
Band Dual Frequency
channels
Single frequency
channels
Total Channels
WIDE AREA LICENCE ASSIGNMENTS 78 1,169 1,247
ON-SITE LICENCE ASSIGNMENTS 8,174 5,915 14,089
NATIONAL & REGIONAL LICENCE ASSIGNMENTS
849 1,183 2,032
TOTAL CHANNELS 9,101 7,197 17,368
BAND Dual frequency channels
Single frequency channels
Total spectrum available (MHz)
UHF2 AVAILABLE CHANNELS 207 71 5.3250
The tables above demonstrate that due to the limited amount of spectrum allocated for
Business Radio, many licences and frequency assignments have been made which include
many hundreds of mobiles deployed. This suggests that there has been very intense use of
the UHF2 band corresponding with high demand, which can be seen from the number of
channels that are available in the UHF2 band for both wide area and on-site. The limit in
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spectrum will continue to make awarding licences very challenging and therefore careful
planning is required when making future assignments.
It is clear from tables 1 – 5 that the UHF2 band has been highly utilised and sought after for
business radio use, which could be a concern for the future. Should demand increase for use
of the band, channels will become scarcer and users may have to move to a less optimum
spectrum solution both in terms of cost and network requirements.
Previous land Mobile statistics suggest that licensing in PMR has reached a plateau. There
has been no noticeable increase in sales of PMR equipment or significant developments in
PMR equipment in the last few years. However, it is anticipated that these numbers will
decline with cellular networks attracting users of business radio using wide area networks
due to lower cost bundled minutes offering a more cost effective solution than a private
mobile network.
It is likely in the future that PMR users in the UHF2 band will remain using on-site networks
as a provision for their local communications rather than for wide area systems. On-site
networks for users in the UHF2 band are economical as minimal operational expenditure and
smaller capital outlay is required compared to wide area networks. Therefore, we believe
that wide area users of the UHF2 band business radio will begin to move to public mobile
networks, where their needs are met (i.e. balance of resilience/Facilities (group call)/Costs)),
with on-site users predominantly remaining with their service.
2.5 Users in UHF2 band
This section discusses the main industry sectors that use the UHF2 band and explains in
more detail how they use the UHF2 spectrum, why they have chosen to use the UHF2
spectrum and where they use UHF2 spectrum in the UK. We examine the following sector
users:
���� Emergency and Public Safety Services (E&PSS);
���� Scanning Telemetry (ST);
���� Business Radio (BR), including Maritime radio on board ships;
���� Programme Making and Special Events (PMSE);
���� Short Range Devices (SRD).
2.5.1 Emergency and Public Safety Services (E&PSS)
The Public Safety Spectrum Policy Group (PSSPG) currently dictates policy for the use of
the UHF2 band, and other bands, for the emergency and public safety services. The PSSPG
manages the spectrum policy for the spectrum assigned within the UK3 footnote included in
the UK Frequency Allocation Table (UKFAT)4.
4 UKFAT 2007: http://www.ofcom.org.uk/radiocomms/isu/ukfat/
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The E&PSS make extensive use of the UHF2 band. The 81 channel assignments for the
E&PSS make up approximately 30% of the allocated spectrum. The use of the spectrum by
the E&PSS varies between voice only wide area systems and on-site voice and data
systems.
The Fire and Rescue Services (FRS) use six incident ground communication channels and
one national inter-agency channel within the band. This use is for critical communications at
an incident where fire fighters can communicate with each other via their self-provided peer-
to-peer radios. Individual FRS’s hold their own licence enabling them to manage their own
communications effectively.
The Police use 49 channels nationwide in the UHF2 band for their variety of different
communications needs, such as emergency, events, inter-agency and training. The
migration of all these services onto Airwave in 2008/9 will result in the return of these
channels to the PSSPG. The Police and National Policing Improvement Agency (NPIA) are
planning the replacement or augmentation of the Airwave network for 2016 to include
wideband services, where UHF2 is under consideration for a band that could support such a
service.
The majority of E&PSS will be migrating their mobile communications provision in UHF2
band to the Airwave service in 2008/9. However, there are a number of users within the
E&PSS, for example the prison service and HM Customs and Excise, who are not moving on
to the Airwave network and will remain using the UHF2 band. Access to the spectrum for
these other non-emergency users will need to be maintained and consideration given to their
requirements for any re-configuration in the future.
2.5.2 Scanning Telemetry
The service provided by Scanning Telemetry allows the monitoring of critical national fuel
and power, water and non-utility services. The spectrum licensed for the operation of these
national networks is essential to maintain a safe, reliable and resilient service to the
businesses that use them and ultimately to the customers. Certain users of Scanning
Telemetry systems are integrated into the Critical National Infrastructure to ensure the
highest-level priority is given in case of major catastrophic events severely disrupting the
network.
The fuel and power services use 38 channels. Operating on a 24/7 basis there are
approximately 500 base stations deployed in the UK for the fuel and power network with
thousands of outstations which report their status every 2 minutes to the central control
room. This level of management is crucial should an incident occur in the network and allows
for a swift analysis and response to any incident. The network infrastructure has been
developed over many years to ensure national coverage is maintained and a reliable,
resilient service guaranteed.
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The water industry use 24 national core channels and the non-utilities use 8 channels. These
channels are available 24/7 for the safe and reliable operation of the national network. Using
approximately 500 base stations and over 10,000 outstations, this critical network monitors
and controls the operation of the water industries services to its customers. The current
spectrum configuration is suited to this type of narrow band use where high packing
densities are utilised to make the most use out of the spectrum.
The duplex split for Scanning Telemetry provides a suitable arrangement for the deployment
of services on a national basis.
The mission critical nature of the utility companies means that any future national spectrum
management policy decisions must be sensitive to these radio systems.
2.5.3 Business Radio (BR)
There are a large number of different users and types of usage within the UHF2 band for
Business Radio (BR). BR extends into many areas of business use, such as:
���� Logistics and services industry;
���� Power and Fuel industry;
���� Private Security services;
���� Transport services - private and public;
���� Media, Sport and Recreation.
BR systems are deployed across the UK and there are some national channel allocations
available to large organisations that require them. An example of a large organisation is
Network Rail, which has a national requirement for a secure, private communications
network. An organisation like this uses several narrowband channels on a national basis to
enable the safe and dedicated operation that is required.
The spectrum allocated for BR services is 5.325 MHz of UHF2 spectrum. The current
configuration in the UK is the reverse alignment with ERC Recommendation T/R 25-08. The
current consequences of this are minimal due to limited activity in Europe in the lower part of
the band, 450-460 MHz, and there is no significant impact to users at the moment. The
situation in Europe could potentially change and could in the future cause interference to
these services in the UK.
There are over 17,000 assignments operating BR within the UHF2 band. The implication of
this in relation to any re-configuration of the band has meant in the past that many users
would need to retune equipment, buy new equipment and possibly obtain new licences at
significant cost. However, selective partial re-configuration, which is planned effectively, may
now be practicable owing to technology advancement.
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2.5.4 Programming and Special Event (PMSE)
The Joint Frequency Management Group on behalf of Ofcom licenses Programme Making
and Special Events (PMSE) users in the UHF2 band. The main applications used within the
band are talkback systems together with some audio links, wireless cameras and airborne
systems.
The current configuration of the UHF2 band offers a flexible and robust spectrum
management arrangement to make efficient assignments. The duplex split in the UHF2 band
for PMSE enables many users to operate in the same vicinity on a time-shared basis, which
is the main attraction for PMSE users. PMSE users require spectrum on an ad-hoc basis, for
example for outside broadcasts.
PMSE spectrum is used on a nationwide basis and the requirement for immediate availability
underpins the need for a continued allocation in the UHF2 band.
2.5.5 Short Range Devices (SRDs)
The SRDs that operate in the UHF2 band do not impact other licensed users and are exempt
from requiring a licence to operate. The minimum requirements to operate a Short Range
device can be found in the UK Interface Requirement 2030 document.
Table 6 below shows the technical parameters implemented by short-range device
equipment in accordance with the ETSI harmonised standard EN 300 220.
Table 6 Short Range Devices in UHF2
Application Frequency
Range
ERP Channel
widths
Reference
Standard
Telemetry and Tele-
command
458.5 -
458.95MHz
500mW 12.5kHz,
25kHz
Medical and Biological
Applications
458.9625 -
459.1MHz
10mW,
500mW
12.5kHz,
25kHz
Mobile, Transportable
and Lone Safety Alarms
458.8375MHz 100mw 12.5kHz
Fixed Alarms 458.825MHz 100mW 12.5kHz
Model Control 458.5 -
459.5MHz
100mW 25kHz
EN300 220
Currently it is estimated by the European Commission that the short-range devices market
will be valued at around £15 billion by 2009 and SRDs operating in the UK in the UHF2 band
make up a significant proportion of that figure. This indicates further the intense use of the
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band for this type of service. Some users rely on SRDs for operation of non-critical
component parts of their business in the knowledge the spectrum and equipment are readily
available and they can purchase a device and use it immediately. It is this type of
deployment that is attractive to businesses and consumers alike and hence the large number
of devices in operation.
Licence exempt spectrum is identified as an attractive option for users in the UHF2 band and
in future, it is possible more applications will become licence exempt based on
recommendations made in a report from Ofcom on the economic value of licence exempt
spectrum5.
2.6 Geographic and User Split
Frequency planning and how the spectrum is assigned, ensures that spectrum is re-used
geographically, distributing licensees, often for the same type of services nationwide.
Stakeholders and Ofcom have both considered a possible alignment of the spectrum within
the UK borders, providing a geographical split between aligned and un-aligned spectrum.
We have provided a high-level view of the geographical distribution of licensed base-stations
that allows the identification of a significant geographical split between licensees to enable a
UK border of aligned/non-aligned spectrum.
The criteria that would enable a geographical user split are:
���� Identify areas of white space;
���� Minimum density of users affected;
���� Minimum population effect.
To introduce a geographical split certain mitigation requirements would need to be
considered, such as a 50 - 60km exclusion zone around the dividing line and the
consideration of any potential effects with the Fylingdales Radar system.
5 The economic value of licence exempt spectrum – Aegis, Ovum and Indepen December 2006
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Figure 3 and Figure 4 demonstrate the vast geographical distribution of data systems across
the UK. There is no large single area that could be geographically separated for alignment
for this type of use. Figure 3 shows both simplex and duplex operation for on-site and Figure
4 shows mainly duplex operation for wide area systems.
Figure 3 On-site speech
and data systems
Figure 4 Wide Area speech
and data systems
Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the usage distribution of wide area PBR and national and
regional PBR. Figure 5 illustrates the geographical distribution of wide area PBR licensees
are mainly used near or within the major conurbations. Most of Wales and the majority of
South West England do not use wide area PBR. National and regional PBR use is mainly
located in the South East with a high concentration of frequency paired use. Simplex use is
quite wide spread throughout the UK for regional and national PBR licences.
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Figure 5 Wide Area PBR Figure 6 National and
Regional PBR Figure 7 Public Mobile Data
Figure 7 shows the geographical separation between licensees using the public mobile data
service. There is a distinct natural geographical separation between users throughout the
UK, which is based on terrain shielding and a lack of assignments around this identified
boundary, show below at Figure 8.
Figure 8 Natural geographical boundary
Figure 8 shows a predicted geographical boundary based on the distribution of UHF2 users
in the UK that could separate the country for CEPT aligned and CEPT non-aligned use.
Analysis of the geographical boundary found that areas 60km either side of the boundary
line sterilises use of the UHF2 band and would mean including an exclusion zone that
extends south as far as Manchester and north as far as Glasgow. This level of exclusion of
use would not be an attractive option for separating the country for CEPT aligned and CEPT
non-aligned use and has been discounted as an option.
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2.7 Summary & Conclusions
This chapter has discussed the key aspects of UHF2 spectrum configuration and its use
within the UK. It can be concluded that:
���� Spectrum used in the UHF2 band in the UK supports the operation of multi-
billion pound businesses that benefit from the use of the spectrum in its
current configuration.
���� Disruption to the full time operation of these systems could result in very
costly and very complex changes to critical national infrastructure.
���� There is high utilisation of the UHF2 band with a growing number of licensees
with thousands of mobiles operating in the band. This indicates the demand
for use of the band and cost effectiveness as an attraction for business type
use.
���� It is likely that on-site services will remain in the UHF2 band whilst wide area
services not necessarily need to be a private network will diminish as they
move to cellular services for communication provision.
���� The current configuration of the band is complex with many small fragmented
portions spread throughout the band in a reverse aligned arrangement. The
large number of duplex splits makes network development difficult and limits
use to narrowband type systems, excluding wideband systems.
���� UHF2 licensees are geographically distributed across the UK utilising the
spectrum in different ways. This would make introducing a natural
geographical user split across the UK difficult, which was further confirmed by
our analysis.
���� The benefits in using the band in its current configuration are that secure,
reliable and resilient networks can be deployed creating the ability to make
many assignments as the UHF2 band is suited to narrowband systems.
���� It is possible a user split could be found in some areas of the UK for wideband
systems. However, further investigation would be necessary to determine if
any area would satisfy all the criteria for a user split and is beyond the scope
of this study.
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3 Regulatory Environment
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we review the current regulatory environment with a particular focus on the
following issues:
���� Actions at an international level including the ITU, European Commission and
the Electronic Communications Committee (ECC).
���� The development of the UK UHF2 regulatory environment.
3.2 International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
At the recent ITU World Radio Conference 2007, it was agreed that the 450-470MHz (UHF2)
band would be a recognised IMT-2000 band from early 2009. However, it is understood that
Western European regulators would be unlikely to entertain the use of IMT-2000
technologies in the UHF2 band in the near term owing to the incumbent narrowband use
within the band.
However, in all cases, allocations must comply with internationally agreed allocations defined
under the auspices of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and detailed in
Article 5 of the ITU Radio Regulations, if the service concerned is to be protected from
interference from other services in neighbouring countries. This effectively means that from
2009, the UK would need to protect IMT2000 services, either in the UK or internationally
from harmful interference.
3.3 European Regulatory Framework
The last decade has seen a series of regulatory measures resulting in progressive changes
in radio spectrum management and policy in the European Union (EU) through a series of
regulatory measures. These measures enabled decisions to be taken on the availability of
radio spectrum for relevant EU policies, providing legal confidence, mechanisms for radio
spectrum policy development, transparency on spectrum usage and a consolidated
European position in international radio spectrum fora.
The key objective of EU radio spectrum policy is to optimise the use of spectrum, to
maximise its value for society and to avoid harmful interference.6 Since February 2005, the
Commission has issued a number of policy statements aimed at promoting more flexible use
of spectrum and greater use of market approaches to spectrum management. The
Commission has emphasised the need for “a gradual but systematic liberalisation of radio
spectrum use”. As part of the i2010 initiative the Commission has presented a strategy for
advancing a single market for radio spectrum use in Europe. Recently, as part of the 2006
6 The Radio Spectrum Decision also refers to economic, safety, health, public interest, freedom of expression, cultural,
scientific, social and technical aspects of Community policies.
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review of the Regulatory Framework for Electronic Communications, the Commission has
signalled its intention to adopt legally binding instruments to:
���� Achieve the introduction of technology and service neutral spectrum use as a
default position (through the WAPECs concept);
���� Establish a committee process to identify selected bands for use under
general authorisation;
���� Develop a common framework for spectrum trading in the EU.
This strategy is aimed at ensuring a common approach within the EU to managing spectrum
resources that will allow innovators to place new technologies on the EU single market
quickly and with legal certainty. By putting in place a common framework across the EU the
costs to organisations of acquiring and using spectrum in Europe on a multi-national and
possibly a pan-European basis are expected to be reduced.
More recently, following two years of consultations with stakeholders, with national
regulators and with users of telecoms services, the Commission has proposed a review of
the telecoms framework7. The proposals are due to be debated in the European Parliament,
and by Member State governments in the Council. Once adopted by the EU the revised rules
have to be incorporated into national law before taking effect. The Commission expects the
new framework to be in place from 2010 onwards. The most pertinent part of the telecoms
framework proposals to this study is the ‘new deal for Radio spectrum’, where the
commission wish to drive a common approach to radio spectrum management, particularly
for the Digital Dividend. Although the proposals may be a radical change for some European
regulators, the proposals are in the main in line with the UK.
3.4 Electronic Communications Committee (ECC)
Historically, the approach to harmonising spectrum use in Europe has been predominantly
on the basis of Recommendations or Decisions issued by the ECC within CEPT. There are
certain exceptions, such as the spectrum allocated to DECT cordless phones, which is
mandated by an EC Directive. ECC Recommendations are limited in the extent to which they
can support harmonisation, as they are voluntary in nature and there is no obligation on
individual Member States to implement them. ECC Decisions carry greater weight, in that
once Member States have committed to implement the Decision they are obliged to
implement them, usually by means of transposition into national legislation or incorporation
into the national frequency allocation table. However, there is no obligation on Member
States to commit to ECC Decisions.
The ECC Recommendation T/R 25-08: ‘Planning criteria and coordination of frequencies in
the Land Mobile services in the range 29.7 – 960 MHz’ describes the UHF2 frequency band
7 Proposals for reform of the EU telecoms rules 13 November 2007:
http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/newsroom/cf/itemlongdetail.cfm?item_id=3701
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arrangement with a 10 MHz duplex split between base transmit and mobile transmit. This
can be seen at Figure 9 below.
Figure 9: UHF2 ECC Recommended Band Plan
This is the frequency arrangement to which the UK has been attempting to realign. The
contiguous nature of this European band plan has enabled the harmonisation of radio
equipment standards resulting in benefits to consumers in continental Europe. It is important
to note that the UK is not a signatory to this recommendation; however, the UK’s continental
neighbours, the Netherlands, Belgium and France are signatories, whilst Ireland is under
consideration. Twenty-five European Radiocommunications Office (ERO) members have
implemented this recommendation, while 21 members have not. However, four of these
members have either partially implemented or are planning to implement the
recommendation. These statistics demonstrate that most ERO members are signatories or
will be, but most importantly, our near continental neighbours are signatories, except Ireland.
This in effect means that whilst the UK is not necessarily co-ordinating according to the ECC
recommendation its neighbours are.
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Table 7 below is from ERO Frequency Information System (EFIS), which outlines the
frequency band, the type of allocations and associated applications for use within Europe.
Table 7: Frequency table from EFIS of 450 – 470 MHz band allocations and applications
FREQUENCY BAND ALLOCATIONS APPLICATIONS
450.0 - 455.0 MHz MOBILE On-site paging (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
PMR/PAMR (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
Analogue cellular (450.0 - 460.0 MHz)
455.0 - 456.0 MHz MOBILE On-site paging (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
PMR/PAMR (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
Analogue cellular (450.0 - 460.0 MHz)
456.0 - 459.0 MHz MOBILE On-site paging (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
PMR/PAMR (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
Analogue cellular (450.0 - 460.0 MHz)
On-board communications (457.525 - 457.575 MHz)
459.0 - 460.0 MHz MOBILE On-site paging (440.0 – 470.0 MHz)
PMR/PAMR (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
Analogue cellular (450.0 - 460.0 MHz)
460.0 - 470.0 MHz MOBILE On-site paging (440.0 – 470.0 MHz)
PMR/PAMR (440.0 - 470.0 MHz)
Analogue cellular (460.0-470.0MHz)
On-board communications (467.525 - 467.575 MHz)
A review of this table tells us that, PMR/PAMR and paging are consistent with the allocations
in the UK, whilst analogue cellular is probably historic, back to the NMT450 standard and is
therefore not an issue.
3.4.1 FM38
ECC working group FM38 has the remit of developing and reviewing ECC Decisions,
Recommendations, Reports and other deliverables on PMR/PAMR, Public Protection,
Disaster Relief and cross-border coordination issues based on the requests from Working
Group Frequency Management (WGFM).
FM38 are currently engaged in developing a new draft ECC Decision on the "harmonisation
of frequency bands for the implementation of digital Public Protection and Disaster Relief
(PPDR) radio applications in the 400 MHz bands". This draft ECC Decision covers frequency
bands for narrow band as well as for wide band PPDR radio applications.
Similar to ECC Decision (04)06 on Wide Band Digital PMR/PAMR this Decision will allow
flexibility and technology neutrality. It is important to note that the UK has not adopted this
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decision, but Ireland and the Netherlands have, with a commitment from France that they will
also adopt the decision.
Once this new ECC Decision on PPDR at 400 MHz frequency range is adopted, it is
expected that it will replace ERC Decision (96)01 on narrow band emergency services.
3.5 UK Regulatory Environment for UHF2
The status of the UHF2 band remains uncertain, as no decision has been made whether the
undertakings of the alignment project remain active:
���� Radiocommunications Agency, 450-470MHz Band Alignment Project
Information Sheet: “The alignment of frequencies will require the majority of
licensees to adjust or replace their existing equipment. Licensees will be
responsible for arranging replacement or re-tuning of their own equipment.
Service providers should be able to provide the expertise necessary for this
task. The Agency will notify all licensees individually of their new frequency or
frequencies and the date upon which this change will be implemented. The
intention will be to give six months notice of the date when the change is to be
given effect.”; and latterly
���� Ofcom, Withdrawal of the Band Re-alignment Project, Update on the
450-470MHz (UHF2) Band Alignment project: “Until further decisions are
made and communicated to stakeholders, the relevant licences should be
considered as remaining subject to the notices of re-alignment previously
issued by the RA/Ofcom.”
This last statement above effectively means that current UHF2 licensees could still be given
6 months notice to move from their frequencies even though the band alignment project was
withdrawn in July 2004.
The Spectrum Framework Review (SFR) Implementation plan8 amalgamated Ofcom’s
polices for Spectrum Trading and Liberalisation for the future spectrum management, with a
plan relating to specific sectors and spectrum bands. This document, together with the
statement on measures to liberalise and simplify business radio licensing in January 20079
(to be introduced after Q1 2008), will result in the reduction of the current twenty-one
business radio licence products to five. This exercise will result in a simpler licence product
structure enabling easier trading of rights and liberalisation by removal of service
segmentation of spectrum. One of the most significant changes is the introduction of a 5
year revocation notice period for licences, providing security of licence tenure. Table 8
8 Spectrum Frame work Implementation Plan: http://www.ofcom.org.uk/radiocomms/sfr/
9 A statement on measures to liberalise and simplify Business Radio licensing (including measures to extend trading):
http://www.ofcom.org.uk/consult/condocs/brtrading/statement/
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depicts the timetable for introduction of spectrum trading and the simplification of business
radio licenses.
Table 8 Timetable for the introduction of spectrum trading and licence simplification in UHF2
10
Onsite PBR(1) includes Onsite Speech and Data Systems and On site Hospital Paging and Emergencies Speech
Systems, Onsite PBR(2) includes On-site One-Way Paging
Source: Mott MacDonald
Although the SFR refers to spectrum trading being enabled for the E&PSS in 2006, it is
understood that this has subsequently changed to 200811
. This new date is likely to coincide
with the proposal for the introduction of Crown Recognised Spectrum Access (CRSA), which
is mentioned in the Independent Audit of Spectrum Holdings and the subsequent
Governments Response12
.
To date, with the licence products that have been made tradable, only one trade has
happened in UHF2, which was a simple ‘take-over’ of a licence. As a result, spectrum trading
and liberalisation have not had any significant impact on Business Radio in UHF2 to date.
However, the impact of these new liberalisation and simplification measures should further
remove regulatory barriers for self-configuration, by providing the license holder more
coherent rights, enabling the market to take the most appropriate action. It is therefore
considered that the impact of trading and liberalisation will become more significant in the
UHF2 band post 2008.
10
This table refers to published timescales and documents as of November 2007, which is subject to change. 11
Confirmed by PSSPG members 12
Independent Audit of Spectrum Holdings: http://www.spectrumaudit.org.uk
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3.6 Summary & Conclusions
This chapter has reviewed spectrum regulation at a high level from both an international
perspective (the ITU), through to national implementation (the UK). We make four main
points:
���� The 450-470MHz band will become an IMT-2000 band, which may in the
future ensure that the UK must protect these services from interference as
they could be deployed in neighbouring countries;
���� Liberalisation and Trading will become the norm with the market deciding the
future use of the bands, enabling the UHF2 licensees to reconfigure there
spectrum should they need to;
���� Most of the UK’s continental neighbours have adopted ECC Recommendation
TR25-08, which enables international co-ordination, but the UK has not
adopted this Recommendation, this could in time cause co-ordination
problems;
���� The UK regulation surrounding the UHF2 band, regarding the 6 month notice
period, remains an issue of uncertainty on security of tenure for stakeholders.
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4 Technology and Market
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we examine three issues with regard to technologies and services available
with UHF2 spectrum and provide potential market demand statistics. Understanding the
possible technology and service developments and future market demand will inform any
further policy recommendations. The issues covered are:
���� Technologies available for UHF2 spectrum including Digital Mobile Radio
(DMR), Tetra, Professional Mobile Radio (PRM) and associated services
such as mobile TV;
���� Market demand review of projected sales;
���� Future options for technology and service development.
We summarise our findings and provide conclusions at the end of the chapter.
4.2 Technology and Services
The technology available for the UHF2 spectrum falls into two high level categories;
���� Narrowband (=<25 kHz), low data rates (<10Kbps per channel) and long
range (>3Km) mobile communications, mainly used for voice that can be
networked.
���� Wideband (=>100 kHz) and high data rates (>100kbps) providing short range
(<5Km) mobile communications mainly used for data transmission that can be
networked.
Narrowband technology is used for voice and data services, such as Professional Mobile
Radio (PMR)13
, which is typically ‘owned’ or outsourced, for example, Airwave is an
outsourced closed network limited by a Sharers List14
for Emergency & Public Safety Service
(E&PSS) organisations. A PMR network is typically resilient due to both the technology and
the design of the network, designed to meet the coverage requirements of handsets or
mobiles (units located within a vehicle), where the benefits of the coverage of a narrowband
system are most profound.
The increased data usage together with the need for greater security has meant that the
E&PSS are moving towards digital15
mobile solutions with a TETRA based managed service
13
PMR is part of the land mobile service based on the use of simplex, half and possibly full duplex modes at the terminal level in order to provide closed user group communications. 14
http://www.ofcom.org.uk/radiocomms/ifi/licensing/classes/business_radio/emergency/2007/ 15
The term ‘Digital Radios’ is misleading as the radio equipment often employed using analogue radio standards is indeed using digital technology within the radios, allowing them to be fully programmable and have different user data modes. This pseudo- digital-analogue technology differs from the likes of DMR and TETRA that have an standardised air-interface employing TDMA techniques to increase capacity.
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from Airwave (380-400MHz). Potential non-civil adopters of TETRA (e.g. Airports) have been
limited to either using the Airwave service (if on the sharers list) or negotiating with Arqiva to
use the only non-civil UK spectrum within the tuning range of TETRA with a 10MHz duplex
split, and aligned with TR25/08. This recently awarded spectrum is 412-414MHz, paired with
422-424MHz. There is a further civil allocation of 10MHz duplex split spectrum found at 410-
412, paired with 420-422MHz, which is managed by the Public Safety Spectrum Policy
Group (PSSPG).
Historically digital PMR/PAMR technology that requires duplex split has generally been
10MHz in the CEPT TR25-08 configuration. However, we now have exceptions in Digital
Mobile Radio (DMR), a digital standard that can have varying duplex split and a few
manufacturers have recently started to provide TETRA at various duplex split (non-
standard). The technology currently used within UHF2 is predominantly PMR and paging
type services, which are spectrally very similar, at either 12.5 or 25 kHz channel split.
The introduction of the new DMR standard, with its three tiers (discussed in more detail in
Section 4.2.1), now offers the market a real distinct digital alternative to standard analogue
PMR; this can be seen below in Table 9. Prior to the introduction of DMR, only TETRA and
Project 25 narrowband digital technology was available. This was designed to serve the
E&PSS market and required the 10MHz duplex split, which is in short supply to non-civil
users. However, now the majority of the non-civil markets needs for digital PMR/PAMR can
be met by the DMR technology.
Table 9 Radio Technology and Addressable Markets
Source: Mott MacDonald
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The benefits of digital PMR over analogue PMR have, until recently, centred on the cost of
the equipment as analogue technology has been more cost effective. This was mainly due to
TETRA, TETRAPOL and Project 25 being the only realistic narrowband deployable
technologies. However, these technologies have focused on the Public Safety/Mission
Critical Markets and are usually not cost effective for Professional/Business Critical markets.
The price gap between digital and analogue PMR, and the lack of available 10MHz duplex
spaced spectrum in the UK, have until recently meant sales of digital PMR to the E&PSS
market only, as this market has access to the correctly configured spectrum.
The availability of UHF spectrum configured with a 10MHz duplex split as CEPT TR 25/08 is
as follows:
���� 380-400MHz and 410-12 paired with 420-422MHz managed by the PSSPG
for use by the E&PSS;
���� 412-414 paired with 422-424MHz, licensed to Arqiva16
.
However, recently manufacturers have produced TETRA standard equipment in the UK on
10MHz, reversed ERC Recommendation TR 25-08 (10MHz duplex spaced but the BS Tx is
opposite to TR 25-08) and 7MHz duplex split, allowing for on-site TETRA systems to be
deployed (e.g. Heathrow T5).
DMR has recently changed the paradigm from an inability to deploy digital services in UHF2,
to one that allows cost-effective digital radios, which have programmable duplex splits
allowing them to operate on the same channels as Analogue PMR. The DMR standard was
developed to replace Analogue PMR. This is a simple form-fit replacement as the two
technologies are spectrally the same, conforming to the same ETSI spectral requirements.
In effect, licensees of Analogue PMR can replace the equipment directly, employing the
same feeders, antenna systems and radio spectrum licence with DMR and benefit
immediately from the added features that digital technology brings.
The main benefit of both TETRA and DMR digital technology is a doubling of spectrum
efficiency using TDMA, allowing four voice channels on a 25 kHz channel for TETRA and
two voice channels on a 12.5 kHz channel for DMR.
The benefits of digital technology include:
���� Cost effective virtual-duplex operation, by using TDMA for forward and
reverse channels
���� Battery saving techniques, inherent within the protocol. (e.g. DMR has
approximately a 40% increase in battery life over analogue17
)
16
No permanent systems have been deployed yet in 412 MHz but they have numerous bids out to current and potential customers that will result in systems being deployed in 2008. 17
According to a leading manufacturer
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���� Call interruption.
See ETSI TR 102 39818
and TR 300-4 for a complete list of DMR and TETRA features.
4.2.1 DMR
The DMR standard covers three tiers of products:
���� Tier I – 6.25 kHz Channel split, which is PMR446 equivalent, is now legal in
the UK, for latest news see Ofcom web-updates19
���� Tier II – 12.5 kHz Channel split, employing 2 slot-TDMA, which is the
conventional PMR equivalent, peer-to-peer and through a repeater.
���� Tier III – 12.5 kHz Channel Split, employing 2 Slot-TDMA, which is the
trunked and quasi-synchronous/simulcast variant.
A leading manufacturer currently offers Tier II products, with a frequency tuning range of
403-470MHz and duplex split of 3.5, 5 and 10MHz. The duplex split(s) have been through
the approval process, but the duplex split is fully programmable, enabling most duplex splits,
particularly splits that currently exist within UHF2. In addition, the price gap between
analogue and digital radios has narrowed with DMR, with a typical terminal price being 20%
more expensive for DMR over analogue.
DMR Tier III, trunked products are expected to become available in 2008 and like Tier II
products will be available in any practicable duplex split.
4.2.2 PMR Technology Evolution to Higher Data Rates
Mobile Radio network design requires a balance between coverage capability and data
rates. Law’s of Physics determine the maximum data rate of a given channel and states that
the channel bandwidth will affect the data rate, amongst other factors. Therefore, for higher
data rates additional spectrum is required and/or new, innovative modulation and coding
schemes.
The two most prevalent PMR/PAMR technologies capable of providing higher bandwidths to
meet the operational requirements for a self-provided, or potential out-sourced operator
provided network are TETRA release 2 and CDMA450.
i. TETRA Evolution
TETRA Release 1 is a digital trunked mobile radio standard developed by ETSI. The TETRA
standard was developed to meet the needs of traditional PMR user organisations, in
particular the E&PSS feature requirements and specific security issues. The TETRA
standard has been developed over a number of years and continues to evolve.
18
Digital Mobile Radio (DMR) General System Design ETSI TR 102 398, available from www.etsi.org 19
DMR446 update http://www.ofcom.org.uk/consult/condocs/wireless_exemption/statement/
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The significant developments in TETRA Release 2 consists of the following:
���� Trunked Mode Operation (TMO) Range Extension;
���� Adaptive Multiple Rate (AMR) Voice Codec ;
���� Mixed Excitation Liner Predictive, enhanced (MELPe) Voice Codec;
���� TETRA Enhanced Data Service (TEDS).
The most significant development, in terms of the emerging requirement for greater
bandwidth, is TETRA Enhanced Data Service (TEDS). This is a High Speed Data (HSD)
service dynamically using multiple RF channel bandwidths and data rates for flexible use of
PMR frequency bands. TEDS is fully compatible with TETRA Release 1 and allows for ease
of migration. The RF channel bandwidths supported in TEDS are 25, 50, 100 and 150 kHz
and when using the 4 TDMA slots in the channel, the maximum data rates in Table 10 can
be achieved.
Table 10 TEDS Packet Data Throughput (Kbps)
Channel Widths Modulation
25kHz 50kHz 100kHz 150kHz
π/4 DQPSK 15.6
π/8 D8PSK 24.3
4-QAM 11 27 58 90
16-QAM 22 54 116 179
64-QAM 33 80 175 269
64-QAM 44 107 233 359
64-QAM 66 160 349 538
The perception in the communications industry is that the first major users of TETRA TEDS
will be the E&PSS networks, which in the UK is a managed service through Airwave using
TETRA Release 1, utilising spectrum at 380-385, 390-395MHz. However, this band does not
have any capacity for implementation of additional TEDS channels. If TEDS was to be
implemented in the UK for the E&PSS, the spectrum configuration would need to be CEPT
TR25/08 aligned and an estimated 2x10MHz of spectrum would be required to meet the
capacity requirements.
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Assuming that an E&PSS network operator enters the market for TEDS products, they will
be available during the next 2 years, according to the TETRA MOU. The real market uptake
will depend on whether governments allocate budgets to TEDS, particularly having just
invested in narrowband TETRA networks. Market uptake could also be promoted if new
E&PSS communication network projects invest in TETRA TEDS right from the start (and
have the right spectrum assigned soon).
ii. CDMA – PAMR
The air interface used in CDMA-PAMR20
is known as CDMA 2000 1x. This is specified in the
relevant parts of the TIA standards IS-2000.1 to IS-2000.5, and the radio performance is
specified in IS-97 and IS-98. CDMA-PAMR is designed for use in the frequency bands 410-
430 MHz, 450-470MHz, and 870-876/915-921 MHz. A separation of 1.25MHz is employed
between centre frequency carriers of adjacent CDMA-PAMR carriers, with a minimum of 1
channel required for a network, but typically a minimum of two channels (2 x 2.5MHz) are
required. This standard is capable of 307kbps from the Base to mobile (downlink) and
153kbps in the uplink. This is achieved by adding multiple channels (9.6 or 14.4kbps)
together to achieve higher data rates. There is an upgrade path as 3G services evolve to
higher data rates (2.4Mbps) and more importantly, CDMA-PAMR is deemed more spectrally
efficient and therefore has greater capacity per MHz than TETRA TAPS and GSM-R
according to ECC Report 4221
.
From a European perspective 19 CDMA450 networks have already been deployed with a
further 8 others planned (source www.450world.org, Oct 2007).
The majority of these networks operate in "Block A", which covers 452.5 - 457.5 / 462.5 -
467.5 MHz (with standard CEPT 10MHz duplex split). The planned Irish CDMA450 network
will not be deployed in UHF2, but in UHF1 410-430MHz, so should not cause continental
interference into the UK at UHF2. It is understood the licensee of the potential CDMA450
network in Ireland wishes to obtain spectrum in Northern Ireland to provide a seamless
network, with UHF2 being a candidate band.
CDMA450 technology now offers a dual band scheme, 450MHz and 2100MHz to provide an
upgrade to 3G services to extend coverage into rural areas.
4.2.3 Mobile Television
Mobile Television is a service in the UK, which is in need of appropriate spectrum. The
Digital Dividend may provide access to the appropriate spectrum, but spectrum is unlikely to
be made available until 2012.
The main frequency bands for Mobile Television are:
20
CDMA PAMR – Code Division Multiple Access – Public Access Mobile Radio: for details see the ETSI SRDoc submitted to FM38 at: http://www.nodnett.no/FILES/FM38(2002)81-SRDoc_for_CDMA-PAMR_V0.1.1.pdf 21
Spectrum Efficiency of CDMA-PAMR and other Wideband systems for PMR/PAMR, Granada, February 2004
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���� VHF (170-230 MHz, or a portion of it);
���� UHF-IV/V (470-862 MHz, or a portion of it);
���� L (1.452-1.492 GHz).
The three most prominent technologies, DVB-H, DMB and MediaFLO, require dedicated
spectrum. DVB-H is available in all three bands, DMB is available in VHF-III and L Band, and
MediaFLO is available from 450MHz - 3GHz.
Therefore the most likely candidate technologies for use in the 450-470MHz band, for
supplying Mobile Television, are DVB-H and MediaFLO, which each have a channel split of
5, 6, 7 or 8MHz. However, none of these technologies have been manufactured for the 450-
470MHz band and are unlikely to be deployed in this band owing to global economies of
scale. Therefore, it is unlikely that Mobile television technologies will be deployed within the
UHF2 band.
4.3 Projected Sales of PMR Terminals
Ofcom commissioned a bespoke market research report in November 2007, which focused
on the market for UHF2 terminals. The objective of the report was to provide evidence from
the market as to whether Digital PMR is seen as a replacement for analogue PMR. We
summarise the results in this section.
4.3.1 European Market
The PMR industry is predicted to ship 33% more Digital UHF terminals in Europe, over the
period 2006 – 2010. Analogue shipments will decrease over the same period by 6%.
Therefore in 2008, digital shipments of UHF PMR terminals will eclipse analogue shipments
for the first time.
The shipment of Digital UHF2 PMR terminals in Europe is predicted to rise by 42% over the
period 2006-2010, whilst analogue shipments will decrease over the same period by 5%.
This means that during 2009, digital shipments will eclipse analogue in the UHF2 band.
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4.3.2 UK Market
The UK market for terminals in the rest of UHF can be seen below at Figure 10, where digital
terminals will see an increase of 16% over the period, with analogue terminals will decrease
over the period by 5%.
Figure 10 UK Market for UHF terminals
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
Un
its S
hip
ped
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Analogue Digital
Source: IMS Research
The UK market for terminals in UHF2 can be seen below Figure 11, where digital terminals
will see a rapid increase over the next 4 years, with analogue terminals decreasing over the
period by 5%.
Figure 11 UK UHF2 Terminals
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
Un
its S
hip
pe
d
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Analogue Digital
Source: IMS Research
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4.3.3 UK Market Analysis
This market review includes Analogue and Digital (Tetra, Tetrapol, P25, Iden, DMR) and
excludes PMR446 or dPMR446.
The forecasts for the UHF2 band have assumed no frequency band will be allocated for
TETRA in the UHF2 band (if not on a limited/local basis) and that people will therefore opt
for a DMR Tier 2 (or Tier 3) solution for the band.
It is IMS Research's opinion that as much as 80 -90% of the growth in the UHF2 band will be
DMR (starting end 2007). This assumes that no nationwide UHF2 band is allocated to
TETRA for civil/commercial use.
4.4 Summary & Conclusions
This chapter has covered the current wide and narrow band technologies that could be
potentially used in the UHF2 band. Also by looking at market forecasts, we have determined
the likely uptake of Digital vs Analogue PMR terminals over the next 3 years in UHF2.
We have the concluded the following:
���� For the introduction of narrow band digital technology, a 10MHz duplex split is
no longer required;
���� Digital PMR technology will out sell analogue over the next two years in the
UHF bands;
���� DMR will be the digital narrowband technology of choice over the next few
years, which will increase capacity of networks, with users benefiting from
new features;
���� There is a market for narrowband Digital PMR technology in the UK now and
in the future;
���� CDMA450 is being used elsewhere in Europe or is planned, with particular
mention to Ireland, where a CDMA450 network is planned for use in the 410-
430MHz band;
���� CDMA450 is seen as a technology to deliver 3G services to rural areas.
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5 Reconfiguration drivers and challenges
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the overarching drivers and challenges for the reconfiguration of the
UHF2 band and includes a summary of previous studies in this area together with
stakeholder views and considerations.
5.2 Drivers and challenges for band alignment
The challenges facing any re-configuration will be similar to the challenges that faced the
industry during the proposed band alignment project in 2004. The conclusions from an open
forum hosted by the Spectrum Management Advisory Group (SMAG) in 200322
can be
summarised as follows:
���� Economics: The economics study concluded that the value to the UK
economy of the spectrum that could be released was over £200 million
���� Interference: By aligning the spectrum with Europe, a 32dB improvement of
isolation from continental interference would be achieved.
���� Spectrum Scarcity: The impact of co-ordination with RAF Fylingdales on
UHF1 (410-430MHz), will reduce the usability of UHF1 for additional systems,
particularly high sites and power. This alternate band for UHF Business
Radio services, makes UHF2 spectrum scarce and therefore more valuable.
���� New Technology & Harmonisation: The introduction of new technology and
the additional benefits that it can bring is dependent on aligned, harmonised
CEPT TR 25/08 spectrum.
���� Yield of Spectrum: Band alignment was expected to yield an additional 2 to
3 MHz of paired spectrum (in addition to spectrum returned by the E&PSS).
The benefits to the UK GDP of between £247m and £430m NPV were greater
than the costs.
���� Competitive Environment: Alignment would assist the Business Radio
sector to compete with operator provided services such as GSM.
In 2003 the stakeholders had three main points concerning the band alignment project,
namely:
���� The cost of alignment would be expensive compared to the benefits,
considering there were 17,000 licensees, with very few suffering interference;
22
450-470 MHz Band Realignment Open Forum, hosted by the Spectrum Management Advisory Group (SMAG),24 October
2003: http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/smag/bandalignforum/450summaryfinal.doc
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���� There were mission critical systems, that can not be shut down during a re-
alignment process and interference from the process would not be an
acceptable risk;
���� There was a shortage of skilled engineers to undertake the actual alignment
process of physically re-tuning and deploying new systems.
In summary, there was concern that the alignment was not achievable or cost effective and
presented too many risks. The alignment would have serious consequences for all current
stakeholders, except the E&PSS. However, the industry accepted that the main benefit for
alignment would be for future protection from continental interference; but protection from
interference for some users does not necessarily mean that all users should be disrupted.
The stakeholders suggested that a more palatable way forward would be, rather than align
the spectrum with Europe, to remedy only those services affected by continental interference
in the South East.
Therefore, the industry saw no immediate need to align and that interference was a problem
only to UHF2 services in the South East of England.
5.3 Stakeholders current views on the UHF2 band
Mott MacDonald interviewed Key Stakeholders of the UHF2 spectrum, on the current and
future issues of UHF2 policy. The interviewees selected were identified as a representative
view of the industry (See Appendix A for a list of the key stakeholders interviewed as part of
this study.)
5.3.1 Representative view of UHF2 Spectrum Managers
UHF2 Spectrum Managers account for >30% of the UHF2 spectrum use.
Spectrum managers in this band manage the spectrum for national infrastructure networks.
These provide mission critical services, in addition to supporting broadcast services. The
following summarises their position on reconfiguration of the UHF2 band:
���� Any change in configuration would cause a number of detrimental effects to
networks;
���� There is a large financial implication of replacing equipment and running a costly
parallel network (24/7) so that operation and services are not interrupted;
���� Industry would need to be satisfied that all business risks were mitigated;
���� The cost benefit of any re-configuration would need to be clearly identified and
costed to include opportunity cost and parallel networks;
���� There is some interest based on guaranteed access to spectrum at the same
market rate but only if Ofcom was to underwrite the full business cost;
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���� There is an interest in how the development of technology proceeds in the future to
help make the most efficient use from the spectrum.
5.3.2 Representative view of Trade Associations
The Trade Associations represent users of the business radio spectrum (>30% of UHF2
spectrum) and manufactures of communications equipment. The following points summarise
their position on reconfiguration of the UHF2 band:
���� As businesses demand more security and insurance there is an increased
requirement for more of the same spectrum;
���� There is strong support for continued licensing of the spectrum in its current
configuration;
���� Generally there is little support for re-configuration owing to the costs involved
and the disruption to many of its mission critical services;
���� It is believed that there is not enough demand for wideband systems in the
UHF2 band, where concentration should be on spectrum offerings higher up
the band;
���� Ofcom are to be discouraged from:
� setting up a third party band manager due to the increased
complexities that would be involved in accessing the spectrum;
� creating large blocks of contiguous spectrum that could potentially
be auctioned off;
���� A swift decision on UHF2 spectrum policy is needed as industry and business
cannot develop their business plans with this current climate of uncertainty;
���� A new digital narrow band technology, DMR can enable reconfiguration of the
band over the air, according to a leading manufacturer.
���� Administered Incentive Pricing (AIP) should be the incentive for moving
forward in spectrum management and users involved in a trading and
liberalisation environment to assist the development of sensible systems;
���� New technology is likely to remain of a narrowband nature due to the current
fragmentation of the band. However, should contiguous blocks of spectrum
become available it will allow for development of networks and increase the
availability of products.
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5.3.3 Representative view of the E&PSS
The Emergency and Public Safety Services (E&PSS) are allocated >30% of the UHF2
spectrum. The migration to the Airwave service will leave the majority of the spectrum
available for re-assignment by the Public Safety Spectrum Policy Group (PSSPG).
The PSSPG are planning to appoint a spectrum manager, by the end of 2008, whose role
will be to understand and assess the needs within the E&PSS environment and engage the
market on a commercial basis. The following points summarises the position of the PSSPG
on reconfiguration of the UHF2 band:
���� Provided the same numbers of frequencies were assigned in a known,
interference-free environment some of the E&PSS services within UHF2
could be re-programmed to use alternate frequencies within the band. This
reprogramming could aid the availability of contiguous spectrum within the
band.
���� The impact on individual Fire and Rescue Services (FRS) would be significant
capital cost and a need for a 3-year lead-time.
���� E&PSS will be able to acquire spectrum in CEPT TR 25/08 configuration for
the Future Radio Network (FRN), providing wideband services, which could
be a key role of the future E&PSS spectrum manager. The FRN will either
complement or replace Airwave which is expected to start deployment around
2015, where it is currently estimated that at least 2 x 10 MHz of aligned
spectrum will be required.
���� Most of the use of the E&PSS 7MHz of spectrum is reducing as services
migrate to Airwave. However, use by the prison services and other services
will remain with no current plans to move, meaning that spectrum will not
necessarily be contiguously clear of use.
���� Temporary use could be made of the E&PSS part of the UHF2 band ensuring
that the E&PSS had a sufficient level of protection from interference.
5.3.4 Representative view of Potential New Entrants of aligned UHF2 spectrum
Potential new entrants of aligned UHF2 spectrum would be interested in acquiring spectrum
under particular circumstances in relation to type of configuration and duplex split. The
following points summarise their position on reconfiguration to the UHF2 band:
���� Spectrum should be made available in a ‘useable, contiguous configuration’ of
at least 2 x 3MHz with a preference for 2 x 5MHz (in the configuration of the
latest technology (CEPT Aligned)) or 1 x 10MHz as a minimum.
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���� New entrants would look to deploy technologies such as CDMA450 (452.5 -
457.5 (uplink) / 462.5 - 467.5 MHz (downlink) (standard CEPT 10MHz duplex
split) TETRA TEDS, TD CDMA( 3G) to satisfy its customer base.
���� For a wideband national network to be deployed in the UHF2 band in the UK,
regulations would be needed to support technology neutrality, spectrum
masks and guard bands allowing an operator to rollout a viable network.
���� Cross-border co-ordination would be required to enable a viable national
network (around 200 to 300W max ERP). New entrants would prefer a normal
network-to-network interference model used for cross-border coordination to
allow for coverage in border areas, rather than the recent no interference / no
coverage policy adopted by Ofcom.
���� New entrants see demand emerging from the Emergency services, for
deployment of a wideband network.
���� New entrants believe that the spectrum would be worthless if awarded as it
stands. The options either are seen as an overlay auction or vacated E&PSS
spectrum thereby enabling swift reconfiguration for the introduction of
wideband services.
���� Preference would be for national licences.
5.3.5 Representative view of Licensees
The licensees that were interviewed use both on-site voice and data systems throughout the
UK and national wide area voice and data systems. The following points summarise their
position on reconfiguration of the UHF2 band:
���� Licensees generally support the use of UHF2 spectrum in its current
configuration and do not believe that any change in configuration would
necessarily increase the value use of spectrum. Also licensees believe re-
configuration would have a huge commercial risk and cost to customers;
���� Some licensees would be interested in deploying TETRA systems;
���� Some licensees have already deployed TETRA systems through the use of
recent changes in the technology that allow a reverse aligned configuration
and non standard duplex split e.g. 7MHz;
���� Some licensees could potentially realign some channels with Europe as and
when reconfiguration takes place. However, it would be necessary to create
some temporary frequencies to aid migration to a new vacant piece of
spectrum allocated for the particular service migrating;
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���� Licensees identified that it would allow them to maximise benefit and minimise
cost if a migration plan over the next 5-10 years was developed.
5.4 Summary & Conclusions
This chapter has reviewed drivers for band alignment, previous studies and stakeholders’
views in 2004 during the band alignment project and now, 2007. This review highlights the
concerns of the industry, should reconfiguration of the band be mandated. In addition, it is
noted that the industry wish to only address the interference cases, if needed rather than a
mandated re-configuration of the band.
In the light of the findings of this chapter, we conclude the following:
���� The original drivers for the alignment project are mainly irrelevant in the light
of new regulation and technology development. The main drivers are now
economic benefit and interference which will be reviewed in the following
chapters;
���� The future spectrum manager of the E&PSS will have a key role to play in the
future re-configuration of the UHF2 band as they will manage the largest
amount of clear spectrum for potential re-assignment;
���� There is a demand for narrowband technology, which does not need to be re-
configured;
���� The introduction of wide band systems, would probably need at least 2 x
5MHz and would need a review of the adjacent channel and international co-
ordination measures to make it attractive to new entrants;
���� The stakeholders want clear guidance as to the future policy of the UHF2
band;
���� Operators of mission critical services within the band would need a
compelling reason, funding and assurances that any risk to outage of services
was mitigated to consider any re-configuration;
���� There is little appetite for any re-configuration with the band from incumbent
licensees.
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6 Interference environment
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we explore the interference environment within which UHF2 services are
affected by other UK services and interference from continental Europe. We also cover the
following interference issues:
���� the international coordination process for the UHF2 band;
���� the level of potential interference for aligned and un-aligned spectrum;
���� the different interference scenarios with either narrowband or wideband
technology.
Supporting material and detailed results can be found in Appendices E to I at the end of this
report.
6.2 Interference challenges for UHF2 spectrum
Interference is a technically complex subject, which limits the amount of users that can be
assigned spectrum and therefore its value. If the interference is too high then
communications systems become unusable and, conversely, if interference is extremely low
then spectrum use is inefficient. It is therefore the task of the regulator to achieve the
optimum balance between acceptable levels of interference and efficient use of the
spectrum, in an assigned spectrum band by the regulator.23
To aid in the understanding of interference, Appendix B provides a summary of the different
types of interference that are to be considered when making assignments in the UHF2 band.
Also, Appendix C discusses how Ofcom currently manages interference, the instruments
used and the future tools and policies.
In summary, the main interference challenges are:
���� Due to the UK’s unaligned spectrum with the continent, the UK suffers from
interference, which degrades services particularly in the South East of
England;
���� The UK has a coordination method with continental neighbours that is based
on aligned spectrum, but has no formal international agreement (e.g. HCM
Agreement). The fact that there is no formal agreement could lead to harmful
interference to services in the UK from the Continent, but this is not currently
the case owing to the low use of the spectrum..
23
The term used by Ofcom is ‘Command and Control’.
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���� With the UHF2 band having been identified as an IMT2000 band it is likely
that IMT2000 systems will be deployed in the longer term, which could
severely impact the licensees within this band with a likelihood of greater
continental interference than is experienced now. However, it is understood
that Western European National Regulatory Authorities (NRAs) are not
currently considering assigning wideband systems in the UHF2 band owing to
the current use of narrowband services.
6.3 Analysis of the continental interference environment
To understand the impact of the possible UHF2 band continental interference we have
modelled the environment based on the current requirements of the accepted baseline co-
ordination agreement for this band (CEPT TR25-08).
Our analysis is based on the following criteria, parameters and assumptions:
���� the continental interference environment has been modelled as zero;
���� Ireland is also not aligned (same as the UK) and as a result has not been
taken into account for modelling of continental interference in this study;
���� the results present the scenario of base stations from the continent
transmitting to the maximum coordination parameters from CEPT TR25-08.
The interference plot in Figure 12 shows interference from transmissions generated from the
coast of France, Belgium and Holland to the coastline of the UK. The interference plot shows
the threshold levels for 1% (Blue), 5% (Yellow) and 10% (Red) time into a base station
receive antenna at 10m above ground level. This plot is the interference that the UK would
see, if the continental base stations were meeting the coordination requirements in the UHF2
band, and the UK UHF2 band was aligned.
Figure 12 Interference plot of
continental stations into UK to mobiles at 10m
Figure 13 Interference plot from continental Europe to typical base
station at 30m agl
Source: Mott MacDonald/ATDI
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This scenario would be valid if the band was aligned and interference was into mobile
receivers but because there is a band reversal24
between the UK and the continent in most
cases, the interference is base station to base station. Therefore the parameters used in co-
ordination of a 10m above ground level (agl) coordination height and 10% of the time are
pessimistic.
The issue is that with band reversal the interference is base station transmit (continent) to
base station receiver (UK) and unlike mobile units, base stations are stationary and hence
need to be protected for a lesser percentage (much less than 10%) of time. In addition, the
base station receive antenna heights tend to be greater than 10m agl (using the data
supplied by Ofcom the average antenna height in south eastern UK is around 15m with a
maximum of 160m.
Figure 13 shows the interference from the continent to a typical base station at 30m agl.
Where the mobile can cope with 10% time interference, the base station usually requires 1%
time interference or better. Although the blue plot represents 1% of time which is
approximately 3.5 days per year, for some critical systems this amount of interference
cannot be tolerated due to their high availability requirements (some as high as 99.99% of
time). As an indication of the severity of the impact on licensees, the area where the
interference is present for 1% time or greater is around 27,500km2 and encompasses around
8000 of the records supplied by Ofcom (>30%). This is mainly due to the concentration of
radio use in the South East, particularly London.
The international coordination level of 20dBµV/m for 10% time at 10m agl will cause
significant interference into UK base station receivers. The area over which a reversed
aligned UK base station receiver would be degraded for 1% of time is in fact much larger
than the co-ordination limit suggests. The interference of the continental network to a level
where the interfering signal is 3dB greater than the typical receiver noise floor (-129dBm)
from any single continental base station is shown in the Figure 14 below.
24
Band Reversal – The UHF2 spectrum band in the UK base station transmitters are on the same frequency as base station receivers in the Continent
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Figure 14 Area of UK where base station receiver at 30m agl will have a cumulative signal 3dB above the noise floor for 1% of time
Source: Mott MacDonald/ATDI
This is an area of some 78,000km2 and covers around 16,000 of the records supplied by
Ofcom (>60%). The cumulative interference effect of multiple continental interferers could be
even larger.
6.4 Analysis of the affects of interference in different spectrum configurations
In order to consider future implications of UHF2 spectrum configuration, a high level
representative view of the impact of narrowband and wideband services in the UK and on
the continent were modelled. The following three modelling scenarios were undertaken to
determine the effects of continental interference on the representative modelling areas of
UK25
:
���� 1) Interference levels determined between UK only assignments, excluding
continental interference. This provides the base-line interference case.
���� 2) Interference considering UK (CEPT reversed) and Europe CEPT aligned
and the base-line case (1). This is the current situation.
���� 3) Interference considering UK (CEPT reversed) and Europe CEPT reversed
and the base-line case (1). Although the continent is changed to match the
UK, the effect is that same as aligning the UK to Europe.
25
Modelling areas defined in Appendix E and Appendix F
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6.4.1 Interference to narrowband systems in the UK
The detailed results of the modelling of interference to narrowband systems are at Appendix
E: which are summarised below in Table 11, where the “Average Noise Level”, is the power
sum of all the stations that are co-channel and do not block26
the receiver for all the stations
within the modelling area in dBm.
Table 11 Noise levels at UK base stations at 1% time for base-base interference
Modelling area Base Stations
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford
No Continental Interference
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-113.8 -118.34 -125.8
CEPT aligned Continental Interference
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-100 -113 -125
CEPT reversed Continental Interference
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-111.6 -118.2 -125.79
Source: Mott MacDonald/ATDI
The table shows us that the difference of impact for continental interference for 1% of time
(base station to base station) is around an average of 11dB for the Thames Gateway, 5dB
for Birmingham and 0.8dB in Bradford. Therefore, there is significant interference reduction
in the South East but upon moving North into Bradford the impact becomes negligible.
If UK systems were CEPT aligned there would be an average of 2.2dB more noise in the
Thames Gateway than if there was no continental interference. This increases to an average
of nearly 14dB when the UK is CEPT reversed. This effect is demonstrated in the
Birmingham area to a lesser extent; however, in the Bradford area continental interference is
negligible either CEPT aligned or reversed. This is mostly likely down to the density of
assignments in each region.
26
‘Block the receiver’- in Business Radio terms, this equates to co-channel sharing, where licensees ‘politely’ share the radio channel.
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6.4.2 Interference environment when introducing wideband systems in the UK
The detailed results of the modelling of interference to wideband systems are at Appendix F:
and are summarised below in Table 12.
Table 12 Results for isolated Wideband systems deployed in the areas of interest
Modelling area Base Stations
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford
No Continental Interference
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-97.1 -96.1 -100.68
CEPT aligned Continental Interference
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-84.1 -82.95 -87.98
CEPT reversed Continental Interference
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-84.03 -82.94 -87.97
Source: Mott MacDonald/ATDI
We conclude the following based on the results from Table 12 and Appendix H:
���� Continental stations will have some effect on the wideband systems in the
Thames Gateway area in terms of increased noise level and number of
blockers but this would drop if the wideband network was CEPT aligned. This
continental interference effect is also seen in Birmingham to a less extent and
is negligible in Bradford;
���� UK narrowband stations under the current trading rules have a catastrophic
effect on wideband systems. The effect of narrowband systems in the UK is to
increase the noise levels in the wideband systems by 13 -14dB under the
current trading rules;
���� In the cases where the continental interferers are either aligned or reversed
shows that, similar to the narrowband situation, continental interference has
significant effect in the Thames Gateway area. The results also show that if
the wideband system becomes CEPT aligned there is an improvement;
���� In all cases narrowband users who are co-channel to wideband users suffer
greater noise and blocking unless there is a very large separation distance
between the two systems. In general the degradation of the narrowband
systems is in the range 5 to 8dB extra noise and doubling / tripling of the
blocking numbers. As additional wide band systems are implemented, the
modelling tends to indicate that the noise levels on the existing narrowband
systems will drop;
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���� Like narrowband systems, wideband systems in the south eastern UK would
benefit with being aligned with Europe but this benefit has all but disappeared
by the Midlands. The effect of narrowband systems on the wideband
system(s) with the current trading rules is catastrophic decreasing the
available service areas by around 75% and increasing blocking levels from 2
times to 10 times as much. Considering these degradations the overall all
conclusion is that the current trading rules would not allow a practical
wideband system to be deployed;
���� As more wideband systems are deployed so the noise in the wideband
channel drops and the number of blockers also drops. This is because the
spectral density of the narrowband systems is much higher than the
equivalent wideband systems. This tends to indicate that wideband systems
are possible but only if the majority of narrowband users are removed from
the band and those narrowband users that are left are sufficiently far away as
to produce little or no interference.
Note: In the modelling exercise, we only considered narrowband users being co-channel
with wideband users and have not considered adjacent channel effect of the wideband
systems, which could be significant.
i. Interference effects of Trading and Liberalisation
To implement wideband systems in the current narrowband use of the UHF2 band the
Ofcom trading rules would need to be met. To understand the likely impact of a wideband
system being introduced into the UHF2 band, a scenario has been modelled, pictured in
Figure 15 below. This is based on a wideband network (CDMA450) being deployed in the
Thames Gateway, conforming to the Ofcom trading rules. All the narrowband transmitters
outside the 50km trading zones that exceed the trading zone level would need to have there
ERP reduced so that the field strength at the trading zone boundary is less than -116dBm
(12dBuV/m). The technical rules and method of modelling are summarised at Appendix G.
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Figure 15 Narrow band existing base stations meeting trading limits for Thames Gateway
Source: Mott MacDonald/ATDI
In this particular scenario, 460 stations would need adjustment to their ERP levels. In fact a
further 114 stations would require at least 29dB attenuation to their ERP level, e.g. from 25W
to 30mW. This modelling only looked at co-channel and did not consider guard bands or out
of band emissions, which would have an even greater impact on the number of assignments
affected.
Note: the above trading limit coordination only applies to the base stations. The mobile
stations are assumed to transmit at their normal levels since there is no power control used
by the PMR systems.
6.5 Economic evaluation of Interference
The impact of interference can be related to a cost in terms of additional site engineering
required, but at a high level, the main impact is a loss of coverage area due to the noise floor
at the base station receiver being degraded. To perform an economic evaluation of this
effect, we need to understand the impact of the noise floor on coverage area.
Figure 16 shows the percentage of the service area lost per dB of receiver noise degradation
for both narrowband and wideband systems. This graph coupled with the figures from Table
11 show the impact of band reversal. For example, in the Thames Gateway the average
difference between CEPT aligned and CEPT reversed is a loss in coverage of over 60%
without any mitigation techniques. Alternatively, this can be viewed as an increase in
coverage area of 60% if the spectrum were to be aligned.
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Figure 16 Base station receiver noise degradation against percentage of coverage lost
Source: Mott MacDonald/ATDI
This graph coupled with the average noise degradation provides an indicative measure of
the impact to services, which is used in the economic evaluation of interference in Chapters
7 and 8.
6.6 Future interference environment
The future of the interference environment for the UHF2 band could result in a number of
different scenarios based on the configuration of the UHF2 band.
As spectrum regulations adopt liberalisation and spectrum trading becomes a common way
of accessing spectrum the future interference environment will be less predictable. Careful
frequency assignment planning will need to be considered under a market driven framework
so as not to cause interference to incumbent users from a new service or technology.
For UHF2 spectrum where trading has already taken place, users will need to take
responsibility in terms of how they occupy the spectrum for their services and take the
necessary actions to ensure they comply with the current and future regulations. The
regulator has the responsibility to ensure a suitable framework is in place that protects users
from harmful interference from each other and from the continent. Therefore, future interface
requirements and TFAC should include the provision for adopting new technology in the
future without impairing the use of incumbent services. Ofcom will need provision for
assigning wideband digital systems and narrowband systems at 6.25kHz in UHF2 which
would need to be determined and incorporated in future interference modelling tools and
processes.
The future assignment and protection of services from interference will probably be based
around the concept of Spectrum Usage Rights (SUR), which has its origin in the Spectrum
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Framework Review (SFR). The SFR proposed that market forces are a more effective way to
manage the valuable, yet limited resources of the radio spectrum than the current centrally
managed approach. It is recognised that the value of the spectrum is in part derived from its
quality, hence the focus on Interference management through appropriate Spectrum Usage
Rights.
Users of the spectrum in UHF2 have varying degrees of protection requirements to use their
service. As explained in Chapter 2 some of the services require a very high level of
availability and the level of interference protection required would need to be sufficient
enough to support those requirements.
In future, it will be necessary for the market to understand their own protection requirements
in order to deploy a quality of service relative to the type of use and expectation to the end
user. In the case for UHF2, users of mission critical systems and emergency and public
safety will inevitably need to define its spectrum user rights to include the extra level of
protection required as to reduce the likelihood of interference. However, interference is
directly linked to the value of the use of that spectrum, where it is likely that licensees will
need to pay more for spectrum that has less interference or procure guard bands.
Development of new services and new technology could improve the interference
environment as filter technology improves and spectrum management moves to a market
driven approach where key drivers would be for both availability of high value spectrum and
the reduction in harmful interference.
6.6.1 Considerations when aligning spectrum
When considering aligning spectrum within the UHF2 band through partial alignment of the
band or on a channel-by-channel basis, which could be through trading and liberalisation, an
important factor is guard bands.
In the UK aligning spectrum piece-meal would mean existing base transmit (CEPT reversed)
would become base receive and be adjacent to other base station transmitters. Current
equipment standards specify that the adjacent channel power should be 60 dB below the
unwanted channel carrier power. However, in practice systems in the UK operating in the
newly CEPT aligned spectrum would need to conform to the current business radio licence
products which could be a 100W base station. Therefore, a geographical separation
distance or guard band would need to be specified according to the type of use. Using
minimum coupling loss calculations, the geographical separation would need to be in the
region of 16km or at least one channel guard band for a 12.5kHz channel.
Therefore what must be considered when aligning spectrum is the efficiency of only aligning
one channel at a time as the ratio of useable spectrum will by 1:2 in a given service area.
The guard bands would of course remain the same if more channels were contiguously
aligned, providing greater efficiency.
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6.7 Summary & Conclusions
This chapter has covered the current and future interference scenarios that could potentially
impact services in the UHF2 band. This chapter also looked at the procedures that are in
place to manage interference both nationally and internationally. We have concluded the
following:
���� There is significant interference from the continent into UK base station
receivers when modelling the current realistic scenario (UK CEPT reversed
with 1% time and Base station antenna is 30m agl);
���� The effect of interference on service area to narrowband systems is around
70% of the noise limited potential service area is lost in the south of England
decreasing to 30% in the Midlands and 0% in the North for 1% of the time;
���� The UK would benefit from a Memorandum of Understanding for the UHF2
band over and above the procedures contained in the HCM agreement;
���� The introduction of wide band systems into the 450 to 470MHz band would
have a dramatic effect on the existing narrow band user not only in the trading
coordination aspect but also in the noise levels rising from 3 to 8dB
depending on the separation distance between the systems. These
degradations will change depending on the separation distances and
geographic terrain between the various co-channel systems;
���� There is an economic impact to consider if the UK were to suffer significant
continental interference;
���� Guard bands and geographical separation would be necessary if the UK were
to adopt partial alignment in some areas in the UK;
���� Users of UHF2 spectrum in the UK currently do not suffer continental
interference due to the low level of radio communications activity in the UHF2
band on the continent. It is has been found that if the UK were to become
CEPT aligned any future potential interference could be greatly reduced.
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7 Economics, Costs, Demands and Benefits of Reconfiguring the UHF2 band
7.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the following topics:
���� a discussion in broad terms of the key economic concepts used when
analysing the economics of spectrum;
���� a summary of the theory of measuring economic costs and benefits;
���� an outline of the methodology to be used to estimate the costs and benefits of
band alignment;
���� an outline of the key costs and benefits identified by previous studies when
reviewing the potential reconfiguration of the UHF2 frequency band;
���� a review of previous research into the likely demand for UHF2 frequency
spectrum if it was reconfigured;
���� a review of Ofcom’s current plans for future spectrum allocations in the UHF2
frequency band; and
���� a summary of the key assumptions to be used in the cost benefit study.
With all the relevant topics discussed, we then develop a methodology for the Cost Benefit
Analysis (CBA).
7.2 Measuring Costs and Benefits of UHF2 spectrum reconfiguration
One of the key analytical tools employed when reviewing any future policy changes for the
UHF2 band is to undertake a cost benefit analysis. In this section, we discuss the concept of
cost-benefit analysis and its relevance to policymaking prior to applying the concept to the
challenge of UHF2 re-configuration.
7.2.1 The Theory
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is an economic tool to aid decision-making. It is typically used
by governments to evaluate the desirability of a given market intervention. The aim is to
assess the efficiency of the intervention relative to doing nothing.
The costs and benefits of the impacts of an intervention are evaluated in terms of:
���� the public's (consumers and producers) willingness to pay for the benefits of
the intervention; or
���� the willingness to pay to avoid the costs.
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The costs in a cost-benefit analysis should be measured in terms of opportunity costs,
which are the values in their best alternative use. The guiding principle is to list all of the
parties affected by an intervention, and place a monetary value of the effect the intervention
would have on their welfare as it would be valued by them.
The benefits in a cost-benefit analysis typically attempt to measure the impact of various
options on the value of ‘social welfare’. Economists measure social welfare as the sum of
the total benefits to consumers beyond the price they pay (the consumers surplus), plus the
profit to producers above a normal return (the producers surplus).
In Figure 17 “consumer surplus” is the area below the demand curve, sometimes referred to
as consumers willingness to pay, and above the price (P*), what they have to pay. Producer
surplus is the area above the supply curve and below the market price (P*). The equilibrium
price is where the supply of the service equals the demand for the service. The concept of a
surplus arises for consumers because there are some consumers, as indicated by the
demand curve, who would be prepared to pay a higher price that P* for the service. These
consumers receive a ‘surplus’ as they actually pay a lower price (P*) than they would be
willing to pay for the service. Similarly, there are some producers (as indicated by the supply
curve) that would be prepared to provide the service to consumers at a lower price than they
actually received (that is, P*). Hence, these producers gain a ‘surplus’ above the price that
they were prepared to offer for the service.
The sum of the area of consumer and producer surplus equal the total amount of social
welfare that exists for the supply of a service (Q*) at a given price (P*).
Figure 17 Consumer and Producer Surplus
i. What factors can result in changes in net social welfare?
Changes in net social welfare occur as a result of changes in the demand and supply of
services offered.
quantity
demand
supply
Q*
price
P* producer surplus
consumer surplus
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In order to illustrate the range of factors that can influence net welfare due to band re-
alignment, we review the impact of band alignment where spectrum is used as an input to
production. In reality, there are a range of goods and services that make use of spectrum in
the production of final products and services. In addition, band alignment may free up
spectrum to allow completely new services to be provided that are not provided now.
However, the simplified scenarios discussed below show in broad terms the impact that
band alignment can have on net social welfare.
An increase in the demand curve in Figure 17 will lead to an unambiguous increase in
producer surplus. A number of factors could drive the rise in demand. Band alignment may
allow for a range of enhancements (such as international roaming) to the existing service to
be offered, which will in turn increase the demand for the service at every level of supply.
This assumes that before band alignment, continental interference issues prevented the
service from being used in other countries in Europe. This increase in the ‘value’ of the
service leads to an outward shift in demand.
A downward shift in the supply curve in Figure 17 will lead to an increase in the size of the
consumer surplus. Band alignment may reduce production costs because of greater
economies of scale of manufacture (due to greater harmonisation with European Standards).
In addition, the supply curve could flatten as a result of band alignment due to more efficient
use of the existing spectrum. For example, a flattening of the supply curve may occur if, as a
result of band alignment, new digital technologies can be introduced that use the same
spectrum in a more efficient way. This may in turn, allow firms to offer a greater amount or
range of services that could be offered before band alignment.
The costs of band alignment may cause the supply curve in Figure 17 to shift upwards
(increase) and the demand curve to shift to the left (decrease). Band alignment will mean
that many existing users of spectrum will bear additional costs (such as retuning equipment
to new frequencies). This will increase the average costs of production across the entire
supply curve, moving the supply curve upwards and lead to increased prices and reduced
consumer surplus.
Band alignment may also cause the demand curve to shift to the left (decrease). This may
be due to consumers during the band alignment transition phase shifting to other providers
offering similar services (such as cellular services). Consumers may decide to shift away
from these services because of the disruption to their services during the transition phase.
Consumers may make this decision based, for example, on the potential for actual downtime
to their service because of the band alignment. The level of producer surplus reduces as a
result of the reduction in demand.
Hence, there are a range of potential impacts that may occur as a result of band alignment.
The role of cost benefit analysis is to weigh up the size of each of these effects on supply
and demand to arrive at an overall estimate of the net impacts.
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7.2.2 Practical issues in assessing the costs and benefits of band alignment
In practice, the process of conducting a cost-benefit analysis of various band alignment
options involves estimating the monetary value of initial and ongoing expenses (costs)
caused by the market intervention. These costs are then weighed against the expected
return (benefits) of the market intervention to derive the net-benefits. The total net benefits
are then compared against the ‘do nothing’ scenario (the base case), as well as to the net-
benefits that result from other market interventions.
Constructing robust measures of the costs and benefits of specific actions is often difficult.
This is because the size of many of the costs and benefits can depend crucially on a number
of future unknowns, or involve making judgements on the consumers ‘willingness to pay’ or
the producers ‘willingness to supply’.
Methods to try to estimate total benefits include using survey methods such as asking
consumers how much they would be willing to pay for a certain service or by drawing
inferences from market behaviour, such as revealed preference techniques.
In order to simplify the calculations, many cost-benefit studies assume that the supply curve
is relatively flat. With a relatively flat – or horizontal – supply curve, there are only marginal
changes in the size of producer surplus (or none if the supply curve is horizontal) which
allows the analysis to focus solely on estimating the size of changes in consumer surplus as
it can provide a reasonable measure of the total change in social welfare.
In addition, we note that band alignment may lead to the freeing up of additional spectrum
that will facilitate the provision of new services. In this case, we are then interested in
estimating the entire value of the consumer and producer surplus (rather than change in
surplus measured for existing services). The value producers are willing to pay for spectrum
is a proxy of the magnitude of the social welfare benefits that accrues as a result of band
alignment.
Another practical issue to consider is to ensure that all relevant costs and benefits are
assessed on a comparable basis. To do this, a discount rate is used to compute all relevant
future costs and benefits in present-value terms. This is because the costs and benefits may
accrue both now and into the future. Our analysis will use the UK Treasury discount rate
estimates.
i. How accurate is cost-benefit analysis?
The accuracy of cost-benefit analysis studies are only as good as the quality of the data
used in the analysis. Many of the drivers of benefits and costs are based on estimates of
future unknown events, such as the potential number of consumers willing to purchase the
service once the intervention has been implemented. Hence, there are inherent dangers in
predicting finite net benefits or costs. Usually, sensitivity analysis is deployed to check the
impact of particular factors. As a result, it is normal to present a range of potential outcomes.
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Another challenge comes from determining which costs should be included in the analysis.
This is often controversial as organisations or interest groups may have considerable
debates on which costs should be included or excluded from a study.
ii. Defining Costs
It is important when conducting and reviewing cost-benefit studies to be aware of the way
that economists define costs. The true cost of something is what you give up to get it. In
terms of spectrum band alignment, costs are not only the resources needed to effect the
alignment but also the benefits that were forgone as a result of the decision to re-align the
band. These ‘opportunity costs’ are relevant for cost-benefit analysis.
In assessing which costs to include in the analysis, the key is to consider only the costs that
will vary as a result of the decision to align the band.
7.3 Methodology for measuring the costs and benefits of Band Alignment
We will use the following approach to estimate the costs and benefits of band alignment:
���� Firstly, we will review previous studies on the costs and benefits of band
alignment – and summarise the results. Given primary level research is
beyond the scope of this project, we will rely heavily on the research that has
already been carried out on the costs and benefits of band alignment.
Previous research and analysis will be critically assessed, taking into account
any modifications needed given recent policy and market changes.
���� Secondly, we will outline the major options for band alignment. We will outline
the assumptions made in respect of the future use of the band. In particular,
how the spectrum is used once the band is aligned will have a key impact on
the results (for instance, the value of the spectrum that may be available for
re-allocation as a result of greater spectrum efficiency). Our assumptions on
the future use of the band are critical for the analysis. We will do this based
on providing three broad options for band alignment, which are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 8.
���� Thirdly, we will identify and discuss each of the high-level costs and benefits
that may accrue for each of the options. These will be based on relevant
previous work as well as our own analysis, assessments and assumptions.
���� Fourthly, we will review the three options in more detail and identify for each
option the detailed factors to be taken into account and measured in Net
Present Value (NPV) terms, based on a 15-year assessment period. Again,
we will draw on previous analysis of the costs and benefits of band alignment.
These will be assessed in light of the recent policy and market changes. We
will also carry out a sensitivity analysis to review how sensitive the results are
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to changes in the values of key variables. We will also discuss the distribution
of the costs and benefits across users for each of the options as this has been
highlighted in previous studies as an important factor to consider when
assessing the costs and benefits of specific options.
7.3.1 Adjusting the value of costs and benefits to present day
The valuation of costs or benefits are expressed in ‘real terms’ or ‘constant prices’ (i.e. at
‘today’s’ general price level), as opposed to ‘nominal terms’ or ‘current prices’. Given that we
intend to draw on estimates of costs and benefits from studies in the past, there is a need to
adjust the value so that they reflect current values. To do this, we have adjusted values by
the average annual inflation rate for all goods between 2003 and 2007, as produced by the
UK Office of National Statistics.
7.3.2 Discounting for Costs and Benefits that occur in the future
Some of the costs and benefits of band alignment will occur in different time periods. For
example, some of the value to spectrum users of a reduction in continental interference as a
result of band alignment will only be realised when current equipment is replaced. At this
point in the future spectrum users will be able to build a more efficient network (for example,
fewer base stations) given reduced interference risks. Hence, the value to users of this future
benefit needs to be discounted back to present day.
For our analysis, the discount rate of 3.5% is used. This is the rate recommended by the
HM-Treasury for the assessment of the costs and benefits that occur in different time
periods.27
7.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis
In order to test the results produced, it is sensible to apply tests on the sensitivity of the
results to changes in key variables (such as the cost of alignment, or the value of spectrum).
In terms of the costs of band-alignment, PA Consulting have carried out extensive sensitivity
testing of their estimates – and since we are relying on their estimates for our analysis, there
is no need to replicate this work. As a result, our sensitivity tests will focus on the size of the
benefits – and we will analyse the impact on the overall results when the value of key
variables are changed.
The results of this analysis are detailed in Chapter 8.
7.4 Review of previous research on the costs of band alignment
The first stage of our cost-benefit analysis is to review previous work on the costs of band
alignment.
27
See : http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/3/F/green_book_260907.pdf
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There has been considerable research carried out on the costs of reconfiguring the UHF2
spectrum band. Much of this work took place between 2000 and 2004 and was focused on
providing estimates of the potential costs and benefits of harmonising the UHF2 spectrum
band with European standards. In this section, we examine two types of costs:
���� The direct costs of band alignment
���� Additional potential costs of band alignment.
7.4.1 The costs of band realignment
Figure 19 on the next page provides a summary of the estimates of direct costs of band
realignment of the 450-470 MHz band.
As a result, we focus the rest of our analysis on the most recent and comprehensive study
on the costs of band alignment, which was completed by PA Consulting in 2004. This study
estimated that the total costs of alignment were between £260m and £310m.
Costs were disaggregated to provide analysis on the specific costs faced by different users
of spectrum impacted by band alignment. See Figure 18 for a summary of this cost break
breakdown.
Figure 18 Estimates of the cost of alignment by user segment28
Segment/User Total Costs
(£)
Average
Licensee Cost (£)
Average
Terminal Cost (£)
PBR 67 378 434 14 606 189
Paging 8 800 359 38 940 144
PMSE 13 019 319 32 794 368
Telemetry 22 722 600 295 099 1 193
Network Operators
94 022 695 47 011 348 1 274
Site Engineering 71 157 980 n/a n/a
Contingency 55 420 396* n/a n/a
Total 277 101 387 n/a n/a
*20% Contingency distributed evenly across segments
These cost estimates were based on the assumption that the alignment of each user will
take place with a single frequency change.
28
Typical user cost for 450-470Mhz band Alignment, PA Consulting (2004)
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Figure 19 Selection of cost estimates of 450-470 Band realignment
Study Methodology Cost estimates
PA Consulting (2004)
Review of direct costs of band realignment. Review of databases combined with stakeholder interviews
Between £260m and £310m if a one-step frequency change is performed.
If ‘parking’ frequencies are used in a totally different band for all users to allow for continuity of service then costs would increase to over £500m.
Significant duplication of costs would also occur if ‘parking frequencies’ within UHF2 were used, estimated to add between £180-200m to the costs.
Radio Agency (2003)
29
Unknown £125m
SD-SCICON (1991)30
Unknown Engineering costs of realignment estimated at £55.7m.
Loss of revenues due to down time estimated at £22m.
Department of Trade
and Industry (2002)31
Based on 2055 responses to a Postal survey to 6 separate user segments that make use of spectrum in the 450-470 MHz band.
Average lifetime of equipment was 10.8 years. Average remaining lifetime was 5.1 years. Average cost of existing equipment was £1700. Percentage of existing units able to be reconfigured was 78% on average.
Average loss of revenue as a result of realignment (excluding equipment costs) was £26,000 on average (or a reduction of 32% of revenues over 7 days).
Average increase in staff costs was £2100 (a 29% increase over an average of 13 days).
A quarter of respondents said they would consider moving to another band. One off costs of moving to another band was estimated at £704,132 (or £8563 excluding Railtrack). Ongoing costs of moving to another band were estimated at £744,366 (or £5374 excluding Railtrack).
PMR Group Members of the Federation of Communication Services (2004)
Unknown Band realignment would reduce interference for an estimated 340 licences – but that 17,285 licences would incur costs in realigning the band.
Costs caused by the disruption to UK electrical and gas supplies, the threat to airport operation etc. estimated at ‘hundreds of millions of pounds’
Indepen and AEGIS (2004)
Case study of Telemetry/Telecommand services in the 450-470 MHz band. NPV estimated over a 10 year period
Net Costs of harmonisation (which include NPV $5m benefits) calculated at £4200m. Costs were calculated as those involved in using alternative bands and technologies to deliver equivalent services
Indepen and AEGIS Case Study of PMR at 450-470 Earlier harmonisation results in a larger positive NPV. (Difference in NPVs is around £70-100m).
29
This cost estimate was quoted in a 2004 report by the Federation of Communications (The UHF Band 2 Re-Alignment Controversy). Mott MacDonald has been unable to find the original Radio Agency report that produced these estimates. 30
This cost estimate was quoted in a 2004 report by the Federation of Communications (The UHF Band 2 Re-Alignment Controversy). Mott MacDonald has been unable to find the original SD-SCICON report that produced these estimates. 31
White and Stilwell, Department of Trade and Industry (2002) 450-470 Band Alignment Project Report.
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The study was based on consultation with industry and this was combined with a flexible
cost model that allowed for the testing of sensitivity of each of the cost drivers. The study
made use of existing databases on equipment quantities cross referenced with interviews of
key stakeholders.
In reviewing the costs, the report listed the following critical issues generic to all the users of
the 450-470 MHz spectrum band:
���� Equipment re-tuning or replacement;
���� Coordinating multi-user sites;
���� Maintaining continuity of service;
���� Logistics of the equipment changes;
���� Reducing business uncertainty.
In addition, the report reviewed specific issues that would be faced by each of the following
450-470 MHz user categories as a result of the band alignment. The report noted that the
costs fell unevenly across the sector (as indicated in Figure 18 above).
We will be using these cost estimates (adjusted to reflect 2008 costs) as the basis for our
cost estimates for each of the options proposed in Chapter 8. In our opinion, there has been
no fundamental change in the make up of these costs since they were estimated (apart from
the need to adjust the values to reflect the impact of inflation). Our approach is consistent
with the views of the stakeholders that were interviewed as part of this study.
We note that the PA Consulting cost estimates focused on the direct costs of realigning the
band. The report included a 20 per cent contingency to account for ‘factors such as
uncertainty in database information, wasted engineering effort in cases where vehicles or
terminals are not available for conversion or there are problems with site access, the cost of
delays arising due to technical problems at sites and increased labour costs due to the
market demand for engineers’.32
The report also indicated that the total costs of band alignment would increase if the use of
parking frequencies was needed as part of the alignment process. The report estimated that
the costs would increase by between £180-200m if parking frequencies within UHF2 were
used. The report indicated that the costs would increase to over £500m if parking
frequencies outside of the UHF2 band were used.
Notwithstanding the potential for additional costs highlighted in the report, some other costs
were not included in the study. These costs may or may not be relevant, depending on the
management of the band alignment process. They include the cost impact of down-time and
32
PA Consulting (2004), p. 1.4.
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potential complications/interference as a result of the alignment which may impact on the
operations of essential services such as airports, electrical and gas supplies.33
7.4.2 Summary
A range of costs needs to be considered when completing a cost-benefit analysis of band
alignment. We intend to draw heavily from the 2004 PA Consulting report on the direct costs
of band alignment. It provides relatively recent estimates of a range of relevant costs that
would be incurred during the band alignment process. These estimates need to be adjusted
to reflect 2008 values. The logical complexity of aligning the band cannot be discounted. In
particular, if the alignment of the band cannot be completed through a one step process, the
actually costs of band alignment almost double.
The types of costs identified in these studies included:
���� The costs of modifying or replacing base stations and mobile equipment;
���� The cost of site engineering – re-tuning or replacement of filters and
combiners that are specific to the current frequency arrangements;
���� The cost of providing temporary parallel infrastructure to enable continuity of
service or long-term migration of a large pool of end-user equipment;
���� The user project management needed to plan and co-ordinate the
changeover;
���� Potential re-training where new equipment is deployed;
���� Any costs associated with hiring equipment or services to maintain service
during equipment downtime;
���� The cost of providing additional staff to cover temporary outages of critical
systems and to perform the re-configuration of central network control
systems;
���� Cost of replacing stock or spares that become obsolete as a result of the
band alignment process and must be replaced to ensure continuity of
maintenance provision;
���� (For public network operators) Any loss of revenue from customers who move
to an alternative either during the changeover, or permanently;
���� The administrative costs associated with making the allocations and any on-
going administrative costs associated with managing the band;
���� The costs of reversing the allocation decision should it turn out to be wrong;
33
See, for example, a discussion of the costs of this in relation of Heathrow Airport in the PMR Group members of the
Federation of Communication Services (2004) The UHF Band 2 Re-alignment controversy, p. 8.
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���� The costs of dealing with any increase in congestion in licensed and licence-
exempt bands caused by the denial of licensed and licence-exempt use
respectively. For example, installing additional infrastructure or using more
interference resistant handsets;
���� The potential for band re-alignment to constrain the potential for spectrum
trading;
���� That loss of potential revenue from Administrated Incentive Pricing (AIP) as a
result of band re-alignment.
7.5 Review of previous research on the benefits of band alignment
A review of previous research on the benefits of band alignment suggests benefits accrue in
the following broad areas:
���� Benefits due to the harmonisation of the spectrum band with European
standards. This includes reductions/removal of radio interference between UK
users on the East coast of the country and other users of the spectrum in
other parts of Europe (namely, France);
���� Benefits due to standardisation of equipment between the UK and Europe.
These benefits include the ability of UK users to take advantage of Economics
of Scale of production, as well as the potential to offering additional services
(such as European roaming);
���� Benefits of more efficient spectrum use, which potentially frees up
additional spectrum that can be allocated to the market. These benefits
accrue in a number of ways including the extra funds available to the UK
Treasury because of the allocation of spectrum, as well as the lower costs of
supply that may result for greater spectrum being available. New services
may also be possible as a result of the extra spectrum that is available that
was not possible under existing arrangements.
The magnitude of these potential benefits depends on a range of factors, including:
���� The characteristics (service, quality, and price) of the new applications and
the extent of competition from substitute products and services, which in turn
will affect the benefits users enjoy and take-up rates;
���� The differential impact of the licensing arrangements on service/application
innovation and the timing of investment to deliver the service/application;
���� The timescales over which benefits are to be enjoyed and the discount rate
applied to future benefits;
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���� The size of the potential market addressed by the spectrum allocation
decision;
���� In the case of an occupied licensed band, whether incumbent licensed users
are displaced or not by the designation of the band for licence-exempt use;
���� The wider impact of the new applications on competition and, assuming this is
positive, the consumer benefits from enhanced productivity and lower prices,
improved service quality in other services;
���� Externalities generated by the services or the spectrum use. This includes
interference effects and any positive or negative environmental, economic or
social externalities. Possible examples of the latter include any
inclusion/democracy benefits from wider broadband deployment and changes
in road congestion, accidents and pollution caused by automotive radar;
���� The ability to achieve these benefits through alternative means. For there may
be a number of alternative methods to band alignment of reducing radio
interference (such as spectrum trading between existing users or the use of
intelligent antenna techniques in areas of the country where interference
occurs.
We note that it is likely to be challenging to estimate the likely benefits of band alignment, as
many of the key variables are unknown. This is in contrast to the costs of band alignment, for
which costs are more readily obtained or estimated.
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Despite these challenges, a number of studies have attempted to estimate the benefits of
band alignment. These estimates are presented below in Figure 20.
Figure 20 Estimates of the benefits of alignment of the UHF2 band
Study Methodology Estimates of financial benefits
Radio Agency (2003)
34
Unknown Up to £555m
Radio Agency (2003)
35
Unknown Band alignment expected to yield an additional 2-3MHz of spectrum – with a Net Present Value of £247-£430m
Department of Trade and Industry (2002)
36
Based on 2055 responses to a Postal survey to 6 separate user segments that make use of the UHF2 band.
Estimates of the existing cost of interference were around £150 per day for the users that experienced interference. Only 10 users out of 2055 provided an estimate of the costs of interference. Alignment of the spectrum band would assumedly mean that these costs would not be incurred.
7% of Users stated that there would be a benefit to band realignment. These users estimated that their business revenues would increase by 9% (or £5200). Averaged across all users the revenue increase was 4% (or £2400).
Indepen and AEGIS (2004)
Detailed case studies of PMR and Telemetry/ Telecommand services in the 450-470 MHz band.
Case studies drew upon previous studies on estimates of the consumer surplus of PMR spectrum and the 2003 Radiocommunications Agency Study of Costs and Benefits of Band re-alignment. NPV approach was applied.
Case study on NPV net-benefits of band alignment for PMR users based on a scenario that band alignment took place in 1980.
PMR users: NPV net benefits of re-alignment range from £4m-£16m to £78m-£124m, (depending on assumptions made about the amount of spectrum released because of re-alignment and the potential value of that spectrum).
Telemetry and Telecommand devices: impact of band re-alignment would free up 1MHz of spectrum available for PMR and other mobile radio use in the 450-470 MHz band. NPV of benefits equal to £5m (although costs of realignment significantly overshadowed the benefits)
7.5.1 Benefits of Standardisation
Indepen and AEGIS state the following types of benefits that result from standardisation:37
���� Compatibility/interface standards: These standards promote network effects
(or network externalities) that derive from being part of a large network of
34
This estimate of the financial benefits of alignment was quoted in a 2004 report by the Federation of Communications (The UHF Band 2 Re-Alignment Controversy). Mott MacDonald has been unable to find the original Radio Agency report that produced these estimates 35
Presentation to the Royal Society by Paul Jarvis, Head of Private Business Systems (2003) Can be found here www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/smag/bandalignforum/pauljarvis.ppt 36
White and Stilwell, Department of Trade and Industry (2002) 450-470 Band Alignment Project Report. 37
Indepen and AEGIS, p. 20.
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users (e.g. international mobility, ability to communicate with many others, low
cost ancillary and support services). These standards reduce the costs to
consumers and producers of switching between different interfaces and
thereby promote competition;
���� Minimum quality/safety standards: These standards are valuable in
circumstances where consumers cannot easily discriminate between low and
high quality goods (as may often be the case with equipment which uses
radio access). The standards reduce consumers’ search and transaction
costs and ensure low quality producers do not drive out high quality
producers. Technical barriers to trade may be reduced by providing reference
points for quality;
���� Variety reduction/focussing standards: Standards that reduce the variety of
technologies developed allow economies of scale in equipment manufacture
and service provision to be exploited and so lead to lower costs to
consumers. Producers’ risks of sponsoring an unsuccessful variant are also
reduced as the likelihood the market will achieve critical mass is increased
(compared with the situation where there is no standard), even if there may
be increased competition between producers of the standardised product or
service;
���� Information/measurement standards: Standards of information and product
description give consumers assurance of compatibility between
complementary products reduce producer and consumer transaction costs
and thereby promote trade and accelerate the take-up or diffusion of new
technologies;
���� Promotion of First Mover Advantages. The adoption of standards can also
provide an incentive to innovate by helping secure a first mover advantage in
the marketplace. However, the flipside of this is that there may be costs due
to the ability of the ‘first mover’ to lock-in consumers to certain technologies,
and through that reduce potential competition from competitors.
However, the authors point out that many of the benefits (and costs) of standardisation are
not dependent on the adoption of European standards. However, the adoption of European
wide standards can have the additional benefits of reducing radio interference, promoting
international mobility and creating a larger market.
7.5.2 Benefits of Harmonisation of the spectrum band with European standards
The main benefits of Harmonisation as identified by Indepen and AEGIS (2004) include:
���� A reduction in the likelihood of harmful interference between services
operating in different countries, particularly in border areas, and thereby
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increase the available spectrum for each country. The scale of this benefit
will depend in part on whether spectrum in the bands in question is scarce or
not;
���� the creation of a European-wide market for equipment and services thereby
reducing manufacturers’ risks and allowing them to take advantage of scale
economies;38
���� a reduction in equipment costs through Economies of Scale in equipment
manufacture by limiting the number of frequency bands for which equipment
must be made;
���� the creation of new services (such as international roaming)
���� Benefits of regulatory certainty (protection) to users of spectrum that the
spectrum will not be reallocated to other potential uses.
However, the size of the benefits of harmonisation depended crucially on current and future
use. Where spectrum was expected to remain un-congested, the study report argued there
was little or no benefit of band alignment. In addition, the study highlighted that technological
change was allowing many of the benefits of harmonisation to occur without the need for
band alignment. We note that this has now happened in the field of narrowband technology,
where DMR and TETRA offer flexibility in the spectrum configuration, enabling the UK to
benefit from digital services, whilst not harmonising the spectrum. However, the case for
introducing wideband technology at this moment still requires harmonised spectrum. Even if
the technology was to be more flexible and be able to adopt different duplex splits, the
technology would still need approximately 2 x 5MHz of spectrum, which would not be
achievable in the 450MHz band current allocation.
The report offers a number of conclusions on the benefits of standardisation and
harmonisation, both historically and if implemented now. See Table 13 for details. The report
argues that net benefits only occur for some spectrum user segments in the 450-470 MHz
band. The conclusions suggest that a partial band alignment is preferred to the full band
alignment.
38
In this regard, there are thought to be significant benefits from trading with “nearby” countries, where distance is measured in cultural, administrative, geographic and economic terms. See Distance Still Matters, P Ghemawat, Harvard Business Review, 79(8), September 2001.
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Table 13 Conclusions on the impact of standardisation and harmonisation caused by band alignment
Segment (case studies) Key conclusions
PMR at 450-470 MHz –
historic
Harmonisation would have yielded greater benefits if undertaken
earlier.
PMR at 450-470 MHz – future Benefits from allowing users to chose whether to use wideband
or narrowband
Radio car keys Appears to be a good case for harmonisation
Telemetry and telecommand
systems
Harmonisation would have a substantial negative impact.
PMSE – historic Harmonisation could have a negative impact because it would
reduce the available spectrum, not lead to lower equipment costs
and the benefits of mobility are small. Against this users might
gain more security of tenure, though this seems unlikely in
practice.
PMSE – future Standardisation per se does not offer benefits.
7.5.3 Benefits of greater spectrum efficiency
One major benefit of band alignment is the potential for greater spectrum efficiency, which
allows the same amount of services to be provided with less spectrum. The ‘freed up’
spectrum can then be allocated to new uses that were not available before the band
alignment process. Studies have estimated that there is the potential to free up between 2-3
MHz of spectrum in the 450-470 frequency band. The value of this spectrum (which can be
used to proxy the size of the benefits to consumers and producers) depends crucially on how
it will be used in the future. Previous estimates range to over £400m. However, to gain an
accurate estimate of the current value of spectrum that may be freed up through band
alignment it is important to estimate the current value of the spectrum available. This
requires an assessment of the future demand for the spectrum. Information about the value
of spectrum can also be obtained from a review of the recent spectrum auctions for similar
spectrum frequencies.
Since 2004, Ofcom has introduced spectrum trading and liberalisation, which has had a
significant impact on the spectrum management of UHF2. These reforms increased the
influence of market mechanisms in spectrum allocation and have removed many of the
licence restrictions that prevented a change of use. See Chapter 3, for more details on the
spectrum management reforms, particularly the new reforms to Business Radio in 2008.
The influence of these liberalisation measures means that the previous argued benefits of
band alignment must be reassessed. In particular, one of the reasons argued in favour of
band realignment was to allow for greater harmonisation of spectrum use, and through that
greater take up of services (for instance, it is often argued that harmonisation with European
standards would allow for greater economies of scale for equipment manufacture). However,
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the proposed benefits of band alignment will be reduced if liberalisation of spectrum policy
allows these services to be delivered through alternative means.
In addition to a liberalised spectrum trading market offering a means to gain access to the
required spectrum, spectrum is available piece-meal from Ofcom39
and it s being awarded
en-block by Ofcom in a variety of bands over the coming years. Ofcom has laid out its plans
for future spectrum awards, which we have summarised below in Table 14. The table
illustrates the likely alternate spectrum bands for services currently in the UHF2 band.
Table 14: Ofcom Spectrum Awards related to UHF2
Band Status Opinion
412-414 MHz/422-
424 MHz
Awarded to Arqiva, who are
acting as a spectrum
manager with no services
currently operating in the
band.
This band is CEPT aligned and can
accommodate a variety of Digital
PMR technologies. However the
constraints within the band are
such that a national network would
be difficult to deploy. It is expected
that discrete local networks will be
deployed and managed by Arqiva
for operators to PMR type users.
470-854 MHz Addressed as part of the
Digital Dividend Review.
Due for award around 2009.
It is likely that mobile services will
be accommodated within this band,
which may cater for the wideband
requirements of the emergency
services, such as the 700MHz
E&PSS allocation in the US.
Spectrum will also become available from the UK Civil Sector, as proposed in the October
2007 consultation40
on proposals to extend market mechanisms to public sector spectrum
holdings in line with the implementation plan. The Government has already committed in the
Forward Look41
to releasing a ‘significant proportion’ of the MOD’s spectrum holding
between 2008 and 2010. The MOD expects to publish its Military Spectrum Implementation
Plan, which will identify opportunities to share or release spectrum and how its spectrum
holdings will be shared or released to the market, in spring 2008.
39
Referred to as command and control by Ofcom, which is based on a first come-first served approach to the award of spectrum, where spectrum demand exceeds supply in some areas, whilst in other areas spectrum is available. 40
Spectrum Framework Review: the public sector: http://www.ofcom.org.uk/consult/condocs/sfrps 41
Forward Look: A strategy for management of major of public sector spectrum holdings: http://www.spectrumaudit.org.uk/pdf/Forward_Look_2007.pdf
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It is understood that the Public Safety Spectrum Policy Group (PSSPG) is currently
considering options for the future management of E&PSS spectrum holdings involving the
use of market mechanisms to secure the best possible use of the spectrum and to maximise
opportunities for band sharing while safeguarding the continuing operational effectiveness of
E&PSS. It is expected that this will result in a single entity managing the spectrum on behalf
of PSSPG from the end of 2008.
It is therefore understood that spectrum will become widely available for those that need
spectrum from sources other than Ofcom for the current type of users of UHF2, through
secondary trading of currently vacant spectrum in 2008. In addition, these new awards and
spectrum managers could facilitate the spectrum provision for future wideband services.
Specifically, UHF2 spectrum will become available through the E&PSS spectrum manager,
with a predicted 6MHz (not aligned or necessarily contiguous) of spectrum being made
available from 2009. Additional spectrum will also be available though normal command and
control licensing from Ofcom as spectrum is available in most areas except London and the
surround areas.
Alternatively UHF2 type users can also source spectrum from UHF1, through command and
control licensing via Ofcom, secondary trading or through the spectrum manager of the 412-
414 and 422-424MHz spectrum, which as of January 2008 remains vacant.
The efficiencies of digital technology and the introduction of new vacated spectrum to the
market, will meet the needs of the UHF2 type of users for the near future without any need
for regulatory intervention above and beyond what is currently happening, with spectrum
available either within the UHF2 band or in alternate bands. Any demand for wideband
services within the UHF2 band, would probably need to be met with regulatory intervention
for provision for in the near term, as at least 2 x 5MHz of contiguous spectrum would be
required in the current fragmented band.
7.5.4 Benefits of reduction in continental interference
Interference within the UHF2 band was discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Interference
ultimately results in the loss of coverage area, which is shown at Figure 16 on page 55. The
benefits of reducing interference are therefore an increase in coverage area. Alternatively,
this can be viewed as less infrastructure required to cover the same area, therefore a
reduction in costs. In addition, the services in UHF2 rely on communications, with services
such as logistics companies using cellular services when outside of the ‘business radio
coverage area’. Therefore as a proxy, a company’s reliance on cellular services to
supplement coverage and therefore ‘call costs’ would reduce if interference was reduced.
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7.5.5 Summary of the benefits
Previous estimates of benefits of band alignment need to be re-assessed given the
significant changes that have occurred in both the policy and market environment since
many of the studies were completed.
The introduction of spectrum trading means that many of the benefits of band alignment can
now be achieved without direct intervention by the regulator. In addition, technological
advances have meant that the costs of managing continental interference for existing
spectrum users in the 450-470 MHz frequency band have been significantly reduced. This, in
turn, has reduced the size of benefits that would accrue by aligning the band. For more
details on these changes, see Chapters 3 and 4.
As a result of theses developments we have significantly discounted previous research on
the benefits of band alignment. Instead, we have carried out our own analysis on the likely
use of the spectrum that is freed up as a result of band alignment. We have also examined
the value of that spectrum based on our expectations of the likely revenues that will accrue
to Government through allocating the spectrum to the market and the associated AIP pricing
that would result. In terms of the benefits from reduced interference, our modelling has
provided an estimate of the actual net impact of band alignment, taking into account the
impact of current technologies that can manage continental inference without the need for
band alignment. Chapter 8 discusses this in more detail and provides our estimate of the
size of these benefits.
7.6 Distribution of costs and benefits
Cost-benefit analysis is typically not concerned about how the cost or benefits are distributed
among consumers or producers. However, as highlighted by a number of previous studies
into the costs and benefits of band alignment, the issue of how the benefits and costs are
distributed is of critical importance for public policy.
Earlier studies indicated that the benefits of band alignment tended to be concentrated on
those spectrum users on the South East coast of the UK (where continental interference
risks exist), while costs are shared across all users in the band. Hence, many spectrum
users receive no benefit from band alignment – but may face considerable costs. This is
demonstrated in the continental interference differences between the Thames Gateway and
Bradford in Chapter 6.
In defining the options to be studied as part of the cost-benefit study, we have tried to be
cognisant of the impact of each of the options on spectrum users. As well as reviewing the
size of net-benefits for each of the options, we also review the net-impact on spectrum users.
Minimising the impact of band alignment on spectrum users will be one of the factors to be
considered when making our recommendations on the preferred route for achieving the
policy aims of band alignment.
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7.7 Summary & Conclusions
In this chapter, we have discussed in broad terms the key economic methods for assessing
the costs and benefits of spectrum band alignment. We have also reviewed the work carried
out in identifying and assessing the main types of costs and benefits of band re-alignment
and provided a summary of the main results. We have concluded that:
���� Estimating the change in net social welfare lies at the heart of cost benefit
analysis. This involves estimating the aggregate change in producer and
consumer surplus as a result of the band alignment process;
���� An assessment of the costs and benefits require careful review to identify
which factors are solely due to the band alignment process;
���� An assessment on a Net Present Value basis of the relevant costs and
benefits is complicated and has produced a range of results. It requires a
range of subjective assumptions as many of the costs and benefits are based
on estimates of future uncertain outcomes.
���� The main costs as a result of band alignment found in previous work included:
� Costs to existing operators being moved to a new ‘harmonised’
spectrum band;
� The loss of revenues if current consumers of services move to
alternative providers (such as GSM operators) as a consequence of
the band alignment;
� Administrative costs;
� The potential for band alignment to restrict spectrum trading and
reduce the value of the spectrum.
���� The key benefits that were found in previous cost-benefit studies focused on
three main areas:
� Benefits due to more efficient spectrum use (including the freeing up
of additional spectrum for further allocation);
� Benefits due to the harmonisation of the spectrum band;
� Benefits due to standardisation of equipment.
���� Since most of the studies reviewed were produced between 2000 and 2004,
an assessment of today’s costs and benefits will require taking into account
the following key changes in the industry:
� changes in the industry demand for spectrum in the 450-470 MHz
band;
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� technological change (such as developments that enable radio
interference issues to be addressed without the need for band
alignment);
� Regulatory reforms (such as the recent moves to liberalise of spectrum
allocation and use). This includes recent announcements by Ofcom to
for future spectrum awards which can be considered the likely future
alternative spectrum bands for 450-470 MHz users.
���� The largest single contributor to the benefits was the value that was created
through the freeing up of spectrum;
���� Studies have shown that the costs of band alignment are unevenly distributed
amongst existing spectrum users.
Based on our review of previous work – as well as our assessment of the impact of changes
in the policy and market environment since these studies were completed, we outline in
Table 15 our proposed approach to estimating the value of each of the cost and benefit
categories for band alignment.
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Table 15 Cost and Benefit Categories
Cost/Benefit Category Method used to estimate value
Direct costs of aligning the band Use PA Consulting 2004 report estimates, adjusted for inflation.
• Adjust PA estimates by UK RPI for 2004-2007
Increased risk of service down-time during alignment
Use PA Consulting 2004 report methodology (adjusted for inflation)
Reduced customer demand during alignment as customers move to alternative suppliers
Use PA Consulting 2004 report methodology (adjusted for inflation)
Reduction in Continental Interference Management costs
The reduction in interference will result in less expenditure in interference mitigation costs, which will be included in the network efficiency costs (below).
Increase in network efficiency as a result of less interference (i.e. Less base stations needed)
ADTI/Mott MacDonald modelling of continental inference see Chapter 6. Account for infrastructure reduction and less reliance on alternative operator provided services. The assignments only affected by interference will be considered.
Benefits over 15 years discounted to Net Present Value (based on a discount rate of 3.5%)
Greater spectrum efficiency allowing:
• Higher Govt revenues through further allocations of spare spectrum
• New/improved services
Review of recent spectrum auctions in other markets (where appropriate) combined with using the equivalent value of spectrum based on Administrative Incentive Pricing rates.. Estimate revenue per MHz for two service scenarios:
• Narrowband services
• Wideband services
Assume that the value of additional spectrum freed up through band alignment is a proxy for the total producer and consumer benefits as a result of spectrum efficiency. No additional values are estimated for the impact of new/improved services.
The value of efficiency benefits due to band alignment should be discounted to take account of the degree of spectrum efficiency that may occur in any case as a result of spectrum trading
Standardisation and Harmonisation benefits
• Lower equipment costs
• New services available (such as European-wide roaming)
We assume the key benefits of standardisation and harmonisation are a 5% reduction in the average cost of a handset in the case of full band alignment. This is due to economies of scale of production as a result of full band alignment. This on the basis that (1) stakeholder interviews suggested little, if any, demand for services that leveraged spectrum harmonised with the rest of Europe and (2) technological progress means non-harmonised/standardised equipment no longer a major barrier to mass production etc.
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8 Options development and CBA
8.1 Introduction
This chapter provides details on the options chosen for band alignment and the costs and
benefits used in assessing each option as part of the Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA). It also
outlines the sensitivity analysis carried out as part of the CBA and the results of the CBA for
each of the options. Finally, we have provided conclusions on the CBA.
8.2 The options for band alignment
In order to complete a robust CBA, it is crucial to identify the range of options that could
potentially be introduced to achieve band alignment. As discussed earlier in this report (in
particular in Chapter 7), there are a range of options available. There is also the option of no
regulatory intervention. In order to review costs and benefits in a manageable way, we have
identified three broad options for band alignment. Our view is that these options broadly
summarise the practical scenarios available. The options that we will review in terms of the
cost benefit analysis are:
���� Option 1: Full band alignment through direct Ofcom intervention;
���� Option 2: Partial band alignment, with spectrum yield used for narrowband
services;
���� Option 3: Partial band alignment, with a spectrum yield used for wideband
services.
These options are discussed in more detail below, with the assumptions used for each
option summarised in Appendix H. Details on why these options were chosen and their
impact on the overall results are discussed in the following sections.
8.3 The major cost and benefit categories
In Chapter 7, we reviewed previous related studies in order to calculate the costs and
benefits of various band alignment scenarios. Since these studies were completed, there
have been some considerable changes in the policy, the market environment and
technology. These changes combined have had significant regulatory impacts on the
spectrum value of the costs and benefits of the spectrum (when compared to costs estimates
from earlier studies). In addition, we consider that some of the benefits of band alignment
that were included in earlier studies can now largely be discounted as a direct result of policy
and technological changes that have occurred since 2004.
Our conclusions on the relevant costs and benefits of Band Alignment that can be included
and an assessment of their relevance to the band are discussed below.
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8.3.1 The Direct costs of Band Alignment
As discussed earlier, we have used the total full costs calculated by PA Consulting for each
of the options. The PA report indicated that one of the major costs of alignment was
engineering costs. These full costs were calculated as PA Consulting considered that it was
too complex to allocate these costs to individual licence categories, given the large degree of
shared costs to the user. For the purposes of our analysis, we have chosen to distribute
these costs evenly across the user licence categories.
We have adjusted the total full costs for Band Alignment for inflation (based on the Statistics
UK Real Price Index price for all individual categories) so that they reflect 2007 values.42
8.3.2 Measuring the benefits of reduced interference
During stakeholder interviews, a number of stakeholders indicated that the costs of
managing interference have greatly reduced for a number of reasons. One main reason
being that the capital costs for site engineering to mitigate interference was invested a
number of years ago and they continue to benefit from this. In addition, interference has
significantly reduced from the continent in recent times, thereby reducing any related costs.
We have attempted to measure the benefits of band alignment using the following two
methods:
���� A reduction in continental interference as a result of band alignment means
that current users can provide equivalent services with a reduced network
size. Current networks have been deployed with additional site engineering
+costs in order to manage existing continental interference. With this
interference removed, users can, over a period of time as they replace
equipment, optimise their network size and save in capital and operating
costs.
���� A reduction in continental interference will increase the reach of the existing
network. This will reduce the costs of using alternative commercial services
(such as cellular) when users are out of network coverage.
i. Number of base stations impacted by interference
In order to estimate the benefits of reduced continental inference it has been necessary to
make assumptions on the number of base stations that are actually impacted by
interference. We have assumed that 60% of the total number of base stations in the country
are within the geographic region where continental interference is present, see Figure 14. Of
these base stations, we assume that only 33% are actually impacted by interference, which
takes account of the on-site systems for in-building coverage, which are not necessarily
impacted by continental interference.
42
More information on the Inflation adjustment data used can be found here http://www.statistics.gov.uk/StatBase/tsdataset.asp?vlnk=7172&More=N&All=Y
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ii. Impact on network size of reduced interference
Using our modelling results, we calculated that a typical spectrum user would be able to
provide an equivalent service with 45 per cent less network coverage if there was no
continental interference. This is based on an average interference level of 7dB, inferred from
the modelling in Chapter 6.
Spectrum users will be unable to benefit from the reduced capital and operating costs of a
smaller network size immediately. Over time, as base stations are replaced, spectrum users
will be able to slowly reduce network size to take advantage of reduced interference. We
assume that the average life of a base station is 5 years, so 20 per cent of the network is
replaced each year.
iii. Impact on GSM costs of reduced interference
We assume reduced interference increases existing network coverage and leads to a
reduction in call costs for cellular mobiles. We assume that call costs are reduced by £5 per
month per mobile. Other key assumptions include:
���� Average cellular costs (before band alignment) are £20 per month per mobile;
���� An average of 30 Mobile phones used per base station.
8.3.3 Reduced handset costs as a result of band alignment
We assume that the costs of full band alignment enable economies of scale in the
manufacture of handsets and leads to a 5 per cent reduction in the average cost of a
handset.
We have assumed that the benefits of band alignment mean that the average costs of
handsets (whether they be DMR, TETRA or CDMA450) are reduced because of economies
of scale in manufacture. We have made assumptions on the number of handsets per base
station and the average costs of handsets to calculate the size of benefits for each of the
options. These are included in the CBA calculations for each of the options.
8.3.4 Spectrum efficiency
Increased spectrum efficiency is a key benefit of band alignment. Band Alignment allows for
these efficiencies to be recovered. The outcome of this is that existing users will be able to
provide equivalent services using less spectrum. The spectrum that is freed up as a result of
band alignment is then available for re-allocation back to the market, which provides
opportunities for existing as well as new operators to purchase spectrum and use it to offer
services. There are a number of benefits to purchasing spectrum as a result of greater
spectrum efficiency, these include revenues to the Government obtained through re-
allocation of spectrum to the market, increased competition (and lower priced and/or higher
quality services) or the means to provide new services that cannot be provided under the
existing spectrum configuration. For example, the 450MHz band is used in some other
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European markets to provide mobile services. The propagation properties of the 450MHz
band have made it particularly cost effective to roll out a network in rural areas, where there
are low population densities.
As outlined in Chapter 7, previous studies on the benefits of band alignment calculated that
the release of spectrum as part of the alignment process would deliver significant benefits.
We consider that since those studies were completed, the value of spectrum has declined
significantly due to technological advances allowing efficient management of interference
without the need for alignment.
The options that we considered as part of the Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) included a
number of scenarios for the average size of the spectrum yield for Partial Alignment.
���� For Option 1 (Full alignment), we assume that 2-3 MHz of spectrum is freed
up with the alignment process. Taking the mid-point of 2.5MHz, we calculated
the value of the spectrum at that point using Administrative Incentive Pricing
(AIP) rates.;
���� For Option 2 (partial alignment, with spectrum used for narrowband services),
we assume that no spectrum is freed up with partial alignment... We assume
that any spectrum freed up will not be useable for alternative narrowband
services due to the complexity of the alignment process under this option;
���� For Option 3 (partial alignment, with spectrum used for wideband services),
we assume that 4.5 MHz of paired spectrum is made available for wideband
services.. The estimated value of this spectrum is based on spectrum
auctions of similar spectrum and compared to the value that would be
obtained through the AIP process.
When previous studies on the benefits of spectrum efficiency through band alignment were
conducted, there were no recommendations other than direct regulatory action to producing
higher spectrum efficiency. However, the introduction of spectrum trading is an alternative
method to achieving greater spectrum efficiency.
Through spectrum trading, there may be the potential for spectrum efficiency benefits
equivalent to those that would occur under direct regulatory action. It could be the case that
band alignment could potentially occur under a spectrum trading scenario as an alternative
to direct regulatory action. In comparison to direct regulatory action, it is unclear the exact
amount of spectrum that will be freed up through spectrum trading and over what period of
time this would occur.
We have considered whether spectrum can be yielded through spectrum trading only and
have concluded that this may not be the case. We have based this on the views of
stakeholders and in our view the configuration of the UHF2 band is very complex and will
involve a mixture of commercial trading with a number of different organisations for some
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form of alignment to occur. Additionally, even if there is some spectrum yield, it is unclear
whether spectrum users would actually return the spectrum freed up through the spectrum
trading process back to Ofcom to allow for future allocations of assignments. Another point
to consider is the option of auctions in which spectrum will be more likely to remain for a
considerable period in the hands of the users or organisations who value it.
In order to evaluate any potential net benefits as viewed through the options analysed for
Full Alignment and Partial Alignment, the spectrum fee at AIP rate would need to be
evaluated. The value of this UHF2 spectrum, is complex to calculate if awarded by auction
given the number of different users allocated in the spectrum.
We consider that there are likely to be two scenarios:
���� the first scenario being in which sufficient spectrum is made available with an
appropriate spectrum mask to enable wideband or IMT2000 services;
���� the second scenario whereby spectrum is auctioned to enable the provision of
narrow band services.
We discuss these two scenarios in the next two sections. We draw on observations,
assumptions and analysis from previous studies and then provide our assessment of the
relative value of UHF2 spectrum under both scenarios if it was awarded through an auction
process.
i. UHF2 Narrow Band and Wide Band Spectrum Valuation
AIP rates are used for narrowband and wideband spectrum to value the spectrum freed up
as a result of the band alignment process. In our view, AIP rates are the best method of
estimating the value of the spectrum.
We have also considered how the results of the Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) would change if
the value of the freed up spectrum was based on the auction values in the 5 October 2006
Ofcom UHF1 spectrum auction of 412-414MHz paired with 422-424MHz.43
Using current AIP values the CBA was calculated for the freed up spectrum as a result of the
band alignment process. A lower CBA value was calculated using AIP and was closer in
value to the auction values in the 5 October 2006 Ofcom UHF1 spectrum auction of 412-
414MHz paired with 422-424MHz. This resulted in the CBA being more negative.
ii. UHF2 Wideband Spectrum Valuation
The UHF2 spectrum as mentioned in Chapter 3 will be recognised as an IMT2000 band,
although CDMA 450 networks have already been deployed in a number of European
countries. According to potential suitors for providing a wideband network in the UK, a
minimum of 4.5MHz with appropriate spectrum masks would be required. The 3G auction in
43
http://www.ofcom.org.uk/media/news/2006/10/nr_20061009
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the UK has skewed the market valuation of spectrum, so for this band we will look at the
following:
���� 2.6GHz European auctions; and
���� 450MHz European awards.
The Norwegian auction of the 2.6GHz band in November 2007 provided a fair index of future
pricing of 2.6GHz, with an index of US$0.047 per MHz per Pop44
, which equates to
approximately £1.44m per MHz for the UK valuation. This figure provides a guide as to the
value of IMT2000 spectrum, where fees have been in decline since the ‘3G Auctions’. We
note the propagation characteristics are very different for the 2GHz band, but the technology
for broadband wireless services could operate in both bands.
Table 16 below summaries three recent auctions, which resulted in CDMA450 technology
being deployed.
Table 16 450MHz Selected European Valuations
Auction Spectrum Index
$/MHz/Population
UK equivalent
Value per MHz
Norway, 2004
453-457.5 / 463-467.5 MHz (9MHz)
0.0046 £143k
Sweden, 2005
453-458MHz/463-448.8MHz (3.6MHz)
0.412 £12.6m
Denmark, 2006
453.0-457.5 MHz and 463.0-467.5 MHz (9 MHz licence)
0.08 £2.45m
In order to estimate the value of any UK future wideband spectrum in the UHF2 band, we
have taken the index from the Norwegian 2.6GHz auction and the Swedish and Danish
auctions of 450MHz and have taken the mid point as a fair representation as the start range
(US$0.17/MHz/Pop). This assumption is based on the recent introduction of multi-band 3G
handsets in Sweden (including 450MHz Band), but taking into account that in the UK we
have excellent cellular coverage with low levels of population in rural areas. We have
discounted using the Norwegian auction valuation, as the technology was immature at that
time. We therefore predict the value of UHF2 spectrum in the UK to be between £5.2m and
£12.6m per MHz for spectrum available to wideband services.
44
According to Policy Tracker
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iii. UHF2 Spectrum Valuation
Table 17 below summarises our conclusions on the approximate value of aligned UHF2
spectrum.
Table 17 Summary of UHF2 Spectrum Valuation
Spectrum allocation Value
Contiguous UHF2 CEPT aligned paired spectrum, for 0 – 4.5 MHz, with spectrum masks that support deployment of narrow band technologies
£690k, per MHz (excluding NI) for a 15 year period (based on AIP rates).
Contiguous UHF2 CEPT aligned paired spectrum for 4.5 – 10MHz, with spectrum masks that support the deployment of wide band technologies (IMT2000)
£5.2m (PAMR) and £12.6m (Cellular) per MHz (excluding NI) for a 15 year period.
iv. Consumer and Producer Surplus
One fundamental measure of economic benefits is provided by consumer and producer
surplus. A 2002 Radiocommunications Agency study of consumer surplus used survey
results to calculate residential and business average consumer surplus per month of £16
and £44 for public cellular systems.45
Based on these figures and using a range of methods accounting for number of mobile
subscribers and inflation, Europe Economics calculated an average value of consumer
surplus for 2006 at approximately £18bn.46
This figure provides some idea of the possible
magnitude of consumer surplus associated with the provision of wide-band cellular services
in the UHF2 band.
It may be reasonable to assume producer surplus for wide-band cellular service is fairly
small. This would reflect a high degree of competition between existing mobile operators in
the UK now and into the future. Concentrating on consumer surplus only, a very broad idea
of its size can be gleaned from the same study carried out by Europe Economics. Based on
company accounts, consumer surplus for cellular mobile was calculated at approximately £2-
£3bn.
From these estimates, we have calculated the total amount of consumer surplus for
wideband cellular services. We have based this on the Europe Economics report and
adjusted the value of benefits to reflect the amount of spectrum available for wideband
cellular services (4.5MHz paired spectrum).
45
http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/topics/economic/economicisreport_final.pdf 46
http://www1.bsc.org.uk/research/radiocomms/reports/economic_spectrum_use/economic_impact.pdf
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We assume that the 4.5MHz paired spectrum would be used either for cellular services or for
PAMR services. We have included estimates of consumer surplus for both these scenarios.
We note that European Economics did not calculate consumer surplus estimates for PAMR.
The original consumer surplus of £19Bn for the cellular mobile was converted to a per MHz
figure, to arrive at the equivalent for 2 x 4.5MHz cellular spectrum. This is an overestimate
given the type of service that will be offered using the UHF2 band. In particular, we expect
the take-up to be in rural areas (special multi-band phone, more expensive, larger) which will
reduce the size of the market. Hence, we have discounted the equivalent 4.5MHz value by
90%, which represents the rural market split in the UK (22% of population (ONS), with 50%
of that market (estimated) with limited 3G coverage. A summary of the consumer surplus
used for this study can be seen below in Table 18.
Table 18 Consumer Surplus
Consumer surplus
(£m 2006)
Cellular Mobile (total market) 18964
Wide-band Cellular services in UHF2 (2 x 4.5MHz)
50
8.3.5 Value of increased Standardisation and Harmonisation
We consider that the standardisation and harmonisation benefits argued in previous studies
and discussed earlier in this chapter are less important than they used to be. This is due to
the introduction of equipment and technologies that provide more flexibility in the spectrum
configuration that it uses, meaning that a rigid duplex split is not necessarily needed. In
addition, new technology such as DMR also has the capability of over the air re-tuning which
provides a relatively quick and simple method of moving a network to a different spectrum
configuration. In particular, the availability of different spectrum bands for the same service is
no longer the barrier that it once was as more spectrum is made available to economies of
scale in production.
However, we consider that full band alignment will deliver some economies of scale in
production of handsets. We have included an estimate of these benefits in the results. More
details on our assumptions are included in Appendix H.
8.4 Interference Costs and Benefits
In Chapter 6, we discussed the amount of interference due to aligned or reversed aligned
and the impact this would have on service area. In this section, we discuss the benefits of
reducing interference through the alignment of the spectrum.
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8.4.1 High level cost of interference
Firstly, we consider at a macro-economic level the impact of interference, based on the
amount of coverage reduction at each base station. Although the costs are spread over the
whole assigned community, which isn’t representative of reality, the headline figures provide
a measure of the impact of interference.
We have assumed the following:
���� On-site, E&PSS (post 2009) and peer-to-peer services are not affected by
interference - all other assignments are impacted and taken into account;
���� From the interference analysis conducted in Chapter 6, we have taken
account of assignments that in the worst case would have >3dB interference
at the base station receiver;
���� The number of assignments affected ranges from 3500 to 4500.
���� The average interference ranges from 6 to 9dB, in the area seen at Figure 14
���� The average capital cost of a base station is assumed to be £3k
Figure 21 shows the range of costs attributed to a loss of coverage of interference. Since
the interference level is modelled at a maximum co-ordination level, this range should be
read as a near-maximum cost attributable to the loss of coverage by continental interference
whilst the UK is reversed-aligned. The range of these costs is from £4.2m to £7.4m.
Figure 21 Costs of reverse-aligned spectrum in terms of loss of coverage
£4.0
£4.5
£5.0
£5.5
£6.0
£6.5
£7.0
£7.5
£8.0
6 7 8 9
Average Interference Across Assignments in area upto 3dB loss at the base station Receiver (dB)
£ M
illi
on
4500
4000
3500
Number of Assignments
There are further costs associated with further base stations required, which are attributed to
site rental, maintenance and new equipment provision. This is assumed to be on average
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£2k per annum per assignment. These costs plus the equipment costs amortised over a 5-
year replacement cycle provide an annum cost in the range of £3.6m - £6.4m.
8.4.2 Detailed look at Interference costs
Let’s consider the cost to a logistics service within a town, which used PMR to manage a
fleet in an ideal situation with aligned spectrum covered the desired service area, but with
reversed aligned supplemented the coverage with GSM calls. In this particular scenario, the
costs of GSM could be taken as the cost-benefit of alignment.
Assuming that the most popular monthly tariff of £15- £25 per month will cover the number of
calls when out of area due to interference, the cost is directly a proportion of the number of
mobiles. This would be the most likely scenario and therefore if a fleet of 30 mobiles is taken
as an average, the direct costs would be in the range £5.4k- £18.75k per annum. This cost is
dependent on the amount of interference and the tariffs arranged by the company.
If we assume the first scenario is typical and like the further base stations scenario in the
previous paragraph is examined between 3500 – 4500 assignments, then the cost ranges
between £18.9m and £84.375m. Table 19 below summaries the high level benefits of
aligned spectrum.
Table 19 Summary of high level Benefits of Aligned spectrum
Min Annual
(£m)
Max Annual
(£m)
Average Annual
(£m)
Additional Costs of base stations
owing to loss of coverage
area/interference through
reversed aligned spectrum
£3.6 £6.4 £5
Additional costs of alternative
communications owing to loss of
coverage/interference through
reversed aligned spectrum
£18.9 £84.5 £51
8.5 Results
The options that we will review in terms of the cost benefit analysis are:
���� Option 1: Full band alignment by Ofcom intervention;
���� Option 2: Partial band alignment, with spectrum yield used for narrowband
services;
���� Option 3: Partial band alignment, with spectrum yield used for wideband
services.
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8.5.1 Option 1 – Full Alignment
Details on the assumptions used for Full Alignment are in Appendix H. The estimates of the
costs are based on the PA Consulting report with the benefits calculated taking into account
the following areas:
���� Reduced continental interference reduces network costs and/or reduces
cellular costs used at the edge of the network;
���� Spectrum yield benefits calculated to be 2-3MHz (we take a mid-point of
equivalent AIP values and our own assessment of spectrum value of
equivalent spectrum at recent auctions);
���� Reductions in handset costs due to economies of scale;
���� Introduction of digital technologies such as TETRA equipment that requires a
10MHz duplex split;
���� The UHF2 band in the UK will be in the same configuration as Europe in line
with the ERC Recommendation TR25-08;
���� Reduced interference impact on the network due to a 7dB reduction in
interference from the Continent.
Table 20 below summarises the net benefits for full alignment.
Table 20 Summary on Full alignment Net Benefits
Costs NPV Benefits NPV Net
Benefits
NPV
Managed Band
Alignment
£286m £77.7m (reduced interference and
handset prices)
+ £19.5m (spectrum value)
-£189m
8.5.2 Options 2 and 3 – Partial Alignment, with different uses for the spectrum yield (narrowband versus wideband)
For the partial alignment options, we have chosen two scenarios; for narrowband services
and the other for wideband services. In both cases partial alignment on a mainland UK
basis47
is only considered as the interference of aligned and unaligned within the borders of
the UK would prove to be inefficient.
The benefits are similar to the benefits that occur for Full band alignment, but the size of the
benefit is proportional to the number of base stations impacted for each of the band
47
Excludes Channel Islands and Northern Ireland
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alignment options. However, there are no benefits to handset price reductions due to
economies of scale, as we assume that these will only occur with full band alignment.
The value of the spectrum yield will differ according to its use, which is discussed below.
8.5.3 Narrowband Partial Alignment
Firstly narrow band partial alignment would need to focus on a particular area of spectrum,
where costs for alignment are at a minimum, the services are not of significant national
importance and could be disrupted for a short duration and the community would benefit.
Our high level analysis demonstrates that the Business Radio (BR) spectrum with a 10MHz
duplex split adjacent to the E&PSS spectrum, which will be vacated by 2009, offers the most
attractive option for narrow band partial alignment for the following reasons:
���� The PSSPG have indicated that they would support re-configuration activities
and the spectrum to be vacated would provide a good starting point since one
of the frequency legs of the pair will not involve alignment costs or disruption.
���� Business Radio services are often able to re-tune within the band and most
services would not require a parallel network to manage any disruption as
most are not concerned with critical national infrastructure.
Figure 22 below shows four areas depicted as Blocks A-D for consideration for partial
alignment.
Figure 22 Areas for Potential Partial Alignment of Narrowband Spectrum
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Table 21 Narrowband Alignment Analysis
Block Frequency Range (Amount) (MHz)
Single Frequency
Assignments
Dual Frequency
Assignments
Density (Assignments Per MHz)
Notes
A 460.0 - 462.475 (2.475)
5299 5548 4383 2893 of the dual frequencies in Block D
B 454.025 - 454.85625 (0.83125)
1732 1511 3901 476 of the dual frequencies fall within block A
C 455.5 -456.05 (0.55)
27 1009 1883 461 of the dual frequencies fall within block A
D 456.0625 - 456.975 (0.9125)
602 2893 3830 2893 of the dual frequencies in Block A
The relative blocks of spectrum for analysis from Figure 22 have been analysed, with the
summary in Table 21.
The metric of assignment density shows that block C would require the least amount of
assignments to be removed for a given return on spectrum, even though the spectrum
aligned would be the least at 0.55MHz.
Since all the partial alignment options are concerning Business Radio (BR) and with each
option concerning a different number of assignments, at a high level the cost per Business
radio assignment will provide a general cost metric to provide a proxy cost. Using the PA
report of costs to align all BR users and distributing the site engineering costs, the proxy cost
to align a BR assignment is £4997.
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We assume that there is no spectrum yield for any of these partial alignments, neither were
there benefits due to lower handset prices (as is the case of the Full alignment option). The
benefits that were included were associated with lower continental interference.
The results are summarised below in Table 22.
Table 22 High level Net Benefits of selected Partial Alignment
Block No of assignments benefiting from alignment
Cost in 2008
Benefit (Mean) NPV over 15 years
Net Benefit NPV over 15 years
A 2148 £54.2M £31.7M -£22.5M
B 642 £16.2M £9.4M -£6.8M
C 205 £5.2M £3.0M -£2.2M
D 692 £17.5M £10.2M -£7.3M
To simplify the analysis, we have only reviewed the CBA for each of the spectrum blocks
identified. There may be a large range of other band alignment options that involve the
impact of the residual release of spectrum to other blocks when aligned, see note column in
Table 21.
The residual release of spectrum as a benefit has not been calculated owing to the added
complexity, but would need to be considered in any detailed analysis if this were an option
that was likely to be considered.
All of the partial alignment options result in a negative CBA, with Block C having the lowest
negative result.
8.5.4 Wideband Partial Alignment
In the Wideband Partial Alignment, the Extended Block B (453.0125 - 454.85625MHz) aligns
with Block A, from Figure 22, also Blocks C and D are considered for Partial Alignment.
Blocks E in Figure 23 along with other blocks mentioned above has been considered for
Partial Alignment. We have assumed that 2 x 4.5MHz would be required for wideband
services as a minimum in the range 452.5-457.6MHz paired with 462.5-467.5MHz, which
does not consider guard bands. In this band Programme Making and Special Events
(PMSE), Scanning Telemetry (ST) and Business Radio services would be impacted, making
this band difficult to align due to multiple stakeholders, however, if wideband CDMA services
were to be provided stakeholders have informed us that this is the preferred band.
The costs for moving equipment outside of UHF2 double as a result compared to moving
within the band, based on the analysis of the PA Consulting report.
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Figure 23 below illustrates four areas depicted as Block E for consideration for partial
alignment for the introduction of wideband services.
Figure 23 Area for potential alignment of Wideband Spectrum
The key assumptions used for the partial alignment options are:
���� PMSE has 4MHz of spectrum in the UHF2 band, 2x1.25MHz is considered for
Partial Alignment. This equates to 27.8 per cent of the UHF2 band under
consideration for Alignment;
���� The total costs figures derived from the PA report for full alignment for PMSE is
£29.5M, this figure has been adjusted for inflation from the total costs figures
derived from the PA report for full alignment, so for 27.8 per cent of the PMSE
band for Partial Alignment, the total cost calculated is £8.2M;
���� The total cost figure derived from the PA report for full alignment for Scanning
Telemetry is £23M, this figure gave a full total for Partial Alignment for Scanning
Telemetry of £23M;
���� Sufficient information on the producer surplus of equipment is not available, but
it can be assumed that this number is low given the uncompetitive nature of the
market as digital equipment such as TETRA cannot be allocated in the UHF2
Block E
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band in the UK, as the configuration of the UHF2 band is the other way around
to Europe and is not in accordance with ERC Recommendation TR 25-08;
���� Consumer surplus figures on mobile services (e.g. CDMA 450) is not needed to
be taken into account into the cost calculations for Partial Alignment as it is
assumed that this figure is low. This low figure was derived from a study
conducted by Europe Economics on the average size of the market for mobile
services;
���� No reduction in handset prices as a result of undergoing Partial alignment.
The results of our CBA modelling of partial alignment of block E are shown below at Table
23.
Table 23 Summary of Partial Alignment (Wideband) CBA results
Block Frequency Range (Amount) (MHz)
Single Frequency
Assignments
Dual Frequency
Assignments
No of Assignments benefiting from alignment
Cost in 2008
Benefit (Mean) NPV over 15 years
Net Benefit NPV over 15 years
B Extended
453.0125 – 454.85625 (1.84375)
2690 4860 1495 £37.7M Between £10.7M & £17.9M over 15 years (£14.3M)
-£23.4M
A 460.0 –462.475 (2.475)
5299 5548 2148 £54.2M Between £27.2M & £36.2M over 15 years (£31.7M)
-£22.5M
C 455.5 – 456.05 (0.55)
27 1009 205 £10.4M [costs
double]
Between £2.6M & £3.5M over 15 years (£3.05M)
-£7.4M
D 456.0625 – 456.975 (0.9125)
602 2893 692 £35M [costs
double]
Between £8.8M & £11.7M over 15 years (£10.2M)
-£24.8M
PMSE (1.25MHz x 2) £8.2M Marginal -£8.2M
ST All £80M Marginal -£80M
Spectrum Yield for Wideband (assuming value based on mid-point of Auction and AIP value) £36M +£36M
Consumer Surplus £50M +£50M
Total for Block E -£80M
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8.5.5 Sensitivity analysis
It is important to review the impact of key variables as part of any CBA. These key variables
are used to test what impact they would make on the Options used for both narrowband and
wideband services in the UK to the CBA results.
i. Sensitivity on the costs of alignment
For calculating the costs of band alignment, we have relied upon the results of the PA
Consulting report on the cost for full band alignment. The results of that report included a
detailed sensitivity analysis which was used in our analysis. Our sensitivity analysis has
focused on the sensitivity of the assumption that we have made on the benefits received for
each of the options.
ii. Methodology used
There are a number of techniques available for testing the sensitivity of the results. For the
purposes of our analysis, we have used a simplified approach and reviewed the impact on
the overall results realising marginal changes of 10 per cent benefits in key assumptions
used.
iii. Results and conclusions
Table 24 presents the results of the sensitivity analysis for a number of factors used to
assess the CBA for full band alignment, which tests the individual impact of each parameter
in isolation. This provides a broad assessment of the impact of the changes on the key
assumptions by varying the baseline assumption used in the modelling with an upper and
lower bound. It can be seen that individually the impact of varying the key parameters is
negligible and when applied to our CBA models, the impact on the overall results realised
marginal changes of ±10 per cent net benefits.
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Table 24 Sensitivity analysis of key factors on size of benefits for Full Band Alignment
Parameter Lower
Limit
Baseline assumption
Upper Limit
% impact on overall CBA
Cellular Cost savings due to reduced interference (average Cellular cost saving per month)
£4.50 -£8.5M
£5 per month
[£84.4M]
£5.50 £8.5M
± 4.2 %
Number of base stations at risk of interference – impact on network cost savings
4500 -£5.1M
5000
[£58.6M]
5500 £5.1M
± 2.6%
Number of base stations at risk of interference – impact on Cellular cost savings
4500
-£8.5M
5000
[£84.5M]
5500
£8.5M
± 4.2%
Average number of mobile phones per base station
27 -£8.5M
30
[£84.5M]
33 £8.5M
± 4.2%
Average level of continental interference (impact on total network cost savings)
6dB -£5.7M
7dB
[£58.6M]
8dB £5.7M
± 2.9%
Average life of a base station – impact on network cost savings
6 years
-£2.0M
5 years
[£58.6M]
4 years £1.7M
± 1.0%
8.6 Conclusions
The CBA provides a high-level assessment of the key costs and benefits and to assess the
impact of changes in these costs and benefits as a result of broad regulatory intervention
options. The results have been based on a number of assumptions about future unknowns.
While every effort has been made to produce accurate results, the CBA should only be used
to provide information at a broad level on the scale of costs and benefits for each of the
options. If any of the options were to be explored further, then we would recommend that
further detailed work be carried out on the costs and benefits.
The CBA figures in tables Table 20 to Table 23, provide guidance, based on previous
research and our assessment of the likely magnitude of net benefits for each option. These
results show that all options to a greater or lesser extent have a negative CBA. The options
can be ranked as follows:
���� Base case (do nothing);
���� Partial alignment (narrowband) – Block C only;
���� Partial alignment (narrowband) – other blocks;
���� Partial alignment (wideband);
���� Full alignment – managed.
In addition, we have drawn the following conclusions:
���� There is no net benefit in partial or full alignment of the UHF2 band.
���� Partial alignment to enable the introduction of wideband services in UHF2, would
lead to the disruption of many services and has a large negative net benefit.
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���� The sensitivity analysis results concluded that the impact on the overall results
of key assumptions realised marginal changes of 10% net benefits in the CBA
results, providing confidence that the assumptions made in the model are stable
and has provided relatively sensible results.
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9 Conclusions and Recommendations
9.1 Introduction
In this final chapter, we pull together the conclusions of the previous chapters with a brief
discussion and analysis, and then provide our recommendations to Ofcom on the future
policy suggested for the UHF2 band.
9.2 Summary of Findings
To aid in the understanding of the conclusions and recommendations and to summarise our
conclusions, we have posed the following key questions and provided our recommendation
based on the findings of the report.
9.2.1 Is there an appetite for spectrum re-configuration in the UHF2 band?
The main feature of most communication services in UHF2 is that they are generally self-
owned, self provided, and that the resilience of the service fits the need of the business and
most importantly, there are no airtime charges. The provision of self-provided services has
been a trade-off against functionality, resilience, capital and operational costs. It is clear that
many of these services have needed to consider this business case of spectrum re-
configuration in the UHF2 band over many years, particularly since the advent of GSM
technology, which has in the past removed users from the ‘business radio community’. The
amount of assignments within this band have remained quite steady over the past 5 years,
which suggests that a plateau has been reached for these niche services requiring
communications that cannot be provided by an operator. The stakeholders within this band
have confirmed they do not want any regulatory intervention to align the spectrum, unless
they are fully financially compensated and in some cases, that continuation of service is
guaranteed during any transition.
9.2.2 Will the current services continue to be allocated in UHF2 over the next 10 years ?
It is anticipated that over the course of the next few years, if operator services introduce
group calling and reduce airtime costs significantly, the majority of logistic services using
wide area (i.e. Taxi), which use a mix of voice and data, would move from UHF2 to operator
provided services such as GSM/UMTS. However, on-site services are expected to maintain
the same user base in UHF2 or indeed grow slightly, even with on-site mobile services being
offered through DECT, licensed exempt PMR446 and mobile technology in ISM bands.
We believe that digital technology, mainly in the form of DMR will become prominent in this
band, where there will be significant churn from analogue technology over the next 5-10
years. While digital technology increases voice capacity through TDD, we believe that
spectrum would not be significantly re-assigned to new use (through trading or return to
Ofcom) as users propensity to fill the capacity through more calls or additional services such
as data messaging will diminish this theoretical yield.
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We believe the user base will slowly diminish in UHF2 over the next 10 years as equipment
is replaced in wide area type services by as much as 50%, with these services being
replaced by different type operators which will make the market more competitive. Much of
this decline is predicated on the operators’ reduced airtime costs and the market’s
communications costs appraisal, leading to a change to operator provider services.
Therefore, if the spectrum yield from the reduction in the user base were aggregated then 2
x 0.1MHz (1% of the UHF2 Band) would be available for reassignment on a national basis.
The impact of this potential yield of spectrum is minimal, even though 50% of a market
sector (e.g. taxis) would no longer use this spectrum. Any further yield of spectrum, without
regulatory intervention will be wholly dependent on the intentions of the PSSPG, with
approximately 30% of the band available for re-assignment.
9.2.3 Is interference a key driver within the UHF2 band for spectrum re-configuration?
Interference is an issue for some people in particular and it is most troublesome when the
interference is not constant. However, interference can be mitigated and users accept that
radio use is sometimes unreliable. Therefore, to justify an interference solution through re-
configuration, a compelling business case would need to be shown. Our research shows
that even at a macro-economic level there is no economic benefit.
The only time that a business would possibly move out of a band is when the communication
system becomes so unreliable that the system needs to be changed and is costing the
company financial resources. The choices, which a business would then have, would be to
look at alternative means outside of the UHF2 band or possibly operator provided services.
Recently businesses have not relocated systems within or outside of the band because of
interference, mainly because very few cases have been reported and there is little use on
the continent to cause interference. However, if the situation were to change significantly
with the introduction of IMT2000 services in the UHF2 band on the continent, then it is
possible that systems would become un-useable on the South East Coast of the UK due to
interference.
The problem remains that in a market led approach with interference, where only a small
portion of the market is disadvantaged, in this case, the South East of the UK, some areas of
the UK will continue to be disadvantaged until the whole of the UK is aligned. This is due to
the ripple effect whereby if the South East is aligned then the Midlands receive interference
etc, so the interference just moves as systems are aligned. Therefore, the rest of the
country has no particular reason to align, as there would be little benefit, unless the ripple
effect is managed.
9.2.4 What is likely to happen within the UHF2 band if there is no direct regulatory intervention?
We believe most stakeholders would be satisfied with no direct regulatory intervention.
Indeed a statement to this effect would provide security of tenure in the band rather than the
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regulatory uncertainty, which has left businesses in uncertainty for of the past few years. It is
likely that systems will continue to be replaced and maintained and over a number of years,
with some services over-time moving out of the band. For those services that are in the
South East it is likely that increased interference will either force a move outside of the band
or indeed, force an alignment of ‘pockets’ of spectrum. Ofcom and the E&PSS spectrum
manager, through the market mechanisms such as trading and liberalisation, could facilitate
alignment. However, the ‘ripple effect’ and guard bands required to manage interference
would need to be managed, leading to difficulties in assigning spectrum.
i. Guard Bands when aligning spectrum
An important element of any partial band alignment or stepped full alignment is providing a
measure of protection to protect each service where there is aligned and unaligned
spectrum. This protection would in effect require allocating a guard band of the size of a
channel and also geographical separation in the order of kilometres between adjacent
channel users without additional site engineering being needed. Therefore, as alignment
takes place on particular channels a ‘ripple effect’ occurs where assignments need to have a
geographical separation. If alignment were to begin on the south coast, the effect of this
would be larger geographical separations within the UK, creating a ‘ripple effect’ of
interference. Managing interference for assignments would be complex to manage as the
interference would have an effect on adjacent assignments. Therefore, co-ordinating and
managing such an exercise is extremely labour intensive when having to consider a total of
17,000 assignments in the bands, can lead to a question of practicality.
9.2.5 If direct regulatory intervention was the way forward in the band, what would be the main challenges?
It is likely that stakeholders would prevent any attempt of direct regulatory intervention
without any assurances on costs and mitigating risks. Managing the costs and practical
implementation of a managed partial or full alignment project would be complex due to a lack
of resources such as skilled labour and high costs, which as identified in this report return no
net benefit.
It is our opinion that the only possible practical method of aligning spectrum in a co-ordinated
and efficient manner would be to use an ‘Overlay auction’, which is described in more detail
below. This method would be in our opinion the most appropriate method to introduce future
wideband services within the UHF2 band.
i. Regulatory Intervention in a fragmented band
One option for re-configuration of the UHF2 band is an ‘overlay licence’ or ‘overlay auction’,
which has been used successfully in other countries. There are two main circumstances in
which a spectrum band may need to be cleared of existing users:
���� when a band is fragmented;
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���� where a band needs to be re-farmed.
Overlay licences have been awarded for a block of spectrum which is occupied by existing
licensees where more efficient use would result by bringing together fragmented use.
An overlay licence gives the holder the right to do two things:
���� use any unencumbered spectrum immediately (provided there is such
spectrum), and;
���� use encumbered spectrum as and when it is cleared by the incumbent
licensees. The regulator would provide a period of notice to the incumbent
licences to vacate the use of spectrum.
Overlay licences have been used when there is a need to clear spectrum of existing users
(as was the case in the USA and Canada), and when it is regarded as useful to create
alternative arrangements for managing spectrum (as was the case in New Zealand).
Overlay licences provide mechanisms for accelerating the reassignment of spectrum. This is
achieved by the following:
���� the overlay licensee is awarded rights to a block of spectrum which includes
unencumbered and encumbered spectrum;
���� the overlay licensee is permitted to start using any available unencumbered
spectrum immediately;
���� the regulator serves revocation notice on incumbents; and
���� the overlay licensee is empowered to negotiate with incumbents on relocation
or revocation before their revocation notice period terminates.
In the case of UHF2, where the band is fragmented between a large number of small users,
overlay licences could be issued to one or more overlay licensees with incumbent users
either relocated to another band, or having their requirements met in some other way (e.g.
by a service provider). However, the use of Overlay licensing needs to be balanced by a
cost-benefit analysis, socio-economic and political impact of undertaking such an option.
9.3 PEST Analysis
We conducted a Political Economic Social and Technical (PEST) analysis to aid us in
making recommendations for this complex topic. The PEST analysis is a standard tool used
by management consultants when faced with analysing complex subjects on a variety of
levels. We have produced a summary of the results, shown below at Figure 24, based on
the three main options: no intervention, partial or full alignment.
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Figure 24 PEST Analysis
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Political: Current Legislation/Home Market
Political: European Legislation
Political: Government Policies
Political: Lobbying/Pressure Groups
Economic: CBA
Social: Consumer choice
Social: Rural acccess to IMT2000
Technological: Interference
Technological: Technology Access
Technological: New Services
No Intervention
Full Intervention
Partial Intervention
As can be seen from Figure 24 there is strong Political and Economic motivation for not
intervening and allowing the market mechanism of spectrum trading and liberalisation to
enable the part of the market that may wish to align. Full intervention has strong social and
technological benefits but would have little political or economic incentive. However, partial
alignment seems to sit in between the two extremes, with lesser technological and social
benefits than full alignment but greater political and economic reasoning.
9.4 Summary of Conclusions
We have provided detailed conclusions at the end of each chapter, but have summarised
these into the following main points:
���� Stakeholders see little benefit in alignment and we believe that any forced
alignment without funding would be blocked politically;
���� The UHF2 spectrum within the UK for the South East of the UK is at a
disadvantage due to the possibility of interference from the Continental
Europe disadvantages the South East UK mainly in terms of interference.
This disadvantage can manifest itself through loss of coverage area and
temporary denial of service. The current interference situation is manageable
owing to little use of the UHF2 band on the continent;
���� The UHF2 band will be an IMT2000 band, which may mean that in the future
Western Europe will change its use from Narrowband to Wideband services
within this band, which could potentially lead to increased interference;
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���� The Cost Benefit Analysis indicates that ‘forced’ alignment within the band
produces no net benefits. The costs of alignment outweigh the potential
benefits;
���� There are now regulatory measures in place coupled with the appointment of
a future Spectrum Manager for the E&PSS that would aid the market to
proceed with any future alignment of spectrum within the UHF2 band.
The CBA results below for Table 25 indicates that other than proceeding with the ‘do nothing
option, the case for partial alignment is marginal.
Table 25 Ranked CBA
Rank Net Benefit
1 Base case (do nothing) -
2 Partial alignment (narrowband) – Block C only -£2.1m
3 Partial alignment (narrowband) – other blocks -£6.7m to -£22.4m
4 Partial alignment (wideband) -£80m
5 Full alignment – managed -£189m
The Band Alignment project was withdrawn by Ofcom in 2004. This project was generally a
process of partial alignment steps, through which these steps are taken through the use of
vacant spectrum as a result of the Emergency Services migrating out of the band, for which
over a period of a few years would have resulted in full alignment. We do not believe that
this process would have been suitable to either industry or indeed Ofcom due to the
upheaval, uncertainty and cost over a long duration this would have had on industry. We
believe that if now Ofcom were to opt for partial or full alignment of the band, then the use of
an Overlay auction process would be attractive, allowing notice to be served on incumbents
of the UHF2 band and allowing the market the option to migrate to new services and new
spectrum. However, our analysis leads us to conclude that a policy of no regulatory
intervention should be maintained, due to the introduction of flexible digital technology, the
CBA results and the regulatory measures currently in place should enable the market to
reconfigure the spectrum should they wish.
9.5 Recommendations
Following on from our conclusion that Ofcom should not force any re-alignment with UHF2
we have the following recommendations:
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���� Ofcom should not directly intervene in any alignment of the UHF2 band and
should enable the market to align through market mechanisms such as
trading and liberalisation, assisting where necessary;
���� Ofcom should assist the E&PSS spectrum manager (Post 2009) in working
closely with UHF2 stakeholders in any re-configuration of the band;
���� MASTS should be modified or processes put in place to assess the impact of
aligning a channel within unaligned spectrum and amendments to the
algorithm for a guard band and geographical separation needed between co-
channel users. This tool should also be used to assist in any future re-
configuration of the band;
���� Ofcom should proceed with developing an MOU with the its continental
neighbours to avoid any future interference;
���� Ofcom must decide and communicate the future policy for the UHF2 band in
order to remove uncertainty over the band to users;
���� Ofcom should continue to monitor interference that may be caused by any
future deployments of wideband networks from the Continent and the impact
this would have from current licensees;
���� If Ofcom does decide to proceed with alignment, we would recommend Partial
Alignment where users of the UHF2 band are least impacted and further
detailed analysis is carried out.
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Appendix A: Stakeholder Engagement
Air Radio
Arqiva
Communities and Local Government (CLG)
CSS Spectrum Management Services
EADS
Federation of Communication Services (FCS)
Intellect
Joint Frequency Management Group (JFMG)
Motorola
National Police Improvement Agency (NPIA)
Network Rail
Office of Communications (Ofcom)
On site Communications Association (OSCA)
Zapp Holdings (formerly Inquam)
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Appendix B: Interference
B.1 Types of interference
Ofcom manages spectrum to avoid harmful interference48
primarily49
on two levels; co-
channel and adjacent channel interference, which we discuss in the following sections of
this appendix.
The consequences of co-channel or adjacent channel interference in voice schemes
manifests itself to the users as poor audio quality or other audio signals breaking through
into the system. For data systems, the effects are data errors, or no data received at all.
Interference in its worst case can cause systems to be blocked, which in effect makes them
unusable.
B.2 Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
To avoid harmful interference no two assignments should normally be assigned the same
frequency (co-channel) in the same geographical area. Planning criteria is used to
determine the frequency re-use. For co-channel use in the UHF2 band it is essential to
understand both the technical criteria that determine the re-use distance and also where
the terrain forms a natural obstacle between different co-channel users. As spectrum is
becoming increasingly more utilised and the availability of usable frequencies becomes
scarce, natural obstacles can play an important role. The efficient use of spectrum is the
balance between avoiding harmful interference and the potential to assign as many
channels as close together as possible.
The mitigation techniques that are used to reduce the levels of CCI in UHF2 include
CTCSS (Continuous Tone Code Squelch System) which transmits encoded tones onto the
channel which is then detected by the receiver to filter the wanted signal. This type of
mitigation technique enables the users to share a radio channel resource, which is blocked
from use by other users during transmission. This orderly use of the channel enables many
users to share a channel in a manner that provides polite access. Other CCI mitigation
techniques include cross-polar discrimination, this can be in the order of 12 dB protection,
where one service uses horizontally polarised antennas against another co-channel service
operating vertically polarised antennas.
Many different applications and services are used in the UHF2 band across the UK. Many
channels that are occupied are used by mobile systems on a national basis. However,
48
where “harmful interference” is defined by ITU as that which “…endangers the functioning of a radionavigation service or of
other safety services or seriously degrades, obstructs or repeatedly interrupts a radiocommunication service operating in accordance with Radio Regulations.” 49
There are others not covered by this report such as inter-modulation and 3rd order harmonics
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considering the vast and diverse use of the UHF2 spectrum, CCI does not occur very often.
This is due to the careful planning of frequency assignments, the application of standard
channel protection requirements such as system protection ratios and the use of standard
equipment whose radiated emissions are limited by specifically designed spectrum masks.
The benefit of this high level spectrum management means that more usable channels are
available for assignment and the optimum use can be gained from the spectrum.
B.3 Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI) and Out Of Band Emissions (OOBE)
Spectrum planning and the process of assigning new frequencies must consider the impact
of adjacent channel interference (ACI) and Out-of Band Emissions (OOBE).
ACI can occur when two services are located in close proximity with their assigned
frequencies are on adjacent channels. ACI can cause those channels to become unusable
due to the high level of unwanted emissions radiating into adjacent services.
The diagram shows the desired
(wanted) signal in the frequency
domain and where the relative
interference can occur. Out of band
interference occurs adjacent to the
wanted signal where some of the out
of band signal spills over into the
wanted signal which causes the
interference.
To mitigate against this type of interference, channel protection ratios are used in the
interference calculations to determine the acceptable level of signal into the wanted
system. The level of protection ratio is dependent on whether the unwanted system is co-
channel, adjacent channel or 2nd
adjacent and so on. It is often the case for spectrum
planning that to make the most efficient use of the spectrum to determine if a new service
can use the adjacent channel near to the existing service. In order to introduce a new
service geographically close to an existing service stringent limits must be applied to the
out of band emissions of the adjacent service so as not to cause harmful interference.
Out of band emissions are the unwanted emissions that are transmitted outside the
necessary bandwidth of the system. This is managed using spectrum emission masks that
are put in place to reduce/remove the out of band emissions of radio equipment. However
if the incorrect limits are put in place this mechanism can cause adjacent channel
interference to a system.
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In Europe harmonised radio equipment standards are developed in accordance with the
relevant EC directives that enable equipment manufacturers and national regulatory bodies
to specify the radiated limits of out of band emission masks. The radiated emission limits
that are chosen must provide adequate protection in the out of band domain, therefore
ensuring no harmful interference to frequencies operating in the adjacent channel. The
adjacent channel power for land mobile systems is:
���� 60 dB for 12.5 kHz separation
���� 70 dB for 20/25 kHz separation
Equipment deployed in the UHF2 band in the UK must be products from technically
compliant manufacturers which must be in accordance with The Radio Equipment and
Telecommunications Terminal Directive 99/5/EC (R&TTE). It is illegal to sell and bring in to
service equipment that is not compliant to the relevant equipment standard or meets the
national interface requirements.
B.4 Potential Sources of Interference
Radio equipment operating within the UHF2 band could potentially suffer interference from
a number of interference sources across the UK. Systems operating near or within the 450-
470 MHz band include the Fylingdales radar. There is also the potential for users in the
UHF2 band to suffer interference from wideband digital systems in the future. Wideband
systems introduced into the UHF2 band could interfere with the incumbent narrowband
systems that currently operate in the UHF2 band.
B.4.1 Fylingdales
The Fylingdales Radar operates in the frequency band 420-450MHz, with the vast majority
of energy directed upwards, for the detection of potential missiles and aircraft. The main
beam cannot be aimed lower than an elevation of 3° above the horizontal, with the first side
lobe at an angle of 2.9° to the main beam, which is considered the main source of potential
interference. In theory, the radar can only interfere with base stations at a height of 30m for
distances less than 150km away from the radar site.
Business Radio shares the UHF 1 band with the MoD and all business assignments in the
UHF1 band must be co-ordinated with RAF Fylingdales, ensuring that a set power-sum
interference base-line is not exceeded. Ofcom has developed a tool to undertake this co-
ordination, to validate any amendments or applications within the UHF1 band.
The impact to the users in the UHF2 band from Fylingdales is not significant enough to
require formal coordination. However, it is understood that operation near the Fylingdales
site require processes for setting up an exclusion zone for users operating near the radar.
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In addition, it is unclear whether the OOBE from Fylingdales would affect any services
around 450MHz, and business radio services wishing to use UHF spectrum may have to
use UHF2.
B.4.2 Wideband Digital Services
It is possible that in future Wideband Digital Services could be used in the 450-470 MHz
band. These wideband digital services have a bandwidth that is greater than 25 kHz. In
practice services that could potentially be deployed in UHF2 which use bandwidths greater
than 25 kHz are TETRA and CDMA systems. The latest release of TETRA systems specify
bandwidth up to maximum of 150 kHz for TETRA TEDS. For CDMA 450 the bandwidth
specified is 1.25 MHz.
The operation of TETRA TEDS in the 450-470 MHz band would require guard bands to be
equal to or greater than half the bandwidth of operation in order to prevent interference to
the incumbent narrowband systems. The effect of wideband systems into narrowband
systems is the overall level of the noise floor increase across the wider bandwidth can
cause increased interference to narrowband systems. This can be significant enough to
cause narrowband systems to be unusable. This could be due to blocking effects in the
receiver front end.
With appropriate guard bands CDMA technology should be able to co-exist with other
narrow-band technologies such as DMR and TETRA, with the following mitigations:
���� Introduction of filters, guard bands or frequency separation around the duplex
transition frequency.
���� A guard band of 200kHz in the uplink-uplink (MS-BS) and Downlink-downlink
(BS-MS) interference paths.
���� A frequency separation of 125kHz at the duplex transition frequency between
the uplink and downlink bands (MS-MS) interference path.
���� A frequency separation of 1875kHz between the uplink and downlink bands
(BS-BS) interference path.
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Appendix C: UHF2 Interference Regulation
C.1 Introduction to interference regulation
International radio communications regulations are negotiated, agreed and mandated
between member states through the activities of the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU). Regulations concerning the use of the radio spectrum consider the affects of
interference and the ITU outlines the regulations that members states must adopt to ensure
the proper procedures are in place to reduce or prevent interference from occurring
between users and member states.
The UK, through its legislation The Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006, specifies its own
regulations for managing interference through powers granted by the Government to
Ofcom. It is these regulations that define the nature of interference in the context of using
the radio spectrum and how it is managed in the UK.
Interference becomes harmful if the operation of wireless telegraphy apparatus creates
dangers or risk of danger to services providing safety of life but also if it degrades,
obstructs or repeatedly interrupts anything that is being broadcast or otherwise transmitted:
(i) by means of wireless telegraphy; and
(ii) in accordance with a wireless telegraphy licence, regulations under section 8(3) or a
grant of recognised spectrum access or otherwise lawfully.
The description of harmful interference given above can also be regarded as undue
interference, since the Wireless Telegraphy Act states:
“Interference with any wireless telegraphy is not to be regarded as undue for the purposes
of this Act unless it is also harmful.”
It is Ofcom’s responsibility to maintain a high level of spectrum quality and reduce or where
possible prevent the occurrence of interference. To aid the understanding of the types of
interference that users may suffer, two high level definitions are given below:
���� Legal transmissions, where authorised users have been incorrectly
assigned frequencies or are operating outside of the permitted criteria.
���� Illegal transmissions operating on the same or adjacent frequencies as
authorised users.
Ofcom have an obligation under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006 to control both of these
types of interference in order to maintain clean and efficient spectrum. Regulations set out
in the Act enable Ofcom to define guidelines for mitigating interference and if necessary
Ofcom will intervene to remove the source of interference. The adverse consequences of
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interference affect users, operators, suppliers and manufacturers who all rely on the safe,
reliable and available operation of the spectrum.
Legal transmissions are managed by adopting clear spectrum policy guidelines and
creating technical frequency criteria and technical parameters that can be easily
implemented when assigning spectrum.
Illegal transmissions are controlled either through monitoring by Ofcom or by users
reporting interference to Ofcom, who would then investigate the matter further.
C.2 Interference environment for UHF2 band
Users of UHF2 spectrum currently benefit from the planning and management of
interference by Ofcom. Assignments in the UHF2 band are made based on technical
criteria defined by Ofcom and knowledge of the interference environment and incumbent
use. To enable the appropriate planning of frequency assignments in the UHF2 band the
following spectrum management instruments are used:
���� Interface Requirements considering the emission masks and equipment
standards;
���� Technical frequency assignment criteria (TFAC);
���� Mobile Assignments Technical Systems (MASTS)
���� International coordination agreements e.g. Berlin Agreement, Memorandum
of Understanding (MoU);
���� Spectrum usage rights (SUR’s).
These instruments aid the management of interference and define the service area, out of
band and spurious emission limits and transmission rights of licensees. In conjunction with
these instruments, Ofcom is able to issue a variety of different licence classes that meet
the specific needs of users, such as shared or exclusive use of an assignment or a mixture
of both.
The management of frequencies is conducted using known propagation characteristics,
system losses and antenna systems for calculations to determine usable and interference
limited service areas to ensure safe and reliable operation of the radio spectrum.
In the following sub sections, we describe each of the instruments that are used to aid the
management of spectrum to fully understand the complex process for making frequency
assignments in the UHF2 band. Each sub section describes a particular policy, guideline or
requirement that applies to licensees and users of the UHF2 band.
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C.2.1 Interface Requirement (IR)
Interface requirements specify the minimum technical requirements of a particular
technology or service. Licensees operating in the UHF2 band are required to adhere to the
minimum requirements of IR2044 for Land Mobile Services or IR2030 for Short Range
Devices.
The particular requirements that would affect the use of equipment in the UHF2 band are
the equipment parameters specified in the IR and the requirements applied to achieve the
desired level of compatibility within the channel spacing for land mobile services, this
currently includes 12.5 kHz and 25 kHz. Ofcom has recently announced that IR2044 will be
updated to include 6.25 kHz channel spacing for use in the UK.
C.2.2 Technical Frequency Assignment Criteria (TFAC)
The Technical Frequency Assignment Criteria (Ofw164) describes the technical
parameters and the processes for frequency assignments for Business Radio services.
The TFAC applies to all frequencies used for Business Radio services.
A new TFAC for business radio is currently under development by Ofcom and provides the
technical parameters for the newly developed licence products discussed in Chapter 2.
The new TFAC contains the details of the new MASTS software tool giving a description of
the process of how MASTS will be used to make assignments. This new process for
making assignments will benefit users operating in the UHF2 band due to increased
flexibility of use of the spectrum. Users will be able to increase the volume of their mobile
network more easily and without reference to Ofcom. Furthermore, there will be no
restriction on the type of technology used, as long as it does not exceed the limit of
causing interference to neighbouring users.
The TFAC for scanning telemetry (Ofw 49) contains the frequency criteria specifically for
fixed terrestrial point to point and point to multipoint services in the UHF2 band. This
document describes the particular criteria networks must adhere to for successful
frequency assignment. The criteria can include calculations for EIRP of transmitters, co
channel protection requirements and specifications of particular antenna design.
C.2.3 Mobile Assignments Technical System (MASTS)
MASTS, an automated frequency assignment tool, has been in development for a number
of years and will be in service by the end of 2008. The MASTS tool will be used for making
assignments for all areas of business radio including UHF2.
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The benefits of using MASTS in particular for UHF2 assignments is the ability to quantify
the spectrum quality in terms of interference, and determine the amount of available
spectrum for use in the band. Ultimately, MASTS will be used to make more effective
assignments due to the predictive nature of analysis of the interference environment. This
will result in either more channels available for assignment in the same frequency band or
being able to ‘squeeze’ more geographical users from the existing channels. Using the
MASTS algorithm a ‘Band Alignment tool’ was developed and in 2004 it was calculated that
if the assignments were re-packed in the UHF2 band then Ofcom could have had a
spectrum yield of between 2-3MHz50
.
This tool will assign spectrum based on a set of rules and technical criteria (introduced in
the new (TFAC)) that will determine the spectrum quality and protection requirements. The
tool is also able to take account of terrain and other assignments thereby defining which
frequencies can be used in a particular location. This is a change to the current primary
practice of establishing a generic protection distance between base stations for particular
licence classes.
When the MAST tool is used to assign channels in the UHF2 band, in its current unaligned
state, it is likely that a few more assignments may be made in spectrum otherwise thought
as full. This packing of assignments may lead to incumbents being subjected to more
interference than previously experienced. However it should be noted that all assignments
suffer from interference; the difference with MASTS is that the level of interference will be
planned and part of the licence conditions.
The MASTS process is underpinned by the Technically Assigned licence product for
shared and exclusive use. An assignment can be identified for an activity factor, which is a
measure of what percentage of time an assignment is transmitting. For example, a shared
assignment is an assignment that transmits no more than 50% of the time in its busiest
hour. An exclusive assignment is one that either transmits up to 100% of the time, more
than 50% of the time in its busiest hour or requires extra protection because of either
business or safety critical reasons. The activity factor determines the amount of time that
an assignment may block another assignment from transmitting at that point in time.
With the nature of Business Radio in a shared environment, there may be instances when
a user exceeds the activity factor (as defined by their assignment type) over a short period.
If there are continual breaches of the guideline criteria then it may be necessary to liaise
with the users concerned and move them to Exclusive status or move them to a different
channel (where possible).
MASTS will benefit users of the UHF2 band as it can be used to help reduce the likelihood
of interference by way of more carefully assigning spectrum. MASTS will have the ability to
coordinate aligned and non-aligned UHF2 frequencies that should there be alignment of
the band there are tools in place to aid the development of new systems helping prevent
50
According to the Radiocommunications Agency/Ofcom
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the likelihood of increased interference. In addition, there is scope for the tool to assist in
the market aligning the spectrum, assignment by assignment.
C.2.4 International coordination and Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
Ofcom has a duty to co-ordinate all assignments with neighbouring countries to manage
the risk of international interference. Either this is achieved through ITU regional
agreement treaties such as Geneva 06, or an agreed Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU), or in the absence of a formal agreement, the Harmonised Coordination Method
(HCM) Agreement (formerly the Berlin Agreement) is used (adhering to the general
principals of CEPT Recommendation T/R 25-08 for UHF2).
If a proposed assignment is in breach of the requirements in place then it is the
responsibility of the country wishing to use the assignment to send a request for
International Co-ordination to the countries affected. Assignment will often depend on
whether a specified concession can be agreed upon. Such concessions are usually agreed
upon in the form of an MOU, where usually, preferential channels to each party are defined
where the normal co-ordination level can be exceeded to a specified level. The UK does
not have an MoU for the UHF2 band and therefore by default complies with the procedures
in accordance with the HCM Agreement. The necessity for adopting these coordination
procedures is bound by the ITU Radio Regulations that state that national administration
must notify the ITU of any frequency assignment likely to cause harmful interference into a
neighbouring administration.
A possible consequence of continental interference to licensees operating in the UHF2
band in the UK could be that their service becomes unusable. In the case of mission critical
systems and E&PSS this is unacceptable and is not an option that would be tolerated by
users and licensees. Currently, the low level activity in the UHF2 band in continental
Europe is not posing an immediate threat to UK licensees, so currently there is no cause
for concern.
The procedure in place, the HCM, is specified for co-ordinating CEPT harmonised
spectrum, which the UK is not harmonised to. The problem of not being harmonised, but
having a default co-ordination procedure is illustrated in the figure below.
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The figure above illustrates UHF2 continental interference between Europe and the UK.
As the UK is non-CEPT aligned the base transmitter frequency in Europe is on the same
frequency (f2) as the UK base station receive. The implications of this are the base station
transmitter in Europe generates co-channel interference to base stations receivers
operating in the UK. It is conceivable a mobile in the UK trying to communicate with a base
station in the UK is unable to do so due to interference from Europe. Chapter 6 investigates
the interference scenario between mobile networks deployed in the UK suffering
interference from networks deployed in continental Europe. The modelling includes the
impact to narrowband and wideband systems.
C.2.5 Spectrum Usage Rights (SUR)
Spectrum usage rights are currently being debated with Ofcom and the industry to
determine how usage rights of spectrum would affect users and licensees. Users of
spectrum will have as a main priority the availability of services using that spectrum. This
implies a strictly controlled interference environment where service availability is assured.
SUR are in direct support of providing technology neutrality, where currently spectrum
masks and TFACs make assumptions on the technology used.
Currently the use of spectrum is managed by the knowledge and understanding of the
technologies and systems being deployed so the amount of interference is controlled
indirectly. In future, the rights of licensees will be defined in terms of the maximum Power
Spectrum Density that can be received at a boundary. Therefore, where there is inflexibility
of use, SURs could provide a solution where a user could introduce a new service or
technology that can use the geographical or spectrum mask more efficiently.
Users of spectrum in the UHF2 band could make particular use from SURs especially for
users of mission critical systems and emergency and public safety services. It is vital these
services do not suffer harmful interference that could affect safety of life services such as
the Fire and Rescue Services radio network as the consequences could potentially be
disastrous. SURs would provide the type of solution to these problems by specifying the
maximum interference that can be tolerated by these critical systems thus enabling the
development of networks and technology around them without further disruption.
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SURs could also benefit other business radio users in the UHF2 band. SURs offer the
flexibility to change use, which could be a change in technology or increase in power levels
or deployment density. This type of flexibility would enable development of networks, or the
introduction of a new technology benefiting the industry as a whole.
The most recent statement released from Ofcom (Dec 07) on controlling interference using
Spectrum Usage Rights specifies the transition arrangements of SURs from development
to implementation. It specifically examines the format of SURs and the definition and
change process to licenses. This will have a positive impact for users of the UHF2 band
and will be realised as licensees continue to develop their networks and wish to introduce
new technologies and systems in order to meet demand of the end users. However, the
complexity of working within SURs is above and beyond the capabilities of most of the
industry, where it is either anticipated that the industry will push back the introduction of
SURs on the grounds of complexity or a new advisory industry will be created based
around SURs.
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Appendix D: Modelling Interference
D.1 Modelling of Stations
To undertake the modelling, fictitious interfering networks have be defined in Europe and
live networks in the UK modelling for both the narrowband and wideband scenarios
required to demonstrate interference scenarios. It is important to note that the modelling
demonstrates the scenario of the maximum permitted interference from the continent in
terms of the co-ordination recommendation TR25-08.
D.2 Interfering Stations in Europe
To model interference from the continent a fictitious network consisting of a transmitter
every 10km along the North and East coasts of France, Belgium and Holland was
modelled. The transmitters have a defined antenna height of 30m above ground level with
a maximum ERP of 25W and an activity factor of 1, meaning that they are permanently
transmitting (active). The ERP was then modified where necessary so that the power
incident at the coast of the UK meets TR25-08 recommendations of 20dBuV/m for 10% of
the time at 10m above ground level for a single transmitter, see the figure below.
This fictitious network has two variants, the first meets the CEPT frequency plan in that it
will transmit in the 460 to 470 MHz band and receive on the 450 to 460MHz band (Transmit
on from mobile users) and the second will be CEPT reversed so that the effects of UK
becoming CEPT aligned can be examined. These systems are also on the same co-
channel as the narrowband and wideband modelling in UK.
Co-located with the base stations is a mobile station that is also implemented with the
same antenna pattern as the base station (omni) but with an antenna height of 1.5m agl
and with 25W transmit power with an activity factor of 0.5. The transmit and receive
frequencies are exchanged for the mobile station. The mobile station is not coordinated
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with the UK and hence may not meet the TR25-08 recommendation for exported
interference.
D.3 UK Narrow Band Stations
To be able to determine if changes in the spectrum usage have an effect on the current
state of affairs, major users of the spectrum were selected for inclusion in the modelling.
The frequencies were mapped on to a consistent raster assignment with a 10MHz duplex
split. This was undertaken to simplify the interference calculations and to remove frequency
channel effects from the modelling.
The following mobile parameters were applied:
Product Code Description Mobile TX power (Watts)
401060 On site PBR speech and data 5W
407010 Wide-area PBR speech and data 25W
407020 Wide area PBR (one way paging and speech)
NA
409010 National & Regional PBR 25W
502020 Public mobile data 10W
Police Police Service 25W
Fire Fire Service 5W
���� Antenna height 1.5m above ground level
���� Antenna gain 0dBd
���� Transmit and Receive frequencies exchanged
To allow the model to be exercised
with other systems without having to
take into account the real channel
frequencies, all the selected records
have had their frequencies modified
so that all the users are 2 channels
apart (so that adjacent channel
effects will not be seen) in the
middle of the band with a consistent
10MHz duplex spacing.
The following figure shows both the
base stations and mobile stations (approx. 4350 records) were used in the modelling.
The green dots
indicate stations
with frequency
duplex
assignments and
the blue dots
indicate single
frequency
operation.
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D.4 UK wide band stations
We assumed an IMT-2000 network, with assumed traffic model characteristics for a mature
network, a 10km cell radius in rural areas and 1km cell radius in urban areas. The following
parameters were used:
Base station parameters Mobile station parameters
Transmit Power 40 dBm 20 dBm
Antenna Gain 17 dBi 0
Antenna height 30 m 1.5 m
Receive thermal noise -129 dBm -104 dBm
Duplexing FDD FDD
CEPT Alignment CEPT Reversed CEPT Reversed
Bandwidth 1.25 MHz 1,25 MHz
The coverage from the wideband systems were calculated and the power in a 12.5KHz
bandwidth was checked at the edge of the trading area. The limits at the edge of the 50km
trading squares (32dBµV/m in 1.25MHz, which is equivalent to 12dBµV/m into 12.5kHz)
were met, so the configuration would represent a potential realistic future scenario.
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D.5 Modelling areas of UK base stations
The modelling uses all of the stations described earlier in the modelling area but the
receiving interference and blocking effects are only taken in three areas of interest:
���� Thames Gateway - this area is Urban,
suburban and rural and will have severe
interference for the continent and
interference from other users in UK.
���� Coventry & Birmingham - this area will
have little interference from the continent but
will influence interference in the London
area. The area will be interfered with by
stations in the London area and the rest of
UK.
���� Bradford & Blackburn & Preston – this area will not have interference
form the continent but will suffer interference from mainly Coventry &
Birmingham area and to a less extent the Thames gateway and the rest of
the UK.
When the model is exercised, changes in the user parameters in the areas of interest will
allow the interference effects on any users to be seen. This study only shows interference
in the areas of interest to provide a base-line view of interference changes. The other
stations outside of the areas of interest will contribute to the degradations in the areas of
interest but are not considered as receivers.
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Appendix E: Narrowband Interference Modelling Results
The following two tables show a summary of the results obtained from the modelling,
showing the levels of interference for base stations and mobiles.
Effect of continental interference on Base Station receivers in UK
Modelling area Base stations
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-113.8 -118.34 -125.8
Number of Blockers 3.69 0.78 0.06
No Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
6.8 5.01 9.67
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-111.17 -118.12 -125.8
Number of Blockers 3.69 0.78 0.06
CEPT aligned
Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
6.19 4.96 9.67
Average Noise Level (dBm)
-111.6 -118.2 -125.79
Number of Blockers 3.89 0.78 0.06
CEPT reversed
Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
6.12 4.98 9.67
Where the “Average Noise Level” is the power sum of all the stations that are co-channel
(continental and UK based) and do not block the receiver for all the stations within the
modelling area in dBm. This data can be used with knowledge of the receiver’s noise floor
to determine the degradation in receiver performance in each area. This can then be
equated to loss of service area using the graphs in Section 6.5.
The “Number of Blockers” is the average number of blocking signal levels into each
station within the modelling area. This shows how many users are in effect sharing any
given channel and as a consequence the availability of the channel for any user. The
blocking level used is -112dBm and this level is used for both narrowband and wideband
systems. Although the term blocking denotes no entry, in reality this means that the radio
channel is actually shared, which is common place in PMR, where users wait until the
channel is not busy before transmitting through the aid of CTCSS51
.
51
See B.2
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The “Standard deviation of noise level” is the standard deviation of the noise levels
incident at the test receivers in the modelling areas.
Effect of continental interference on Mobile receivers in UK
Modelling area Mobiles
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford
No Continental Interference
Average Noise Level -119.42 -136.09 -141.19
Number of Blockers 2.38 0.25 0
Standard deviation of noise level
6.7 4.04 4.38
Average Noise Level -119.07 -136.00 -141.19
Number of Blockers 2.38 0.25 0
CEPT aligned
Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
6.32 3.98 4.38
Average Noise Level -118.95 -135.95 -141.18
Number of Blockers 2.38 0.25 0
CEPT reversed
Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
6.21 3.94 4.38
Note: the areas highlighted in Yellow are where the external interference from the
Continent is below the typical noise floor of the receiver.
Contribution from Continental base stations for % time
AVERAGE Noise Level (dBm) % time
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford Product Type
10% Time 1% Time 10% Time 1% Time 10% Time 1% Time
401060 -124.8 -110.9 -146.0 -135.4 -157.9 -143.1
407010 -130.0 -116.5 -125.4 -114.9 -156.4 -142.5
407020 -123.1 -111.2 -134.5 -123.9 -144.7 -129.5
409010 -118.1 -106.6
502020 -108.0 -101.5 -126.3 -115.7 -156.7 -144.6
Police -117.7 -106.5 -152.0 -137.7
Fire -140.8 -130.2
Total -120.3 -108.9 -134.6 -124.0 -153.6 -139.5
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Appendix F: Wideband Interference Modelling Results
Wideband systems were modelled in each of the areas of interest as described in
Appendix E. These wideband systems also meet the current trading rules described in
Appendix G.
When considering the effects of narrow band systems on the wideband systems the
modelling considered 20 channels worth of narrowband users (4350 stations) and not 100+
channels (20,000+ stations), owing to modelling time constraints. Therefore a fifth of the
wideband systems spectrum is interfered with by the narrowband systems. Scaling up the
narrowband contribution by 7.5dB provides an estimate of the narrowband interference that
can be obtained in the full wideband channel.
Initially, single wideband networks were deployed in the areas of interest with all the other
areas keeping their existing narrowband systems and modelled to produce the results
below.
Results for isolated Wideband systems deployed in the areas of interest
Modelling areas Single Wide Band Systems WIDEBAND BASE STATIONS
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford
Average Noise Level -97.1 -96.1 -100.68
Number of Blockers 160 156.5 93.1
No Continental Interference or Narrowband local UK interferers
Wide band systems in isolation
Standard deviation of noise level
1.74 1.16 2.54
Average Noise Level -84.1 -82.95 -87.98
Number of Blockers 1781 470 202
CEPT aligned Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
0.46 0.91 2.6
Average Noise Level -84.03 -82.94 -87.97
Number of Blockers 1099 470 202
CEPT reversed Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
0.46 0.88 2.6
These results show that UK narrowband stations under the current trading rules have a
catastrophic effect on wideband systems. The effect of narrow band systems in the UK is
to increase the noise levels in the wideband systems by 13 -14dB under the current trading
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rules. The number of blocking transmitters also increases significantly (2 to 10 times)
depending on the density of narrowband uses in the surrounding areas.
The effects of continental interference are minimal though if the same levels are used for
narrowband systems when considering base station into base station interference,
however the interference would have more of a significant impact.
The table below shows the results of modelling multiple wideband systems:
Modelling areas multiple Wide Band Systems
Thames Gateway & Birmingham
Birmingham & Bradford
WIDEBAND BASE STATIONS
Thames Gateway
Birmingham Birmingham Bradford
Average Noise Level -87.4 -84.4 -83.7 -89.7
Number of Blockers 1329 422 416 143
CEPT aligned Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
2.62 0.59 1.19 2.62
Average Noise Level -84,4 -84.4 -83.8 -89.8
Number of Blockers 1045 432 411 143
CEPT reversed Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
0.44 0.55 1.19 2.61
The noise and the number of blockers into the wideband systems decrease as other
wideband systems are deployed and the number of potential narrowband users decrease.
The narrowband users seem to have a disproportionate effect. This is because the spectral
density of the narrowband systems is much greater and as existing narrowband systems
are replaced with wideband systems hence the number of narrowband systems causing
blocking levels and high interference levels drop. The overall result is that the current
trading rules do not allow for a mixture of wide and narrowband systems to be deployed.
This can be seen further, when all three modelling areas have wideband systems as shown
in the table below.
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Modelling areas multiple Wide Band Systems WIDEBAND BASE STATIONS
Thames Gateway Birmingham Bradford
Average Noise Level
-90.97 -91.63 -95.90
Number of Blockers
316.93 198.06 103.13
No Continental Interference but all Wideband Systems modelled
Standard deviation of noise level
0.53 0.76 2.24
Average Noise Level
-84.4 -85.5 -90.0
Number of Blockers
1054 368 143
CEPT aligned Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
0.43 0.88 2.57
Average Noise Level
-84.4 -85.5 -90.0
Number of Blockers
1047 377 143
CEPT reversed Continental Interference
Standard deviation of noise level
0.44 0.82 2.58
Comparing the rows without continental interference with the cases where there are
continental interferers, shows for either aligned or reversed that as in the narrowband
situation continental interference has significant effect in the Thames Gateway area. In
addition, it also shows that if the wideband system were to be CEPT aligned there would
be an improvement.
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Appendix G: Spectrum Trading and Liberalisation Modelling
G.1 Method
All co-channel users within grid referenced 50km squares were removed. No users outside
the 50km squares exceeded -116dBm (This is equivalent to 12dBuV/m assuming a 0dBd
antenna) in a 12.5 KHz band at 1.5m agl for 50% time at the 50km square border.
Area of interest with 50 x 50km square trading areas
The picture above shows the Thames Gateway modelling area with its associated 50km
trading squares. The broadband system was modelled to cover only the selected Thames
Gateway area (pink area). In addition the wide band systems were modelled to be within
the 50km trading zone and meet the criteria at the trading zone border. As shown below.
Wide band system deployed in the Bradford area-showing limit of interference to 12dBuV/m
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Appendix H: Cost Benefit Analysis Assumptions
H.1 Option 1: Full Band Alignment
Key assumptions used for this option include:
���� Alignment takes place over 3 years. In year 4 the band is fully aligned;
���� Benefits and costs staggered - (20% accrue in Year 1, 30% accrue in Year
2, 50% accrue in Year 3, from Year 4 onwards, all costs have occurred and
100% of benefits are achieved each year);
���� Alignment does not occur until E&PSS has vacated the band;
���� Assume a 2 step alignment with existing UHF2 spectrum (probably the
E&PSS) used for parking or parallel networks;
���� There will be a spectrum yield of 2-3 MHz;
���� Interference reduced from an average of 7dB across the impacted area –
benefits lead to mixture of:
� Lower GSM costs of £5 per mobile (assume 30 mobiles per base
station with 5000 base stations subject to interference);
� Allows for a 45% reduction in network size (taking 5 years to
reconfigure network) (ie. The network coverage of each base station
increases by 45 per cent allowing for a reconfiguration of the network
over time and a reduction in the number of base stations needed for a
given level of coverage). Assume 5000 base stations subject to
interference;
���� Costs based on PA Report – site engineering evenly distributed across
segments;
���� A 5% reduction in the average cost of handsets occurs as a result of full
band alignment. The average cost of a handset is £65, the average number
of handsets per base station is 30, and the total number of base stations in
the UK is 14,790 (as per PA Consulting Report). For simplicity, we assume
that the number of handsets does not change over the period of analysis.
H.2 Option 2: Partial Band Alignment, with spectrum yield used for narrowband use
Key assumptions used for this option include:
���� Focus on 4 spectrum bands;
���� Least impact on existing users, no impact on critical infrastructure;
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���� Alignment does not occur until E&PSS has vacated the band;
���� One step alignment due to spectrum available from E&PSS vacating band;
���� No spectrum yield benefits;
���� Reduction in interference leads to a mixture of reduced network size or the
choice of the user to increase the size of the network and reduction in GSM
and other narrowband equipment costs(as per Option 1);
���� Costs based on PA Report – site engineering evenly distributed across
segments.
H.3 Option 3: Partial Band Alignment, with spectrum yield used for wideband use
Key assumptions used for this option include:
���� A targeted amount of spectrum (consistent with European CDMA-450) is
aligned;
���� A mixture of one-step and two-step alignment of spectrum;
���� Some spectrum alignment involves moving some existing spectrum users
permanently outside the band. We assume that this doubles the costs of
alignment (based on findings of PA cost report). We assume that these
users are provided with equivalent spectrum outside of the band at no extra
cost to them – and that they are able to provide equivalent service to what
they had provided in the 450-470 MHz band;
���� Costs based on PA Report - Assume site engineering costs evenly
distributed across segments;
���� Reduction in interference leads to a mixture of reduced network size or the
choice of the user to increase the size of the network and reduction in GSM
and other wideband equipment costs(as per Option 1);
���� Alignment results in a yield of 4.5 MHz paired spectrum, which is allocated
to wideband use.
H.4 Base Case – no intervention
We assume the following if no action is taken to align the band:
���� Spectrum trading does not lead to significant spectrum yield (existing
allocations too complex for spectrum trading to make significant impact);
���� Technology allows for interference to be managed at current levels;
���� Any changes in continental interference can be managed without significant
cost (more digital equipment allows for easier re-tuning using Over the Air
retuning (OTAR technology) );
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���� Assume that continental neighbours do not introduce Wideband cellular at
450MHz.
Appendix I: Glossary
3G
The third generation cellular phone system, currently being deployed, which
offers higher data rates than previous systems allowing services such as
videophones
ACI or Adjacent channel interference Interference occurring in the adjacent channel. Also, see Interference.
AIP
Administered incentive pricing – setting charges for spectrum holdings to
reflect the value of the spectrum in order to promote efficient use of the
spectrum
Allocation
Used of a frequency band. Entry in the table of frequency allocations of a
given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or
space radio communications services or the radio astronomy service under
specified conditions. This term is also applied to the frequency band
concerned.
Assignment
Used of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel. Authorisation given by
an administration for a radio station to use a radio frequency or radio
frequency channel under specified conditions.
CBA Cost Benefit Analysis
Common Base Station (CBS)
A base station for PBR shared by users (also known as a community
repeater) or a PBR installation giving wide area coverage under the control
of one or more operators offering mobile communications on a commercial
basis to a number of independent (usually business) users.
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access: A radio transmission method where individual
traffic transmissions use the same frequency, but where users’ traffic is
separated by means of different codes.
CEPT European Conference of Post and Telecommunications Administrations
CTCSS Continuous Tone Code Squelch System
DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone
DMB Digital Multimedia Broadcasting
DMR Digital Mobile Radio – a new PMR standard from ETSI
Duplex Split Where sensitive receivers are separated from potentially hostile transmitters
by a significant amount of spectrum
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DVB-H Digital Video Broadcasting - Handheld
E&PSS Emergency and Public Safety Spectrum
ECC European Communications Committee
EFIS European Frequency Information System
EIRP Effective Isotropically-Radiated Power
ETSI
European Telecommunications Standards Institute: a European based
industry group that addresses equipment standards for telecommunications
equipment.
EU European Union
FDD
Frequency Division Duplex: A transmission method where the
downlink/downstream path and the uplink/upstream path are separated by
frequency.
GHz Gigahertz: a unit of frequency equal to 1000 million (1 x 109) Hz or cycles
per second.
GSM
Global System for Mobile communications: a 2G mobile phone technology.
This is the technology behind the vast majority of 2G mobile phones used
across Europe and is used by approximately 80% of 2G operators
worldwide. Also sometimes referred to under its original meaning of “Groupe
Spécial Mobile".
Guard Band Frequency range deliberately kept vacant between assignments to give a
level of protection to users on either side from interference from each other.
Harmful interference Interference with any wireless telegraphy is not to be regarded as undue for
the purposes of this Act unless it is also harmful – WT Act
IMT 2000 International Mobile Telephony 2000: a family of global standards for mobile
phone networks proposed by the ITU Also referred to as 3G.
Interference
The effect of unwanted signals upon the reception of a wanted signal in a
radio system, resulting in degradation of performance, misinterpretation or
loss of information compared with that which would have been received in
the absence of the unwanted signal.
ISM Industrial Scientific and Medical spectrum band, usually referring to the
2.4GHz band with WiFi being one of the well known services
ITU International Telecommunications Union
KHz Kilohertz (frequency of one thousand Hertz)
MHz Megahertz (frequency of one million Hertz)
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Paired Spectrum
Used by FDD systems where two frequency bands are used together, one
for transmission in the forward or downlink direction (e.g. base station to
handset) and another for transmission in the reverse or uplink direction
(e.g.handset to base station).
PBR Private Business Radio
PMR Private or Professional Mobile Radio
PMSE
Programme Making and Special Events – a class of radio application that
supports a wide range of activities in entertainment, broadcasting, news
gathering and community events
PPDR Public Protection and Disaster Relief
PSSPG Public Safety Spectrum Policy Group
RA Radiocommunications Agency
Scanning Telemetry Radio Frequencies that are licensed to the water, electricity and gas
companies for the purposes of data collection and telecommand.
Spectrum Framework Review (SFR)
Ofcom consultation on how spectrum will be managed in the future published
in November 2004.
Spectrum liberalisation
Removal of restrictions from WT licences and RSA to allow holders greater
flexibility to change how they use spectrum
Spectrum Mask A way of specifying the amount of power that a transmitter is allowed to
transmit into neighbouring frequency channels.
Spectrum trading
Ability of spectrum users to transfer rights and obligations under WT licences
to another person in accordance with regulations made by Ofcom. Trades
may be total, partial, outright or concurrent
SUR Spectrum Usage Rights
TDD
Time Division Duplex: A transmission method where the
downlink/downstream path and the uplink/upstream path are separated by
time.
TETRA
Terrestrial enhanced Trunked Radio Access: An ETSI standard for digital
mobile radio utilised by fleets of vehicles such as emergency services,
courier companies etc.
TFAC Technical Frequency Assignment Criteria – a document produced by Ofcom
detailing how the licensees are assigned on a technical basis
UHF Ultra High Frequency (300 MHz – 3 GHz)
UHF I UHF frequency band from 410 – 450 MHz.
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UHF II UHF frequency band from 450 – 470 MHz.
UKSSC
Cabinet Office committee that discusses matters relating to the use of the
radio spectrum, including by government departments and other public
sector bodies
Unpaired Spectrum
Used by TDD systems where only one frequency band is used for
transmitting in both the forward or downlink direction (e.g. basestation to
handset) and the reverse or uplink direction (e.g. handset to basestation).
WAPECS Wireless Access Platforms for Electronic Communications Services
WRC World Radio Conference
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