SummaryThis paper presents results of technical, functional and stylistic analyses on pottery from two Early Neo-lithic sites on Öland – Resmo and Runsbäck. Analyses include thin sections and XRF of clays and wares, lipid residue analysis and recording of stylistic attributes. The two sites are situated 15 km apart on the west side of the island. C14 dates place the activities at the sites at c. 3900–3600 BC and 3600–3100 BC respectively. While overall similarities are obvious, some structured differences are noted in the design as well as in the wares whereas vessel use patterns are strikingly similar between the two assemblages. In general, the Resmo assemblage is characterised by great homogeneity while the Runsbäck pottery displays more variation. It is suggested that the observed differences reflect differences in function and duration between the analysed sites.

Keywords: Sweden, Neolithic, Ceramic analysis, Petrography, P-ED-XRF, LipidAnalysis

ZusammenfassungDieser Beitrag präsentiert Ergebnisse technologischer, funktionaler und stilistischer Analysen von Ke-ramik zweier frühneolithischer Fundplätze auf Öland- Resmo und Runsbäck. Die Analysen enthalten Dünnschliffuntersuchungen und Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyen von Rohtonen und Keramik, ebenso wie Lipidanalysen und stilistische Untersuchungen. Die beiden Fundplätze liegen 15 km voneinander ent-fernt auf der Westseite der Insel. C14-Daten weisen jeweils auf Aktivitäten im Zeitraum von ca. 3900-3600 BC und 3600-3100 BC. Trotz genereller Ähnlichkeiten sind einige Unterschiede in Stil und Wa-renart zu verzeichnen, wogegen die Gebrauchsmuster der Gefäße auf den beiden Fundplätzen auffallend ähnlich sind. Grundsätzlich ist für das Resmo-Inventar charakterisiert durch eine große Homogenität, wogegen die Runsbäck Keramik größere Variabilität zeigt. Die beobachteten Unterschiede werden auf unterschiedliche Funktionen und Belegungsdauer der beiden Fundplätze zurückgeführt.

Schlüsselworte: Schweden, Neolithikum, Keramikanalyse, Petrographie, P-ED-RFA, Lipid-Analyse

Ludvig Papmehl-Dufay received his doctorate at Stockholm University in 2006. His thesis dealt with Pitted Ware pottery in southeast Sweden, in particular from the island of Öland. He is currently work-ing in the field of contract archaeology, where he combines fieldwork and research in order to continue studying the Neolithic of Öland. The study presented in this paper was part of his postdoctoral project at Linnaeus University, Kalmar, dealing with the Early Neolithic TRB culture, pottery, monuments and the meaning of place.

Ole Stilborg is Ass. Professor in Archaeological Science at the Archaeological Research Laboratory, Stockholm University, Sweden and has carried out contract workinvolving ceramics analyses since 1997. Since 2009 this research has been conducted within the framework of the company SKEA (Stil-borg Ceramics Analysis). Studies have been carried out in all periods of Scandinavianprehistory, as well as outside Scandinavia. His special interests are in the Middle Neolithic B era and intechnical ceramics (i.e. crucibles, furnace walls etc.).

For everyday use and special occasionsA multi-analytical study of pottery from two Early Neolithic Funnel Beaker

(TRB) sites on the island of Öland, SE Sweden

LUDVIG PAPMEHL-DUFAY (KALMAR), OLE STILBORG (LINKÖPING), ANDERS LINDAHL (LUND), SVEN ISAKSSON (STOCKHOLM)

124

Anders Lindahl is Professor of Archaeology at Lund University and head of the Laboratory for Ceram-ics Research. He has worked with ceramic analyses for more than a quarter of a century on materials from a broad range of periods and regions – primarily Scandinavia and Africa. He has special research foci on African pottery, ethnographic studies and experimental pottery making.

Sven Isaksson is Ass. Professor/Reader in Archaeological Science at the Archaeological Research Lab-oratory, Stockholm University, Sweden. His primary research interest concerns prehistoric cultures of food and subsistence. Working within the field of biomolecular archaeology he applies the chemical characterisation of food residues adhering to and absorbed in ceramic vessels. He advocates an inte-grated approach, including archaeological evidence, the application of several analytical techniques and contextual considerations, for sampling strategies and analyses as well as for the interpretation of data. In 2000 he presented his thesis ”Food and Rank in Early Medieval Times”. Since then he has led research projects on “Tracing Ancient Vegetable Food”; “By House and Hearth” (Late Iron Age/Early Medieval food culture) and “A Spartan way of life?” (Food culture in Bronze Age Sweden). He is cur-rently involved in an international collaboration on early hunter-gatherer pottery use, with analyses on one of the world’s oldest ceramic sequences: the Japanese Jomon.

125

Introduction

Early farming in southern Scandinavia is gen-erally attributed to the Funnel Beaker Culture (TRB), dating to c. 4000–2800 BC (LARS-SON 1992; MIDGLEY 1992). Associated traits include polished flint axes, elaborate pot-tery, megalithic burial traditions, permanent settlements and ritual enclosures, as well as incipient cereal agriculture and domesticated animals (ANDERSEN 1997; MALMER 2002). Hunting and fishing continued to be of ma-jor importance, and in many areas people did not fully depend on agriculture until the late Neolithic or even the onset of the Bronze Age (ERIKSSON et al. 2008). In the ensuing Mid-dle Neolithic (MN) period, the Funnel Beaker Culture on Öland as well as on the neighbour-ing Mainland is replaced by the Pitted Ware Culture (PWC) with a markedly different pot-tery design and technology and partly based on a marine hunting economy. The details of, let alone the reasons behind, this transition are still poorly understood.The origin of the Funnel Beaker Culture in Northern Europe is the topic of a long-stand-ing discussion primarily centred on the pot-tery (KOCH 1998, 26 ff.; MÜLLER 2011, 294 f.). Observations in southern Scandinavia point towards an internal gradual development of late Mesolithic Ertebölle pottery craft, from primitive H- and U-coil building techniques to the developed N-technique (ANDERSEN 2011, 199 ff.; STILBORG/BERGENSTRÅHLE 2001, 31), and there are good reasons to believe that the TRB pottery tradition reaching Öland in the Early Neolithic (EN) owes most of its exist-ence to developments in the Late Mesolithic societies in eastern Denmark and Scania.The TRB potters in southern Sweden mastered the N-coiling technique and in general they seem

to have accepted a variation in raw material ranging from fine to medium coarse clays, in most cases avoiding the really coarse and often unsorted clays (ibid). They preferred granite or quartzite as a temper and started relating the coarseness of the tempering – es-pecially the maximum grain size – to the size of the vessel.This general picture of the TRB pottery craft tradition, whichis based on analyses of pot-tery primarily from Scanian sites (HULTHÉN 1977; STILBORG 2002, 59 ff.), will be used as one of the base lines for the technological in-terpretations presented in this study. The other base lines are the especially difficult natural conditions for pottery production offered by the geology of Öland (see below). Most of the clays accessible in the topsoils are calciferous to calcium rich, something that any Neolithic potter in her/his right mind would always try to avoid due to the risks of firing/postfiring damage to the vessels. From previous ana-lyses of clay samples from the southern and central parts of the island, as well as of pot-tery samples from the TRB site at Alby and the Pitted Ware sites at Köpingsvik and Ot-tenby, also on Öland, it is clear that non-cal-ciferous clay beds were preferred but are few, generally small and often of a coarse unsorted quality (STILBORG 2006, 319 f.). This raw ma-terial scarcity logically results in a marked diversity in the clays used for pottery even within each settlement, and in the use of clays that would not have been deemed suitable for pottery making on the mainland.Food remains found adhering onto and ab-sorbed into ceramic vessels are today recog-nised as valuable sources of information in archaeology (EVERSHEDet al. 2001; EVERSHED 2008a). Even though the analysis of food li-pid residues has become a fairly frequent tool

126

in Swedish archaeology (ISAKSSON 2009), to date there are only a few studies published on material from Öland (e.g. PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006). In the present study, analyses of raw materials and vessel use are combined with more general data on pottery design in order to investigate issues regarding Neolithic ce-ramic craft and site function. While previous studies on Swedish materials have employed a similar multi-analytical approach (e.g. PAP-MEHL-DUFAY 2006; BRORSSONet al. 2007), in the case of Resmo and Runsbäck we have consistently used the same sample sherds for all the different types of analyses. In this way, comparisons between various aspects of the two sites are enhanced.

Divided by pottery?

This study presents the results of technologi-cal, functional and stylistic analyses of TRB pottery from two structurally different sites lo-cated on the island of Öland in the Baltic Sea. The study area of southern Ölandhas yielded an abundance of Stone Age sites, most notably four megalithic tombs in the parish of Resmo which make up the easternmost concentration of passage tombs in Northern Europe (PAP-MEHL-DUFAY 2006; 2011). Until recently Ear-ly Neolithic settlement sites were known in the area mainly from flint scatters identified through field surveys (ALEXANDERSSON et al. 1996). In 2008 the excavationof two sites by Kalmar County Museum changed that situa-tion. In both cases a wealth of TRB pottery was found together with flint debris and some burned bones, but the archaeological contexts differ. The analysis presented here targets ce-ramic technology, pottery design and vessel use in an attempt to understand how these dif-

ferences were expressed in terms of pottery production and use.

Sites analysed

The island of Öland is situated off the Swed-ish east coast in the Baltic Sea (fig. 1). The is-land measures 130 km in length and c. 20 km in width. The bedrock consists of Ordovician limestone and, below the western slopes, Cambrian shales, resulting in a level topo-graphy. On the southern part of the island, the Neolithic coastline is located some 8–12 m above that of today. Neolithic stray finds are numerous all over the island, indicating a relatively dense settlement in the central and especially western parts of the island during the early and middle Neolithic (ÅBERG 1923; GURSTAD-NILSSON 2001).

Resmo

The TRB site at Resmo was excavated in spring 2008 (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2009; 2012a). Situated on the western escarpment at eleva-tions around 40–41 m above the present sea level (m a.s.l), it occupies a striking loca-tion with extensive views towards the west. A megalithic tomb (dolmen) is situated only some 300 m to the SE, and three passage graves are located at Mysinge, another c. 2.5 km to the south (ARNE 1909; PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006). The most dominant feature at the site is a cultural layer rich in finds of pottery, flint and burned bone. No built structures were identified during excavation, and the origin of the cultural layer remains to be fully under-stood. The layer covered some 150 m2 in the NE corner of the excavated area, and during

127

a complementary trial excavation in 2012 its full extent was estimated at c. 1000–1200 m2, mainly extending to the North and East of the excavated area (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2012b). In 2008 only some 12 % of the uncovered part of the layer were excavated (18 m2), yielding c. 6 kg of pottery, 300 g of flint and 130 g of burned bone. The complementary excavation

of the outer parts of the layer yielded a similar density of finds. These figures suggest that the part of the cultural layer that was uncovered during the excavation probably contained roughly around 50 kg of pottery and 2.5 kg of flint. Furthermore, if this is extrapolated against the estimated full extent of the cultural layer, we are faced with a possible c. 400 kg of

Fig. 1: The island of Öland in the Baltic Sea, with the coastline c. 4050 cal BC and the location of the analysed sites indicated. © Sverigesgeologiskaundersökning (Geological Survey of Sweden).

128

pottery and 20 kg of flint deposited within an area of c. 25 x 50 m. Regardless of the exact figures, clearly this must represent some kind of major activity and/or an extremely lengthy period of occupation. Typological traits as well as radiocarbon dates of burned bones place the formation of the cultural layer mainly in the earliest Neolithic at around 3900–3600 cal BC, which is a few centuries before the as-sumed date for the construction of the mega-lithic tomb a short distance to the SE.

Runsbäck

The TRB site at Runsbäck is located some 15 km to the north of Resmo, in the SW part of Färjestaden. It was excavated in 2008 (ALEXANDERSSON/PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2009; PAP-MEHL-DUFAY 2012a). The most striking fea-ture at this site was a dense concentration of finds and soil features covering an area of c. 20 x 30 m on the western slopes of an ancient beach ridge, at around 14 m a.s.l. The collected finds from this area include c. 4 kg of pottery, c. 1 kg of flint and other lithic materials, as well as a few fragments of burned bone. Due to necessary prioritiza-tions not all features were fully excavated, but most probably the collected finds con-stitute the majority of the material deposited and preserved at the site. The chronology of the finds span a period of 5000 years from the early Mesolithic at around 7000 BC to the Late Neolithic c. 2000 BC, although the majority of the finds and most of the pottery can be attributed to the Early Neolithic TRB culture at around 3600–3300 BC. This date is further strengthened by two radiocarbon dates of hazelnut shells contextually associ-ated with TRB pottery.

Among the many features within the dense activity area at Runsbäck, three large post-holes were identified as the roof bearing con-struction of a two-aisled long house dating to the second half of the Early Neolithic. Meas-uring c. 12 x 5 m, the house corresponds well in shape, size and orientation to EN houses of the so-called Mossby type,which have been found in parts of southern and central Sweden (LARSSON 1992, 66 ff.; APEL 1996; ARTURSSON et al. 2003, 64 ff.). The pottery and flint sur-rounding the house fit this interpretation well. The Runsbäck site represents an EN TRB dwelling site with a house and material traces of various domestic activities, mainly distrib-uted within and around/in front of the house, which was located in a coastal setting a few hundred metres from, and facing, the sea.

Material, methods and limitations

The ceramic assemblages from the two sites form the basis of a comparative study in which technological, functional and stylistic aspects of the pottery are analysed. The main objective is to identify and explain any differences in ceramic craft and pottery use between the two sites. Stylis-tic aspects were analysed based on macroscopic observations and detailed recording of relevant parameters of the complete assemblages from both sites (for details see PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006, 156 ff.). Sample sherds were selected in order to reflect the variation and general characteristics of the wares in each assemblage. The same ten sherds from each site have been subjected to thin section, XRF and lipid residue analysis, with the addition of another two sherds and a fired sam-ple of local clay from Resmo being included in the thin section analysis. The selected sherds are shown in figure 2.

129

Fig. 2: The sample sherds from Resmo and Runsbäck. Photo by Ole Stilborg.

130

Analysis of pottery design

Stylistic aspects were analysed based on mac-roscopic observations and detailed record-ing of relevant parameters of the complete assemblages from both sites (for details see PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006, 156 ff.). The param-eters used in the discussion below include vessel part (and indirectly vessel type), deco-ration (present or not present) and wall thick-ness. The composition of the decoration on individual vessels has not been analysed in detail.

Petrographic microscopy

Thin sections of 0.03 mm thickness were pre-pared. The coarseness of the paste (the amount of silt, fine sand and sand) was estimated un-der a polarising microscope at magnifications from 25 to 1000 X, as was the presence of iron oxide, ore, mica, calcium carbonate and organic material. The mineralogy of the sand fraction was determined through standard petrographic procedures. Diatoms and other fossils were detected at the highest magnifi-cations. Finally, any added temper was de-termined as to type and amount, and maxi-mum grain size was measured. The material included in the thin section analysis consists of 22 sherds: 12 from Resmo (no:s 1-10 and no:s 22-23) and 10 from Runsbäck (no:s 12-21), as well as a clay sample from Resmo (no 24).

XRF-analysis with portable equipment

Portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluores-cence analysis (P-ED-XRF) is a non-de-

structive method for chemical and elemental analysis. Clay, and by default ceramics, con-sist mainly of the elements Silicon (Si) and Aluminium (Al) in the oxide states SiO2 and Al2O3 as well as quite a large portion of Iron (Fe2O2/Fe2O3), Calcium (CaO) and Potas-sium (K2O). All these are normally found in percentage amounts. Other elements are only detected as parts per million (ppm). In the present study, a Thermo Scientific portable (handheld) XRF analyzer (h-XRF), Niton XL3t 970 GOLDD+ with the basic calibra-tion for minerals was used (HELFERT/BÖHME 2010; HELFERT et al. 2011). The method has highly accurate determinations for major ele-ments. A limitation with this equipment is that elements in the range from Sodium (Na) and lighter cannot be detected. The elements that are analysed in this investigation are: Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Ag, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, W, Au, Pb and Bi. The analy-sis was performed on a polished break of the sherds, and measuring time was set to 6 min-utes on an 8 mm radius spot to be analysed. The material included in the h-XRF analysis consists of 20 sherds: 10 from Resmo (no:s 1-10) and 10 from Runsbäck (no:s 12-21). These are the same sherds that were analysed in the thin-section and lipid residue analyses. The two additional samples from Resmo were not included in the XRF analysis.

Lipid analysis

Lipids were extracted by means of ultrasonic aided solvent wash (HERONET AL. 1994; DUDD/EVERSHED 1998; ISAKSSON 2000; EVERSHEDET AL. 2002; COPLEYET AL. 2003; 2005; CRAIG et al. 2005; 2007; SPANGENBERGet al. 2006; MI-

131

RABAUDet al. 2007; MUKHERJEE et al.2007). The outer millimetre of the sampled area of each sherd was removed in order to reduce contamination. The sample was ground off using a low-speed pottery grinder, transferred to an extraction vessel and an internal stand-ard (n-hexatriacontane, 20 µg) was added. A mixture of chloroform and methanol (2:1, v:v) was used for the extraction and the lipid residues were analysed as trimethylsilyl de-rivatives. The analysis was performed on a HP 6890 Gas Chromatograph equipped with a SGE BPX5 capillary column using helium as carrier gas. The injection was carried out by the pulsed splitless technique using an Agilent 7683B Autoinjector. The GC was connected to a HP 5973 Mass Selective Detector. The fragmentation of separated compounds was achieved by electronic ionisation at 70 eV. Using the extract ion-chromatogram tool in MSD ChemStation, samples were screened for specific ions within the retention time windows (c. ±0.05 minutes chromatographic reproducibility) of authentic trimethylsilyl derivatives of a range of lipid biomarkers in the chromatographic system used. The detec-tion limits of each specific lipid compound vary, primarily due to different fragmentation patterns in the ion source of the mass selec-tive detector, but are in the range of 10s of ng/g. All solvents used were of Pro Analysi-grade, all glassware was thoroughly cleaned prior to use and experimental blanks were run in parallel with the samples. Exact analytical conditions have been published elsewhere (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006, 164). The material in-cluded in the lipid residue analysis consists of 20 sherds: 10 from Resmo (no:s 1-10) and 10 from Runsbäck (no:s 12-21). These are the same sherds that were analysed in the thin-section and XRF residue analyses. The two

additional samples from Resmo were not in-cluded in the lipid residue analysis.

Limitations

The laboratory analyses presented in this study were all carried out on small samples of large pottery assemblages. It is there-fore important to address the issue of rep-resentativity. In principle, all archaeological assemblages are samples of what was once present, and furthermore, the overwhelm-ing majority of excavations are governed by prioritizations and restrictions concern-ing what is to be investigated and collected and what is not. In most cases, the area to be investigated is designated by interests other than archaeology, and thus the excavated material generally represents a sample of a site of unknown extent. At Runsbäck, the distribution of finds and features suggests that the excavated area covers the ‘whole’ site. On the other hand, not all features were fully excavated. At Resmo, the cultural layer covered the NE corner of the investigated area. It is clear that the excavated sample here constitutes a small fraction of what was present at the site. The analysed sherds were selected in order to cover the variation in ware and design present in the available as-semblages, and every sample was selected to represent individual and different vessels. At Runsbäck, the selected sample should mirror the variation in the assemblage as a whole. At Resmo, two sherds from a complemen-tary excavation to the east and north of the area excavated in 2008 were added to the initial sample. While the possibility of spa-tial differences in pottery use and deposition within the site cannot be ruled outaltogether

132

(DIMC 2011), the additional two sherds from the complementary excavation of the outer parts of the layer offer a possibility to evalu-ate this to some extent.

Results

Analysis of pottery design

The only vessel type that has been identified in the Resmo assemblage is the funnel beaker withrim diameters in the range between 15–30 cm (fig. 3). The vessels have been decorat-ed mainly on the uppermost part of the neck and in some cases on the edge of the rim. The dominating decoration technique at Resmo is impressions oftwisted cord, which has been applied on most vessels either in horizontal rows or chequerboard patterns.Funnel beakers are the dominating vessel type at Runsbäck as well, although they are somewhat smaller in size with rim di-ameters of c. 10–20 cm (fig. 3). Decora-tion generally covers the upper part of the

vessel, while some sherds appear to repre-sent undecorated vessels. Impressions of whipped cord are by far the most common decoration, which has been applied in vari-ous fashions including horizontal lines and chequerboard pattern.

ResmoRunsbäck

Vessel part Nr % decora-

tedMeanthickness

mmRim 100 80 7,7

25 48 8,7Neck 209 31,1 7,7

64 51,6 9,3Shoulder 26 0 8,3

4 50 9Body 1058 2,6 8,4

357 13,4 10Base 8 0 13,9

8 0 7Fragment 848 0,5 -

308 1,3 -Total 2250 8 8,2

767 13 9,8

Fig. 4: Data on decoration and mean thickness for different vessel parts in the pottery assemb-lages from Resmo (bold) and Runsbäck (italics).

Fig. 3: Sketches of vessel reconstructions from Runsbäck (left) and Resmo (right) Drawings by Ludvig-Papmehl-Dufay.

133Sh

erd

info

.C

lay

Tem

per

Not

es

Thi

nsec

-tio

nFe

atur

esFi

nd

num

ber

Coa

rse-

ness

Sort

ing

Silt

Fine

sa

ndSa

ndM

ica

Iron

ox

ide

Acc

. mi-

nera

lsPl

ant

mat

eria

lD

iato

ms/

Foss

ilsTy

peA

mou

nt

vol.

%

Max

. G

rain

si

ze m

m

Mea

n m

ax.

grai

n si

ze m

m1

L1

289

MS

++-

**

O,A

/P-

G21

3,5

2,8

2L

134

0M

S++

**

+O

,A/P

G?

183,

83,

43

L1

248

MS

+*

**

O,A

/P--

G22

4,8

24

L1

338

MS

++-

**

O,A

/P--

G10

2,5

1,4

5L

181

MS

+-

**

O,A

/P-

G15

3,7

2,6

6L

133

6M

S++

-*

+O

?,A

/P*

G14

3,4

2,8

7A

27,1

5838

9M

S+

-*

*O

,A

/P,

Z?

*G

?13

3,7

2,7

8A

27,1

5837

4M

S++

-*

*O

,A/P

G12

3,9

2,4

9A

139

505

MS

**

**

O,

A/

P,M

uG

?11

2,6

1,4

10A

1955

8M

S++

-*

+O

,A

/P,

Z?,

Mu

--G

112,

51,

6

22K

LM

448

953

MS

++-

**

O,A

/P+

G7

21,

2

23K

LM

448

9533

MS

+*

**

O,

A/

P,Z

?-

G20

53,

3

24C

lay

sam

ple

CU

+++

**

+O

,A/P

,Z--

Nat

3,2

SST,

on-

coid

s, li-

mes

tone

12A

331

655

MU

*+

-*

*O

?,A

/P--

G15

2,3

1,5

Onc

oids

, C

lay2

13A

573,

hous

e?64

9M

S++

*--

**

O,

A/

P,Z

?--

S--

G?

203,

62,

7C

lay1

14A

660

900

MU

**

*-

+O

,A/P

?*

F--

G?

122,

32

Onc

oids

, C

lay2

15A

599,

hous

e76

2M

S+

-*

*O

,A

/P,

Mu?

*S-

-G

?13

3,9

1,7

Cla

y1

16A

627

777

MS

+-

**

O,

A/

P,M

u-

S--

G12

2,2

1,9

Cla

y1

17K

-laye

r?63

3M

U*

-*

-++

O?

--F-

G16

3,3

2,6

Onc

oids

, C

lay2

18A

331

726

MS

++-

**

O,M

u--

G12

31,

4C

lay1

19A

582

724

FU

---

-*

+O

-F*

G13

2,6

2,3

Onc

oids

C

lay2

20A

573,

hous

e?91

1M

U+

*-

-+

O,

A/

P,Z

?-

S--

G?

162,

92,

3C

lay3

21A

1558

3C

U+

+*

**

O,A

/PS-

-G

246,

72,

7C

lay4

Fig.

5: R

esul

ts o

f the

pet

rogr

aphi

c m

icro

scop

y of

sher

ds a

nd c

lay

sam

ple

from

Res

mo

and

Runs

bäck

. C =

coa

rse,

M =

med

ium

coa

rse,

F =

fine

; U =

uns

orte

d,

S =

sort

ed; -

= sp

arse

, * =

com

mon

, + =

rich

; O =

ore

, A/P

= a

mfib

ols a

nd/o

r pyr

oxen

s, Z

= zi

rcon

, Mu

= m

usco

vit;

S =

spon

ge sp

icul

a, F

= li

mes

tone

foss

ils;

Nat

= n

atur

al te

mpe

r, G

r = g

rani

te, S

ST =

sand

ston

e.

134

As can be seen in figure 4, the amount of collected pottery is much larger at Resmo, despite the fact that only 18 m2 of the ex-tensive cultural layer were excavated. The Resmo pottery is generally more thin-walled than the Runsbäck pottery. In com-bination with the larger vessel size at Res-mo, this begs the question of quality: does the thin-walled Resmo pottery represent a more skilled production than the Runsbäck pottery, and what would that imply? The data on the frequency of decoration for the different vessel parts (fig. 4) give an idea of the designs present in the assemblage. At Resmo a great majority of the rim sherds display decoration, while the correspond-ing figure at Runsbäck is c. 48 %. Given the fact that decoration in both cases seems to be concentrated on the upper part of the vessels, these figures clearly suggest that undecorated vessels occur in the Runsbäck

assemblage but not to any great extent at Resmo. Still, seen in terms of the whole assemblage, the degree of decoration is higher at Runsbäck than at Resmo, which in turn reflects the fact that decoration is more widely distributed on the vessel bod-ies at Runsbäck.

Petrographic analysis of clays and wares

For the ten Runsbäck pots analysed, at least three different clays have been used: one medium coarse clay of a well sorted quality (four samples), one poorly sorted, medium coarse clay with iron oxide-rich pellets (four samples; STILBORG 2006,301) and one unsorted, medium coarse clay with sponge spicula needles (one sample) (fig. 5). All of the wares are tempered with crushed granite or granitoid rock in quali-

Fig. 6: Variation in temper quality of the analysed Runsbäck sherds.

135

Fig. 7: Variation in temper quality of the analysed Resmo sherds.

ties varying from 12 % volume and 2.2 mm max. grain to 20 % volume and 3.6 mm max. grain (fig. 6). Although conditions for pottery making are difficult on Öland, the Runsbäck potters managed to locate at least one good, well sorted clay. Over time, however, less optimal clays had to be used as well. In their choice of tempering the wares with crushed granite, the Runsbäck potters meet the expectations for traditional TRB craft (HULTHÉN 1977, 52 ff.; STILBORG 2003, 220 ff.). The twelve Resmo samples were all made from practically identical clays: medium coarse, well sorted, silt-rich with some mica (fig. 5). The variation in iron oxide content and in the mineralogy of the relatively few accessory minerals is well within the variation to be expect-ed from a single clay bed. In accordance with Runsbäck, all wares at Resmo were tempered with crushed granite or granitoid

rock and the range of temper qualities is similar (fig. 7).

XRF analysis

Several of the elements included in the analy-sis were missing or present in amounts below the detection limit. In the following, the range of elements is therefore limited to: Al, Si, P, S, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Pb and Bi.The two major elements Silica and Alumini-um are compared in a two-dimensional plot in figure 8. Here, the Resmo sherds form a con-centrated unit while the Runsbäck sherds are more dispersed. Except for the two samples 7 and 8, the Resmo material is located within a small area of the plot. The Runsbäck sherds on the other hand are spread out and do not form any clear groups. However, even though

136

Abb. 9: Bivariate scatterplot between the elements Potassium and Rubidium. Samples 1-10 represent Resmo and samples 12-21 represent Runsbäck.

Abb. 8: Bivariate scatterplot between the elements Silica and Aluminium. Samples 1-10 represent Resmo and samples 12-21 represent Runsbäck.

137

Abb. 10: Bivariate scatterplot between the elements Iron and Chromium. Samples 1-10 represent Resmo and samples 12-21 represent Runsbäck.

Abb. 11: Bivariate scatterplot between the elements Titanium and Zirconium. Samples 1-10 represent Resmo and samples 12-21 represent Runsbäck.

138

sherds 13, 15, 16, 18 and 20 are slightly to one side of the Resmo sherds, in this plot they correspond to the Resmo material. The sherds Runsbäck 12, 14, 17 and 19, as well as 21, stand out as individual sherds not forming any clear groups.The elements Potassium and Rubidium dis-play a clear correlation, with the exception of the samples Resmo 7 and 8, which stand out from the linear distribution (fig. 9). It is interesting to note that the Resmo material is concentrated towards the lower left part of the plot whereas the Runsbäck sherds, with two exceptions (Runsbäck 19 and 21), are found mainly in the upper right part. Especially the

sherds Runsbäck 13, 15, 16, 18 and 20 differ from the rest of the material.The plots of Iron and Chrome and of Titanium and Zircon respectively display a similar pat-tern as the plot of Silica and Aluminium (figs. 10 and 11). The Resmo sherds form a tight group with half of the sherds from Runsbäck slightly outside it. The sherds Runsbäck 12, 14, 17 and 19 differ completely from the rest of the material. Almost identical distributions can be seen in the plots of Pb/Bi and Zr/V, which are not shown here.To achieve a more comprehensive statistical evaluation involving all the elements in the XRF-analysis, a Principal Component Anal-

Abb. 12: Three-dimensional scatterplot between the three first factors of a Principal Component Analy-sis (PCA). The used elements are Al, Si, P, S,K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Pb and Bi.

Samples 1-10 represent Resmo and samples 12-21 represent Runsbäck.

139

yses (PCA) was carried out (SPSS ver. 19). More than 80 per cent of the analysis was ex-plained in the three first factor scores. These factor scores were then plotted against each other in a three-dimensional plot (fig. 12). The trend in distribution that could be observed in the previous diagrams is now much clearer. All the Resmo sherds form a very neat clus-ter. The samples Resmo 7 and 8 are now part of the cluster. The Runsbäck sherds form two groups and one isolated sample (no 21). One group forms a well-defined cluster consisting of the samples 13, 15, 16, 18 and 20 (totally overlapping 13). The second group is more loosely defined and consists of the samples 12, 14, 17 and 19.The XRF-results match and confirm the min-eralogical findings from the thin section anal-ysis. For example, the Runsbäck XRFgroup of sherds 13, 15, 16 and 18 mirrors the clay 1group (see fig. 5). To this group the XRF-analysis has added sherd 20, which was sepa-rated out in the TS-analysis based on a differ-ent sorting of the clay. The other XRFgroup at Runsbäck matches the clay 2 group, and finally sherd 21 is an outlier in both analy-ses. The most important result is, however, the great homogeneity of the Resmo pottery and the fact that the clay 1group at Runsbäck is clearly separated from the Resmo-clay(s) despite some similarity in the coarseness and sorting of the clay.

Lipid residue analysis

With the molecular analysis applied in this study it is possible to identify lipids from ter-restrial animals (T), aquatic animals (A) and vegetables (V), and mixtures thereof. Ter-restrial animal lipid residues are identified

by a fatty acid distribution characterised by a higher contribution of stearic acid (C18:0) (i.e. a high ratio (>0.5) of C18:0 to palmitic acid (C16:0)) than is found in vegetable and aquatic animals (OLSSON/ISAKSSON 2008) and/or the presence of cholesterol. Cholesterol may also derive from fingerprints, but in re-cent contaminations is accompanied by the polyunsaturated hydrocarbon squalene and can thus be detected (DIMC 2011). Aquatic animal oil residues are rich in C16-C22 ω-(o-alkylphenyl) alkanoic acids, should con-tain three isoprenoidalkanoic acids and have a fatty acid distribution dominated by C16:0 (i.e. low C18:0/C16:0-ratio) (HANSEL et al. 2004; HANSEL/EVERSHED 2009). Fish may also leave traces in the form of a low C18:0/C16:0 ratio together with traces of cholesterol (OLS-SON/ISAKSSON 2008). Identifying plant lipids is not straightforward (STEELE et al. 2010), but the following markers do indicate con-tributions from vegetables; the presence of phytosterols (campesterol, β-sitosterol, stig-masterol), waxes or wax residues (long-chain fatty acids, alkanols and alkanes) (CHARTERS et al. 1997) or a fatty acid distribution charac-terised by a low C18:0/C16:0 ratio (OLSSON/ISAKSSON 2008). Some plat oil residues may be distinguished by C18 ω-(o-alkylphenyl) alkanoic acids (ISAKSSONet al. 2005). One of the three isoprenoidalkanoic acids (phytanic acid) may also derive from the decomposi-tion of chlorophyll, indicating the presence of green vegetables. Several of the plant lipid residues present are also found in soil organic matter, but migration during burial is believed to be limited (HERON et al. 1991). Milk lipids may be detected by the presence of a broad distribution of triacylglycerols, and a high ra-tio of the branched C17:0 fatty acids to C18:0 is an indication for ruminant lipids in gener-

140

Site

Sa

m-

ple

Am

ount

Neu

tral

lipi

dsIs

opre

noid

w-(

o-al

kyl-p

heny

l) al

kano

ic a

cids

Terp

enes

Use

(mg/

g)al

kano

ic a

cids

C1

8:0

/C

16:0

C1

7g

r/C

18r

Inta

ct

Tria

cyl-

glyc

er-

ides

Cho

les-

tero

lP

hyto

s-te

rols

Erg

os-

tero

l

Pla

nt

wax

res

-id

ues

Lo

ng

-c

ha

in

keto

nes

TM

TD

TM

PDT

MH

DC

16C

18C

20C

22D

TT

T

Res

mo

10,

010,

98-

-x

--

--

--

--

--

-x

-T

2≈0

0,41

--

-x

--

--

--

--

--

x-

V3

0,31

5,95

0,00

tr-

--

--

--

x-

--

-x

-T

V4

0,03

1,75

--

xx

-x

--

--

--

--

x-

TV

51,

123,

360,

0246

-54

x-

-x

x-

-x

-x

--

--

TV

60,

632,

600,

0144

-54

x-

-x

--

-x

--

--

--

TV

7:1

0,03

1,13

--

xx

--

--

--

--

--

x-

TV

8:1

0,02

1,50

0,01

--

x-

x-

--

--

--

--

-T

V9

0,00

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

-E

100,

00-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

E

Run

sbäc

k

120,

00-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

E13

0,07

1,61

0,01

trx

--

x-

xx

x-

--

--

-TA

V14

3,48

4,11

0,00

tr-

--

x-

--

x-

--

--

-T

V

150,

011,

24-

-x

--

--

--

--

--

--

-T

160,

242,

540,

0146

-54

x-

-x

--

--

--

--

--

TV

170,

326,

950,

01-

--

-x

x-

-x

-x

--

--

TV

18≈0

0,71

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

T19

≈00,

34-

--

x-

x-

--

--

--

--

-V

200,

010,

68-

--

--

x-

--

--

--

--

-T

V21

:30,

00-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

E

Fig.

13:

Sum

mar

y of

the

lipid

resi

due

resu

lts. x

= c

ompo

und(

s) d

etec

ted,

- =

not

det

ecte

d, tr

= o

nly

trac

es d

etec

ted.

141

Fig. 14: The distribution of lipid residue amounts (a) and of C18:0/C16:0-rations (b) in the samples from Resmo and Runsbäck. Based on the data presen-

ted in figure 13.

a

b

al (from the animal or from milk; cf. HJUL-STRÖM et al. 2008, 68). However, to properly separate non-ruminant, ruminant adipose and dairy lipid residues single compound stable carbon isotope analysis must be carried out (DUDD/EVERSHED 1998). During vessel use, long-chain ketones may form, but probably at temperatures higher than normal cook-ing (EVERSHEDet al. 1995; EVERSHED 2008b). Vessels used for alcoholic fermentation with yeast may show traces of ergosterol (5, 7, 22-ergostatrien-3β-ol) (ISAKSSONet al. 2010). Further, pottery may be used for the storage

and processing of tars and pitches (ISAKSSON 2009, 139). Di- and triterpenes may also enter the vessel walls as soot and smoke.The results of the molecular analysis of lipid residues are summarized in figure 13. The only significant difference (χ2=6.67, df=1, Fishers exact p, two-tailed, p = 0.0325) be-tween the two sites is in the number of pot-sherds with traces of diterpenes, with five in the sample from Resmo and none in the sam-ple from Runsbäck. Otherwise, the distribu-tions of pottery uses in Runsbäck and Resmo are very similar (figs. 13, 14 & 15), with a

142

slightly higher diversity in the lipid residues from Runsbäck than in those from Resmo. This is seen both in the range of distribution of lipid residue amounts and in the distribu-tion of C18:0/C16:0 ratios (fig. 14). It is also seen in the distribution of pottery use clas-sifications (fig. 15); the diversity index (= 1/√[(Σ Pi/100)2], Pi is each pottery use class in per cent) of these distributions is 1.54 for the Resmo pots and 1.96 for the Runsbäck pots. In order to illustrate the similarity of the two sites, the vessel use results can be compared with those from Köpingsvik (fig 16a & 17),

a previously analysed PWC site on Öland dating to the MNA, around 3000 BC (PAP-MEHL-DUFAY 2006, 214 ff.). Here, pottery use is much more homogenous (diversity index = 1.35), with aquatic animal residues domi-nating, a trait typical of PWC pottery use in eastern Sweden (e.g. BRORSSONet al. 2007; DIMC 2011). From the Euclidean distance matrix in figure 17 it is clear that the distribu-tions of pottery use classes in the two Funnel Beaker assemblages are much more similar to each other than to the sample of PWC pots from Köpingsvik. Ottenby is another exca-vated and analysed PWC site on the island,

Fig. 15: Distribution of pottery use classes (per no. of samples) in the sample from Resmo (a) and Runs-bäck (b), based on the mo-lecular distribution of lipid residues as presented in figure 13. T = terrestrial animals, A = aquatic ani-mals, V = vegetables, E = empty.

a

b

143

Resmo Runsbäck Ottenby KöpingsvikResmo 0.00 0.24 0.53 0.95

Runsbäck 0.24 0.00 0.38 0.86Ottenby 0.53 0.38 0.00 0.71

Köpingsvik 0.95 0.86 0.71

Fig. 16: Distribution of pottery use classes (per no. of samples) in samp-les from the PWC sites (a) Köpingsvik (n=18) and (b) Ottenby (n=12), both on Öland. Modified from Papmehl-Dufay 2006. T = terrestrial animals, A = aquatic animals, V = vege-

tables, E = empty.

a

b

Fig. 17: Euclidean distance matrix illustrating the differences between the distributions in figure 15 and 16.

144

but pottery use there is actually more similar to Runsbäck than to the Köpingsvik results (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006, 220 ff.).

Discussion

The pottery assemblages from Runsbäck and Resmo both adhere to the same broad, archae-ologically defined tradition, i.e. Funnel Beak-er pottery, and they most probably overlap chronologically or follow each other closely during the Early Neolithic. Stylistically the as-semblages display overall similarities, while at the same time distinct differences could be identified. This observation initiated the analyses, which seek to clarify the relation of these ornamental differences to other aspects of pottery production and use at these sites.Apart from details in the design, the degree of diversity in clay choice separates the two assemblages, with the Resmo pots displaying a remarkable homogeneity. At Runsbäck, the potters used the same quality of clay for some of their pots as the Resmo potters used for all of theirs. Also, they seem to have agreed on both type of temper and appropriate temper qualities in line with what is generally ex-pected for Funnel Beaker pottery in southern Sweden. Concerning lipid residues, the strik-ing impression is the similarity between the two sites in the distribution of pottery use classes, with only a slight difference in diver-sity, Resmo being the more homogeneous of the two.The patterns of vessel use are similar at both sites, with a clear dominance for terrestrial and/or origin of the lipids detected. While the present data does not allow the separa-tion of domestic and wild species, the Resmo and Runsbäck results could well reflect an

economy with a certain input of domesticated animals and/or cereal agriculture, fitting the attribution of both sites to the Funnel Beaker Culture. It should also be noted that at both sites, impressions of cereal grains have been identified in the pottery (Mats Regnell per-sonal comment) and that at Resmo four cow teeth were found during excavation (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2009). The PWC, on the other hand, is generally associated with marine hunting and fishing, as seen in pottery use at Köpingsvik, which was completely dominated by lipids of aquatic and/or vegetable origin. Thus, among the three parameters design, raw material and vessel use, differences between the Resmo and Runsbäck sites are articulated in the first two aspects, while in the third cat-egory, i.e. vessel use, the striking impression is instead a great degree of similarity between the two. This provides interesting clues as to the role of pottery making in relation to its social and practical function. The reasons dictating the choice of decoration were ap-parently different at Resmo and Runsbäck, as was the degree of variation represented in the clay choices. Clearly, the potters responsible for the assemblages at these sites were fol-lowing rules and traditions that marked them out from their neighbours, while at the same time they all clearly adhered to the same overall pottery making tradition, i.e. TRB pottery (cf. PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006, 228 ff.). When it comes to using the pots, however, a wholly different set of rules was at work. Pot-tery use in this context is best understood in terms of food culture, which sets it apart from pottery making, which is best understood as a craft tradition. The similarity in pottery use between the two sites thus may reflect a dif-ferent level of cultural attribution than does the choice of decorative tools or variation in

145

clay raw materials. Possibly, the results of the present analysis could be interpreted as indi-cations of a greater regional homogeneity in the food culture of the TRB culture than in pottery production.The homogeneity in clay raw material and tempering technology represented at Resmo is very remarkable, not only in relation to the specific conditions on Öland but also in rela-tion to previously analysed TRB pottery from the Swedish mainland (HULTHÉN 1977, 52 ff.; STILBORG 2003, 220 ff.). Alongside the availa-bility of raw materials for pottery production in the resource area, the number of potters involved and the duration of production over generations constitute the main ‘mechanical’ factors behind the degree of homogeneity in any given prehistoric pottery material. Cul-tural rules restraining the options for pottery making or socially induced changes in pottery design may override or change these mechan-ical factors towards more or less homogenei-ty (e.g. SILLAR 1997, 11). With the limitations of the present study in mind, some possible alternative explanations for the remarkable homogeneity observed in the Resmo material can be formulated:• The Resmo potters utilised a large, homogenous clay bed, and they used it for a long time.• The Resmo pottery was made over a short period of time and by one or a couple of potters working closely together.• Resmo pottery manufacture was con-trolled by rigid restrictions as to the choice of clay.As for the first suggestion, perhaps the sim-plest explanation would be that the Resmo pottery was not made on Öland but on the mainland, where the chances of finding large, homogenous clay beds are much better. From

analyses of PWC pottery from Ottenby Royal Manor (Öland) and Kalmar (mainland), we know that pottery was actually being trans-ported across the Kalmar Strait in the Neo-lithic (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006, 204ff.; STILBORG 2012). However, the homogeneity among the Resmo samples is still greater than any ob-served even on the mainland and, more im-portantly, a fairly similar clay (albeit more varied) was used for four of the pots analysed from Runsbäck. This indicates that this qual-ity of clay could be found on Öland, although substantial clay beds of this quality are un-likely. We can neither exclude the possibility for nor confirm the existence of strong cul-tural rules guiding raw material choice, but there is nothing to indicate such strong rules in the TRB culture as a whole and certainly they were not being applied at Runsbäck. Fol-lowing these arguments, we are left with the alternative that the Resmo pottery may repre-sent a short-lived, concentrated pottery pro-duction activity. Runsbäck, on the other hand, can be interpreted as a settlement site where pottery production and use was carried on for some time and distributed over a number of potters and pottery users. This interpretation is in good accord with observations during excavation, with the identification of house remains at Runsbäck and the lack of such structures at Resmo (ALEXANDERSSON/PAP-MEHL-DUFAY 2009; PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2009). Possibly, the activities at Resmo in some way involved extensive burning that would have introduced diterpenes from soot or smoke into the vessels from Resmo, which is miss-ing in the analysed vessels from Runsbäck.The ware variation of the two TRB materials was compared to that of the previously ana-lysed PWC pottery from the island (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006; STILBORG 2006). The Runsbäck

146

potters not only used a broader selection of clays more in line with the ware variation at the PWC sites, they also used the same type of poorly sorted clay with pellets which dom-inated the PWC production at Ottenby (STIL-BORG 2006, 310). This raises the question of whether the Runsbäck production is culturally closer to the PWC than to the Resmo tradition. The same pattern is seen in the categories of pottery use, where Runsbäck is more similar to Ottenby than it is to Resmo (fig. 17). The exclusive tempering with crushed granite at Resmo and Runsbäck - a temper used only sporadically for PWC pots - marks a clear cultural craft difference. A small EN TRB pottery assemblage from Solberga, Köpings-vik, may shed some light on this issue (STIL-BORG 2011). These pots were decorated with twisted cord in a way similar to the Resmo pots, and are probably contemporary with them, but the variation in clay choice was more akin to the situation at Runsbäck. All Solberga wares were tempered with granite. However, four out of six samples displayed temper volumes below 10 %. In conjunction with a relatively large maximum grain size this represents a suboptimal temper quality that has no parallels at either Resmo or Runsbäck. Instead, comparable temper solutions exist among the sandstone tempered PWC wares found locally at Köpingsvik (STILBORG 2006). This may signal a gradual development from TRB pottery traditions,withtheir limited clay variation and stereotypic granite tempering, towards a greater diversity of clays followed by an increased variation in the temper quali-ties before, finally, the culturally redefining changes of temper type and vessel design were realized. Furthermore, a similar trajec-tory may be visible in pottery use, with main-ly terrestrial and vegetable vessel use in the

EN TRB pottery gradually moving towards the typically highly aquatic pottery use of the MNA PWC.Of potential significance in the context of the Resmo pottery is the group of four Neolithic megalithic tombs located in the area (PAP-MEHL-DUFAY 2006; 2011). One is a dolmen situated north of Resmochurch, only some 300 m to the east of the excavated site, and the other three are passage graves located a few hundred metres apart in the village of Mysinge c. 2.5 km to the south. The south-ernmost of the graves was excavated in 1908 (ARNE 1909), while the other three remain unexcavated. Seen in relation to the distribu-tion of megalithic monuments in Northern Europe, the Öland tombs are located at the eastern periphery, some 150 km as the bird flies to the east of the nearest concentration of megaliths on the Swedish mainland (see PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2011, 132). This seemingly peculiar occurrence indicates that the Resmo area was seen to possess some form of quality apparently lacking in other neighbouring and more distant areas where megaliths were not built (PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2012c). This quality would have been associated with the meaning of place, probably connected in some way to the physical appearance/objective morphol-ogy of the area, to activities by and interac-tions between people there, and/or to mean-ings and histories related to the collective memory of the place (RELPH 1976; CASTELLO 2010). It has often been argued that megalith-ic monuments refer to existing architectural or natural features (see THOMAS 1996, 90; RICHARDS 1996). At Resmo, the monumental and dramatic landscape setting on the crest of the western escarpment may be one such as-pect of physical appearance, as could be the rich spring located c. 500 m to the west of

147

the dolmen at Resmo. However, in an objec-tive sense none of these features are unique to this specific locality. Instead, while not excluding aspects of physical appearance al-together, memory and human interaction are more likely to be responsible in this case. The rich cultural layer and large amounts of high quality Early Neolithic pottery at Resmo are highly interesting in this respect. The striking homogeneity revealed by the pottery analyses fits well with the impression that this was a special place. The site and the results provide undisputable evidence of intense activities in the Resmo area preceding the construction of the dolmen a few generations later. Thus at the time of monument construction, the place of this megalith already had a long history of human–environment interaction, memory and meaning.

Acknowledgements

This study was performed as part of a post-doc fellowship at Linnaeus University, Kal-mar, Sweden. The analyses were made pos-sible due to generous financial support from the Berit Wallenberg foundation.

Literature

ÅBERG 1923: N. Åberg, Kalmar läns för histo-ria (Kalmar 1923).

ALEXANDERSSONet al. 1996: K. Alexandersson, H. Gurstad-Nilsson, M. Källström, Stenålder i järnåldersland. Om den pågående specialin-venteringen på Öland. Bulletin för arkeolo-gisk forskning i Sydsverige 2/3, 1996, 4-17.

ALEXANDERSSON et al. 2009: K. Alexanders-son, L. Papmehl-Dufay, Två stenåldersbo-platser i Runsbäck. Särskild arkeologisk undersökning 2008, Runsbäck 5:2, 5:66 och 7:9, Torslunda socken, Mörbylånga kom-mun, Öland. Unpublished excavation report, Kalmar county museum, Arkeologisk rapport 2009, 49.

ANDERSEN 1997: N. H. Andersen . Sarup vol 1. The Sarupencosures. The Funnel Beaker culture of the Sarup site including two cause-wayed camps compared to the contemporary settlements in the area and other European enclosures (Højbjerg 1997).

ANDERSEN 2011: S. H. Andersen. Kitchen middens and the early pottery of Denmark. In: S. Hartz, F. Lüth,T. Terberger (eds.), Early Pottery in the Baltic –Dating, Origin and So-cial Context. Berichte der Römisch Germa-nischen Kommission 89, 2008, 193-216.

APEL 1996: J. Apel (ed.), Skumparberget 1 och 2. En mesolitisk aktivitetsyta och tidigne-olitiska trattbägarlokaler vid Skumparberget i Glanshammars sn, Örebro län, Närke. Un-published excavation report, Arkeologikon-sult AB.

ARNE 1909: T. J. Arne. Stenålders under sök-ningar II. En Öländsk gånggrift. Fornvännen 1909, 86-95.

ARTUSSON et al. 2003: M. Artursson, T. Lin-deroth, M.-L. Nilsson,M. Svensson, Bygg-nadskultur i södra och mellersta Sverige. In: M. Svensson (ed.), I det neolitiska rummet. Skånska spår – arkeologi längs Västkustba-nan (Lund 2003) 41-171.

148

BRORSSONet al. 2007: T. Brorsson, S. Isaksson, N. Stenbäck, Stil, gods och kärlanvändning - neolitisk keramik från E4: an undersöknin-garna i norra Uppland. Stenålder i Uppland. Uppdragsarkeologi och eftertanke. Arkeologi E4 Uppland - Studier. Volym 1,2007, 409-438.

CASTELLO 2010: L. Castello,Rethinking the meaning of place: conceiving place in archi-tecture-urbanism (Farnham 2010).

CHARTERS et al. 1997: S. Charters, R. P. Ever-shed, A. Quye, P. W. Blinkhorn,V. Reeves, Simulation experiments for determining the use of ancient pottery vessels: the behav-iour of epicuticular leaf wax during boiling of leafy vegetable. Journal of Archaeological Science 24, 1997, 1-7.

COPLEY et al. 2003: M. S. Copley, R. Bertan, S. N. Dudd, G. Docherty, A. J. Mukherjee, V. Straker, S. Payne, R. P. Evershed, Direct chemical evidence for widespread dairying in prehistoric Britain. Proceedings of the Na-tional Academy of Sciences, USA 100(4), 2003, 1524-1529.

COPLEY et al. 2005: M. S. Copley, R.Berstan, S. N. Dudd, V. Straker, S. Payne & R. P. Ever-shed, Dairying in antiquity III. Evidence from absorbed lipid residues dating to the British Neolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science 32(4), 2005, 523-546.

CRAIGet al. 2005: O. E. Craig, J. Chapman, C. Heron, Did the first farmers of central and eastern Europe produce dairy foods? Antiq-uity 79 (306), 2005, 882-894.

CRAIG et al. 2007: O.E. Craig, M. Forster, S.H. Andersen, E. Koch, P. Crombé, N.J. Milner, B. Stern, G. Bailey, C.P. Heron, Molecular and isotopic demonstration of the process-ing of aquatic products in Northern Europe-an prehistoric pottery. Archaeometry 49 (1), 2007, 135-152.

DIMC 2001: N. Dimc, Pits, Pots and Prehis-toric Fats. A Lipid Food Residue Analysis of Pottery from the Funnel Beaker Culture at Stensborg, and the Pitted Ware Culture from Korsnäs. Unpublished Master Thesis in Archaeological Science. Archaeological Re-search Laboratory, Stockholm University.

DUDD/EVERSHED 1998: S.N. Dudd,R.P. Ever-shed. Direct demonstration of milk as an el-ement of archaeological economies. Science 282, 1998, 1478-1481.

ERIKSSON et al. 2008: G. Eriksson, A. Linder-holm, E. Fornander, M. Kanstrup, P. Schoultz, H. Olofsson, K. Lidén, Same island, different diet: Cultural evolution of food practice on Öland, Sweden, from the Mesolithic to the Roman Period. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27, 2008, 520-543.

EVERSHED 2008a: R. P. Evershed, Organic residue analysis in archaeology: the archaeo-logical biomarker revolution. Archaeometry 50, 2008, 895-924.

EVERSHED 2008b: R. P. Evershed, Experimen-tal approaches to the interpretation of ab-sorbed organic residues in archaeological ce-ramics. World Archaeology 40, 2008, 26-47.

EVERSHED et al. 1995: R.P. Evershed, A.W. Stott, A. Raven, A.N. Dudd, S. Charters, A.

149

Leyden, Formation of Loch-Chain Ketones in Ancient Pottery Vessles By Pyrolysis of Acyl Lipids. Tetrahedron Letters 36, 1995, 8875–8878.

EVERSHED et al. 2001: R.P. Evershed, S.N. Dudd, M.J. Lockhart,S. Jim, Lipids in ar-chaeology. In: D.R. Brothwell, A.M. Pollard (eds.), Handbook of Archaeological Science (Chichester 2001) 331-350.

EVERSHED et al. 2002: R.P. Evershed, S.N. Dudd, M.S. Copley, A. Mukherjee, Identifica-tion of animal fats via compound specific δ13C values of individual fatty acids: assessments of results for reference fats and lipid extracts of archaeological pottery vessels. Documenta Praehistorica XXIX, 2002, 73-96.

GURSTAD-NILSSON 2001: H. Gurstad-Nilsson, En neolitisering – två förlopp. Tankar kring jordbrukets etablering i Kalmarsundsområ-det. In: G. Magnusson (ed.), Möre. Historien omettsmåland. E22-projektet (Kalmar 2001) 129-164.

HANSEL et al. 2004: F.A. Hansel, M.S. Copley, L.A.S. Madureira, R.P. Evershed, Thermally produced ω-(o-alkylphenyl)alkanoic acids provide evidence for the processing of marine products in archaeological pottery vessels. Tetrahedron Letters 45, 2004, 2999–3002.

HANSEL/EVERSHED 2009: F.A. Hansel, R.P. Evershed, Formation of dihydroxy acids from Z-mon-unsaturated alkenoic acids and their use as markers for processing of marine commodities in archaeological vessels. Tetra-hedron Letters 50, 2009, 5562-5563.

HELFERT/BÖHME 2010: M. Helfert, D. Böhme, Herkunftbestimmung von römischer Keramik mittels protabler energiedispersiver Rönt-genfluoreszenzanalyse (P-ED-RFA) – Erste Ergebnisse einer anwendungsbezogenen Test-studie. In: B. Ramminger, O. Stilborg (eds.), Naturwissenschaftliche Analysen vor- und frühgeschichtlicher Keramik I. Universitäts-forschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 176 (Bonn 2010) 11-30.

HELFERT et al. 2011: M. Helfert, O. Mecking, F. Lang, H.-M. von Kaenel, Neue Perspektiv-en für die Keramikanalytik. Zur Evaluation der portablen energiedispersiven Röntgen-fluoreszenzanalyse (P-ED-RFA) als neues Verfahren für die geochemische Analyse von Keramik in der Archäologie. Frankfurter elek-tronische Rundschau zur Altertumskunde 14, 2011, 1-30.

HERON et al. 1991: C. Heron, R.P. Evershed, L.J. Goad, Effects of Migration of Soil Lipids on Organic Residues Associated with Buried Potsherds. Journal of Archaeological Science 18, 1991, 641-659.

HERON et al. 1994: C.P. Heron, N. Nemcek, K.M. Bonfield, D. Dixon, B.S. Ottaway, The chemistry of Neolithic beeswax. Naturwis-senschaften 81(6), 1994, 266-269.

HJULSTRÖMet al. 2008: B. Hjulström, S. Isaks-son, C. Karlsson, Prominent Migration Period Building. Lipid and elemental analyses from an excavation at Alby, Botkyrka, Söderman-land, Sweden. Acta Archaeologica 79, 2008, 62-78.

HULTHÉN 1977: B. Hulthén, On Ceramic Tech-nology during the Scandinavian Neolithic and

150

Bronze Age. Theses and Papers in North-Eu-ropean Archaeology 6 (Stockholm 1977).

ISAKSSON 2000: S. Isaksson, Food and Rank in Early Medieval Time. Theses and Papers in Scientific Archaeology 3 (Stockholm 2000).

ISAKSSON 2009: S. Isaksson, Vessels of change. A long-term perspective on prehistoric pot-tery use in southern and eastern middle Swe-den based on lipid residue analyses. Current Swedish Archaeology 17, 2009, 131-149.

ISAKSSON et al. 2005: S. Isaksson, M. Ols-son, B. Hjulström, De smorde sina krås. Spår av vegetabilisk olja i keramik från yngre järnålder. Fornvännen 100, 2005, 179-191.

ISAKSSON et al. 2010: S. Isaksson, C. Karls-son, T. Eriksson, Ergosterol (5, 7, 22-ergos-tatrien-3β-ol) as a potential biomarker for alcohol fermentation in lipid residues from prehistoric pottery. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 2010, 3263-3268.

KOCH 1998: E. Koch, Neolithic Bog Pots from Zealand, Møn, Lolland and Falster. Nordiske Fortidsminder Ser B. 16 (København1998).

LARSSON 1992: M. Larsson,The early and middle Neolithic Funnel Beaker culture in the Ystad area (southern Scania). Economic and social change, 3100–2300 BC. In: L. Larsson, J. Callmer, B. Stjernquist (eds.), The archaeology of the cultural landscape. Field work and research in a South Swedish rural region. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia Series in 4 N 19, 1992, 17-90.

MALMER 2002: M.P. Malmer, The Neo-lithic of South Sweden. TRB, GRK and STR(Stockholm 2002).

MIDGLEY 1992: M. Midgley, TRB culture. The first farmers of the North European plain (Edinburgh 2002).

MIRABAUD et al. 2007: S. Mirabaud, R. Christian,M. Regert, Molecular criteria for discriminating adipose fat and milk from dif-ferent species by NanoESI MS and MS/MS of their triacylglycerols: application to ar-chaeological remains. Analytical Chemistry 79, 2007, 6182-6192.

MUKHERJEE et al. 2007: A.J. Mukherjee, R.Berstan, M.S. Copley, A.M. Gibson, R.P. Evershed, Compound-specific stable carbon isotopic detection of pig product processing in British late Neolithic pottery. Antiquity 81(313), 2007, 743-754.

MÜLLER 2001: J. Müller, Early Pottery in the North – a southern perspective. In: S. Hartz, F.,Lüth, T. Terberger (eds.), Early Pottery in the Baltic –Dating, Origin and Social Con-text. Berichte der Römisch Germanischen Kommission 89, 2008, 287-300.

OLSSON/ISAKSSON 2008: M. Olsson,S. Isaks-son, Molecular and isotopic traces of cook-ing and consumption of fish at an Early Me-dieval manor site in eastern middle Sweden.Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 2008, 773-780.

PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2006: L. Papmehl-Dufay, Shaping an identity. Pitted Ware pottery and potters in southeast Sweden. Theses and pa-

151

pers in scientific archaeology 7 (Stockholm 2006).

PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2009: L. Papmehl-Dufay, En trattbägarlokal i Resmo. Arkeologisk förundersökning och särskild arkeologisk un-dersökning 2008, Resmo 1:13, 1:14, 1:15 och 1:16, Resmo socken, Mörbylånga kommun, Öland. Unpublished excavation report, Kal-mar county museum, Arkeologisk Rapport 2009, 29.

PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2011: L. Papmehl-Dufay, The passage grave at Mysinge, Öland, SE Sweden in a long-term perspective. Archaeo-logia Lituana 12, 2011, 131-141.

PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2012a: L. Papmehl-Dufay, Trattbägarkulturen på Öland, i ljuset av äldre och nyare undersökningar. Fornvännen 107, 2012, 153-166.

PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2012b: L. Papmehl-Dufay, Åter i Resmo backe. Efterundersökning i mars 2012 av RAÄ 159 i Resmo sn, Mörb-ylånga kommun, Öland. Unpublished exca-vation report, Linnaeus University, Kalmar.

PAPMEHL-DUFAY 2012c: L. Papmehl-Dufay, Places that matter. Megalithic monuments from a biographical perspective. Accepted for: J. Kolens, H. Renes, R. Hermans (eds.), Landscape biographies. Geographical, his-torical and archaeological perspectives on the production and transmission of landscapes (Amsterdam 2012 in print).

RELPH 1976: E. Relph, Place and placeless-ness (London 1976).

RICHARDS 1996: C. Richards, Monuments as landscapes: creating the centre of the world in late Neolithic Orkney. World Archaeology 28 (2), 1996, 190-208.

SILLAR 1997: B. Sillar, Reputable pots and disreputable potters: Individual and commu-nity choice in present-day production and ex-change in the Andes. In: C.G. Cumberpatch, P.W. Blinkhorn (eds.), Not so much a pot, more a way of life. Oxbow Monograph 83 (Oxford 1997) 1-20.

SPANGENBERG et al. 2006: J. E. Spangenberg, S. Jacomet, J. Schibler, Chemical analyses of organic residues in archaeological pottery from Arbon Bleiche 3, Switzerland: evidence for dairying in the late Neolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science 33(1), 2006, 1-13.

STEELEet al. 2010: V. Steele, B. Stern, A.W. Stott, Olive oil or lard? Distinguishing plant oils from animal fats in the archaeological record of the eastern Mediterranean using gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 24, 2010,3478-3484.

STILBORG 2002: O. Stilborg, Tidigneolitikum 4000-3300 f. Kr. In: A. Lindahl, D. Olaus-son, A. Carlie (eds.), Keramiki Sydsverige. En handbok för arkeologer. Monographs on Ceramics 1 (Lund 2002)59-61.

STILBORG 2003: O. Stilborg. Neolitiskt keramikhantverk i Välabäcksdalen – lokalt och regionalt. In: M. Svensson (ed.), I det neolitiska rummet. Skånska spår - arkeologi längs Västkustbanan. Skånska spår, 2003, 214-233. 214-241

152

STILBORG 2006: O. Stilborg, Clays and tem-pering in wares from Köpingsvik and Ot-tenby. Appendix 4. In: L. Papmehl-Dufay, Shaping an identity. Pitted Ware pottery and potters in southeast Sweden. Theses and pa-pers in scientific archaeology 7 (Stockholm 2006) 296-323.

STILBORG 2011: O. Stilborg, Solberga – en ti-dig neolitisk boplats. Unpublished analysis report, SKEA ceramic analysis.

STILBORG 2012: O. Stilborg, On the other side. In: B. Ramminger, O.Stilborg (eds.), Natur-wissenschaftliche Analysen vor- und frühge-schichtlicher Keramik II: Methoden, Anwen-dungsbereiche, Auswertungsmöglichkeiten.Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie Band 176 (Bonn 2012) 141-158.

STILBORG/BERGENSTRÅHLE 2001: O. Stilborg, I. Bergenstråhle, Traditions in Transition: A Comparative Study of the Patterns of Erte-bölle Lithic and Pottery Changes in the Late Mesolithic Ceramic Phase at Skateholm I, III and Soldattorpet in Scania, Sweden. Lund Archaeological Review 6, 2000, 23-42.

THOMAS 1996: J. Thomas. Time, culture and identity. An interpretive archaeology (Lon-don/New York 1996).

Addresses:

Dr. Ludvig Papmehl-DufayKalmar county museumBox 104S-391 21 KalmarSweden

Dr. Ole StilborgSKEA, Stilborg Ceramics AnalysesLinköping

Prof. Dr. Anders LindahlLaboratory for Ceramics ResearchLund

Dr. Sven IsakssonArchaeological Research LaboratoryStockholm