FOREST LIVELIHOOD

A social and economic analysis of the causes andimpact of deforestation in FIJI.

Author: Alifereti Naioko

A Dissertation submitted to the School of Development Studiesof the University of East Anglia

in Part-fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Science

September 1999

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List of Tables.

1.1 Fiji forest resource 1991 9

1.2 Some common tree species 10

3.1 Agriculture share of G.D.P 1997 18

3.2 Timber product and export 1997 22

3.3 Human development index -Four Pacific Island countriesa comparison 1990 23

3.4 Fiji external debts 1985 -1992 27

List of Figures.

1.1 Land use loop diagram 15

3.1 Land use normative and critical model 29

4.1 Vicious cycle of poverty resulting from deforestation 36

5.1 Economic definition of externalities and compensation points 48

5.2 Sustainable forest management and its process of itsachievement model 51

Maps.

1 Fiji Islands topography 6

2 Fiji Forest cover 11

Boxes.

3.1MainshiftingagricultureinFiji 16

3.2 Main permanent Agriculture in Fiji 17

5.1 Participation in Policy 44

5.2 Selected objectives for national Governments. Global actionfor women towards Sustainable and equitable Developments 45

5.3 "Tool kit" of policy instrument 47

ACKNOWLEDMENT

To the following people I would like to offer them my greatest gratitude who have

helped me in one way or another in the writing of this paper and also for my study here in the

United Kingdom.

Firstly and foremost to the Ministry of Fijian affairs Board whom its scholarship

I am greatly indebted to which has allowed me to study in the United Kingdom.

Secondly to my parents whom their support have helped me throughout the years and to my

young family I owe you a lot for being away from you for so long.

Also I would like to offer my greatest appreciation to the Namosi provincial Council for

their kind support and assistance in allowing me to come this far to study. To Mr Jale

Vasuitoga a big Vinaka vakalevu and to the Vu Ni Valu Thank you too Sir for your kind

support in looking at the need of our province.

In addition I would like to thank The University of the South Pacific Library especially to

Mrs Mereani Vakasisikakala for her support in supplying me with materials for this

dissertation.

I would also like to thank all my Lecturers at the School of development studies who

have been really kind and for their everlasting support. To my course co-ordinator Mr Richard

Palmer Jones Thank you very much. To Steph Simpson the post graduate Manager a big

thank you too. The most goes to my supervisor Ms Kate Brown who with out her everlasting

support this dissertation wouldn't have materialised.

Lastly I would like to thank Mr and Mrs- Mike Douse of Norwich for their caring

attitude in supporting me in my stay in the UK. There parental figure and words of

encouragement's and their time made me feel at home in the UK your memories I will always

treasure.

Fiji a former colony of Great Britain until 1970 consist of more than 300

islands scattered over 15 degrees south of the equator. Geologically it has a young

landscape and its evolutionary isolation makes its environmental resources vulnerable

to loss in degradation. During the past decades the issue of deforestation in Fiji has

been a pressing issue. This came into the light after Fiji starts to experience some of

the major environmental problems relating to deforestation, droughts, excessive

flooding and soil erosions to name few.

In a world where, Fiji as a predominately agricultural society, trades with the

Industrialised societies, global market force magnify the extraction of natural

resources, and in some areas in Fiji this has reached its optimal. The theme of this

paper is based on the effects of forest removal on the livelihood of the people who

depended on it .The forest for generations has been very important to subsistence

communities. They hold high respect for the values of the forest. The forest has

served as a source of wide range of food, fuel, a source of income not mentioning the

many traditional secrets it holds. The forest contributes to around 50 per cent of gross

household consumption needs in a traditional subsistence community (South Pacific

Environmental Programme Report, 1992). Over the years the forest has been replaced

by alternative land use, vast areas of land shave been cleared to make way for

agricultural and infrastructure or other economic related activities. However, these

alternative developments have not fully replaced and compensate for the loss that has

taken place in the forest, and its effects on people's livelihoods. So the challenge lies

in the unearthing of the many factors causing deforestation, recognising the effects

and possibly offering alternatives to identify solution

/

3

INTRODUCTION

The need for conservation and development of publicly owned and native forest are often

argued and debated by interest groups and media in Fiji. Biodiversity, ciimate change,

protecting rare and endangered species and the ecosystems, eco-tourism, water quality,

protecting the interests of indigenous people, sustainable management, economic

development, and ensuring community stability are some of the argument advanced by

conservation groups in Fiji. Policies are been developed and agreements achieved to promote

sustainable management of Fiji's forest. Many factors are yet to be understood when dealing

with forest protections and conservation in Fiji.

\

Finding a seemingly rational solution is difficult, because of the many different variables

which need to be defined. Many of these are clouded by uncertainties and the complexity of

the institutions involved in managing natural resources. Furthermore, these controversies

inevitably involve biological, economic, and political aspects, not to mention anthropological,

legal, and social which adds difficulty in bringing together different sets of terms, theories

and principles surrounding indigenous forest use in Fiji.

The rate of deforestation in Fiji certainly merits grave concern and immediate action.

Over the years there has been a massive harvest of its tropical trees, and this has greatly

affected many facets of peoples livelihood. The transformation of the once dense forest has

also brought about radical change in the island ecosystem.

Concern about the deforestation rate in Fiji has been over exaggerated over the years with

the main blame put on the timber trade, however studies have shown that its not the only

cause of deforestation, but that the conversion of forest for agricultural use and infrastructure

development that has had a significant impact. (Barbier et al 1994b). Forest has always been

central to the economic, cultural and ecological stability of Fijian society. Trees has been

symbols of stability and cultural well being, in addition a source of diverse range of

subsistence products, and the ecological basis of the agricultural system. It is expected that

loss of large areas of forest would lead to irreversible environmental degradation and cultural

deterioration. (Thaman 1986). The land, Vanua' has physical, social and cultural dimensions

of which are interrelated, including the vegetation and animal life as well as social and

cultural system (Ravuvu: 1983).

Fiji supports a wide range of different forest ecosystems. These include primary forest and

all tress that are integral to the success of the wider subsistence system and livelihood

sustenance. In this context, it includes the village site (koro) the area surrounding the village

( bill ni koro ),the agricultural land (qele ni teitei) associated fallow areas ( raki ) on the

alluvial flats {vei buca),on colluvial mountain soils ( vei delana ),secondary forest (veikmi) on

both alluvial flats and upland areas, the dense primary forest ( lekutu or veikmi loa ), coastal

forest (baravi ),mangrove (yeklogo/veiliri),and riparian areas (bcili ni ivm').These areas of

forest in Fiji has been modified because of economic activities, including infrastructure

developments. Overall there is a general move away from subsistence mode of production to

a more commercially-driven approach which corresponds to a market oriented, weak

sustainability approach. This has affected people's livelihoods and their view of the forest and

its functions. (Chinchiniski 1988). Thus the theme of the dissertation, is to examine:

1 :The underlying reasons for defarestatiPn-in-Fiji.

2:The biological, economic, social, health and political impacts of

deforestation.

3: The economic^oTUrjbjyUjiLoilfocest-tesxiurces to

different sectors of the economy especially rural farmers and

subsistence communities.

4;Recommended solutions for long term forest usage and sustainability.

Notes.

l:Vanua: Amongst the Fijian people the sacred of their survival is in their land. A Fijian

without a land is seen as of no significance in the Fijian societal hierarchy .So the

Protection of the land and its resources in a traditional Fijian village is paramount.

2:Existence value: The ability of the current generation to willing to pay for protection of a

resource that might and have future values for the future generation to utilise.

3. Option values: The willingness to pay for the preservation of an environment against some

Probability that individual will make use of it at a later date.

FIJI FOREST DIVERSITY.

*v The composition and spatial organisation of Fiji's forest ecosystem varies from the

smallest rocky islands to the two main islands of Vanua Levu and Viti Levu (see map 1). This

incorporates a wide variety of cultivated and protected indigenous and exotic species. This

ranges from some 75 species commonly encountered on rocky islands to over 300 species in

larger islands with deep soil favouring growth (SPREP: 1990). Species include traditional

staple tree crops, such as coconut, breadfruit trees, as well as a wide range of fruit trees and

other useful trees and plants. They are either deliberately planted, encouraged and protected in

the regeneration of fallow growth, to the native primary forest which are homes to diverse

wild life [1] and have been a source of livelihood to many subsistence rural communities.

Fiji's forest can be divided into four categories-protection forests, mangrove forestland,

other native forest and plantation forest. Protection forest is unsuitable for timber production.

It provides cover for the soil on steep land, reducing the rate of runoff and erosion. Similarly,

mangrove forest covers approximately 42 000 hectares play a major role in sustaining the

marine and coastal ecosystem, which support coastal fisheries. The remaining native forest

includes those areas suitable for commercial harvesting. In addition plantation forests have

been developed to provide timber and to replace native forest which has been removed (See

Table 1.1).

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Notes.

1. Forest ecosystem support the lives of many species of animals including wild pigs and

Other Fiji's rare wild species. The different stratification of tree level to the bases is

occupied by many insects art the base to parrots and other birds nesting on the canopies.

2;Subsistence community In Fiji very much depend on the mangrove to support their

livelihood. This includes attracting crabs, lobster and fish -which is a major source of diet

for these communities. The loss of this mangrove forest will mean the loss of livelihood. More

discussion on this can be found late in the chapters to come.

3. This estimation excludes the remote island mangrove ecology.

4.Scientific names are found in the Table 1.2

a. A collection of clan's purpose is making up a strong bond in the community.

b. Simply means clans

12

In this chapter I will analyse the scale of deforestation in Fiji, in relation to other types of

land use. An essential feature of renewable resources like trees are that it is not finite and can

be increased as well as decreased. Importantly, it will increase if allowed to regenerate.

(Pearce and Turner 199O.).The potential and temptation for over harvesting is always

significant; and thus it is easy to destroy the forest. This will happen if the rate of harvest

exceeds the rate of natural growth of trees. It can also happen if the resource population or

stocks falls below some critical level, perhaps because of over harvesting or some other

reasons unconnected with the direct use made of resource (e.g. habitat destniction)(Pearce

and Turner 1990).

Report by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forests and ALTA (MAFFA) in Fiji in

1996 shows that in that year the total intake of 45 sawmills [1] amounted to 578, 337 m3 of

which 149,821m3 was from native forests and 428,516m3 from pine plantations. From these

figures one can envisage that there is a vast amount of trees being removed through timber

trade. However, there are other reasons why forest has been removed which I will be

discussing later in the chapter. In 1990,out of the total 52 sawmills that were operating total

log intake accounts to 254,634m3,of which 150,000m3 was from plantation and 104,<534m 3

were from indigenous forest. (Ministry of Forest Fiji.1990). Comparing 1990 and 1996 one

can see there has been a steady supply of timber in Fiji. This is mainly due to the rate of

economic development taking place in the country, As the country advances in its economic /

growth the pressure on environmental good is increased (Ferguson 1996), both for /

domestically and international trade. . I

13

The greatest scale of deforestation is taking place in the main islands (Viti Levu and

Vanua Levu). This is where the population is concentrated. A substantial area of forest is

being cleared to make way for development and settlements. The pressure on mangroves and

coastal forest has also been visible (National Trust of Fiji 1988). This has been a result of

subsistence pressure on fuel wood and commercial firewood trade. (Yabaki; 1986).

In looking at the reasons behind deforestation, I will be utilising models which have been

used to analyse the processes involved (Granger, 1993a), also used as a predictive alternatives

for future scenarios. This includes the long term trends in deforestation and its impacts, and to

test how this can be influenced by various policy that are involved in looking at the Forest

(Lambin, 1994).

Deforestation is defined as the temporary or permanent clearance of forest for

agriculture or other purposes (Grainger 1993a). This is compatible with the definition used by

the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation in estimating rate of deforestation (Lanly, 1981).

Deforestation is just one of the human impacts on forests, and excludes other impacts which

do not involve clearance. These are better described as causing degradation (Lanly, 1981),

which is the temporary or permanent reduction in the density, structure, species composition

or productivity of vegetation cover (Grainger, 1996a).

Deforestation can be seen as the extreme case of degradation, temporarily removing

vegetation cover. Even though it may increase afterwards, due to planting or. natural

regeneration. But if the resulting forest cover is inferior to what was there before, interni of

such attributes as biomass density, canopy cover, structure and species composition, then the

long-term impacts on the forest may be described as degradation (Goldsmith 1998).

Deforestation of course will lead to change in land use and some degradation of land cover-

the physical, and biotic characteristic of the land surface (Meyer and Turner, 1992)-compared

with the climax ecosystem which exist in Fiji before degradation takes place. The rate of

3.2.Immertiate causes.

The immediate causes of deforestation in Fiji may be divided into three main types of land

use: shifting agriculture, permanent agriculture and other land use. They differ in their

sustainability, the area of forest cleared, and the timing of clearance. (Grainger, 1993a).

Box 3.1 Main shifting Agriculture in Fiji.

The three main types of shifting agriculture common in Fiji are:

1) Traditional practice involves clearing small patches of forest (1-2 ha) on long rotations

mainly 15-20 years or even more, that allow considerable forest regeneration. This is

common in the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu especially where soil is

poor and population is sparse (mainly in the interior of the two main islands).

2)Short rotation shifting cultivation is now the most common practice, with rotations

typically of 6-15 years, but as low as 3 years in some areas, This is common in place

where there is a high population density and allows more settled lifestyles, but is

unsustainable if rotation become too short(Young 1989).This type of cultivation is

found in most remote islands and in coastal areas of the main islands .The brief fallow

period allows only a low, bushy, degraded forest cover, called forest fallow ,to develop.

(Mitchell, 1997).

3) The third type is encroaching cultivation. This is typically carried out by land less

people who have little intentions of long term sustainability. They do cultivate until

fertility is exhausted or weeds are rampant. These people then move on to repeat the

process elsewhere, leaving behind wasteland. This is common where there is a lack

secure tenure to non-Fijian farmers, who must lease land from traditional owners, and it.

does not encourage careful husbandry of limited land. (MAFFA Report 1990). , '

Box 3.2- Main Permanent Agriculture in Fiji

The three main permanent agriculture common in Fiji which have resulted in deforestation

are:

1) Permanent field crop cultivation, this requires the clearance of larger forest area at

one time. Cultivation of staple crops, such as rice, cassava ,tavo and yaqona (Piper

methyslicum) is widespread. Crops like taro, cassava, and yaqona are mainly farmed on

hill slopes and on low fertile virgin lands where soil fertility is high and there is always

more room to expand ones crop, rice on the other hand are cultivated on the wet lands on

the river deltas of the Rewa and Navua rivers. The rich bila soil derived from alluvium

are used for sugarcane fanning mainly common in the western side of the main Islands

have reduce any chance of re growth of vegetation because of the crop demand in the

domestic market.

2) Government resettlement programmes that transfer people from overcrowded areas

to new-forested area, is also a factor for deforestation in Fiji. Though not really a

problem at present, the rise in population and demand for better standard of living is

likely to soon lead to this. Poor site selections and pressure on the land, may prevent any

sustainable alternatives, and may lead to ad-hoc planning causing new settlers to move

on and clear forest elsewhere. Lessons to be learned here are those from resettlement

schemes in the Amazon basin in Brazil (Goldsmith: 1998).

3) Cash crop cultivation has also been a cause of deforestation. The Government of Fiji

in its development strategy of 1997,states that "Agriculture is to remain the largest

sector in Fiji's economic plan"(Parliamentary paper, 58,1997). In 1996, agriculture

continue to account for almost 43% of foreign earning, and providing nearly 50%,of

total employment as depict in Table 3.1 contributes to 19 percent of Fiji's GDP. With

Sugar a cash crop of great importance to the country is still the dominant feature.

17

Table 3,1 .Agriculture share of GDP :1997

Social

16%

Manufaduring13%

Mine

3%

Finance

13%

Agric:

19%

Transporl11%

Service

16%

Construction5%

Electricity4%

*Source: Parliamentary paper: 58,1997. "Development Strategy for Fiji-policy andProgram for sustainable growth "

The use of land for export crop creates a wide chasm between consumer and the place

where the land is used as a production site, Consequently, forest lost is likely to be

undervalued, and therefore degraded by converting it to agricultural land .because often the

ecosystem services are not taken into account in assessing the value of the land.(Folke et

al,1993).From Table 3.1 above, Fiji still relies on its agriculture as a springboard for

development and this translate into a tendency to overlook the ecosystem service of the

forest. For the same reason the land is likely to be subjected to ill effect of pesticides and

herbicides. Unfortunately the distant consumer[3],is often unaware of the environmental cost,

including the cost of conversion, and is very rarely asked to bear such costs.

The consequences of land degradation and pollution are left to those sectors of society who

least able to cope with the ill effects or bear the cost (Gadgil, 1993). As a result, forest

conversion continues unbated. The biggest challenge facing Fiji in this areas to find practical

path for a proper sustainable development. This mean finding ways to reorient consumption

patterns in agriculture and use of the forest in a way that improve the quality of human life,

while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. It requires building

economic system where basic needs are satisfied while protecting the forest and its

surrounding ecosystem so as to not to deprive the people of the future from satisfying their

needs.[4](6hichinski ,1998).

The extraction of gold, copper exploration and the development of hydroelectric dams

in Fiji have also lead to forest removal and permanent desertification of land sites. Unclear

policies regarding taxation and fiscal policy with regard to mineral sector investment, and the

slow bureaucratic process in some government department in Fiji is a worrying issue

(parliamentary paper: 58,1997). This implies that addressing deforestation and land

degradation will even be more delayed, despite the fact that the government's its policy

objectives states that "Environmental and sustainable development concern must be in concert

with mining development". (Parliamentary paper: 58,1997:2).

3.3: Underlying causes of deforestation in Fiji:

The underlying cause of deforestation can be divided into four categories

(Goldsmith, 1998). These are socio-economic factors, physical factors, state intervention and

other externalities. In this section I will examine two of these factors which are mosl

applicable to Fiji

1: Socio-economic factors.

One of the underlying causes of deforestation is Population Growth. This has

increased the demand for food and other commodities. In Fiji this has been achieved entirely

partially through intensification of agriculture to try and promote sustainabilily (MAA1-

Report, 1996). However poor soil and lack of capital to invest in fertiliser and machines limit

that inputs (Peering et al, 1995). So much of the extra demands is often supplied hy

extensification- thus expanding the farm land area. With the rise in population in li)i ami

concentration of the people on low alluvial fiat lands and coastal areas, has leud in a va*l

amount of agro deforestation (Thaman, 1986), thus has been a threat to sustainable

development.

Despite the fact that deforestation has received national attention, a^ro deforestation in

the form of declining trees from existing agricultural and urban kimlscapc Iras been neglected.

This will be a threat to bio diversity preservation and sustainable development. (Gerte, 1963).

19

This has been a long term undetected problem in Fiji each year, hundreds of useful trees are

destroyed and replaced by urban development or mono cultural planting for commercial

export to meet the rising economic aspiration of the countries economic development. [5],

with often little thoughts given to the values of trees being sacrificed for short-term profit. In

Fiji the population is expected to rise to 45 people /km2 by the year 2001,and population

concentration on agricultural land estimated at 24 people/km2. (UNCED Report, 1992). With

the almost complete utilisation of first class arable land.

The current expansion of agriculture into marginal hill area and steep hill continue.

Even small increases can expand localised land degradation dramatically, and removal of

large-scale forests and deter fallow growths. (UNCED Report: 1992). The spread of cash

cropping, whether through the intrusion of estates in coconut plantations, and large-scale land

settlement schemes, or through the adoption of cash crops as a supplement to traditional

village agriculture, has further reduced the surplus of land for subsistence cropping. This will

only mean pressure placed on new land area and thus a further removal of the forest. (Fisk,

1982).

Secondly economic growth and development is another socio-economic factor

affecting deforestation in Fiji. Economic growth which is a rise in the annual production of

goods and services (Pearce and Turner,1990) .leads to deforestation as, it is usually associated

with an increase in agricultural production and urban industrial areas.

However one must note as mentioned by Simpson,(1987'.24)"growlh is not always

accompanied by economic development, which requires a sufficiently wide distribution of

benefits of growth to improve the standard of life of all citizens"[6]. The concentration of 83

percent of the land in Fiji in the hands of the indigenous population under traditional

ownership's (Narayan, 1984), has lead to great inequality in natural resource distribution.

20

Thus the land less people of the country are driven to overexploit their limited available lands,

resulting in great pressure on the forest.

Moreover, reliance on natural resources exploitation continues to support the national

economy directly through agricultural production, forestry and minerals (UNCED report,

1992). This implies the rapid clearance of forest areas and the desertification of landscapes.

Industrial utilisation of forest products in Fiji, commenced with the advent of Europeans in

the early 19"' century, with the trade of sandalwood. (France, 1969). Table 3.2 shows the

timber production and export projected for the years to come. It shows the reliance of the

government on forest as a source of revenue.

21

The Fiji government economic policy over the past 5 years has been the deregulation of

the economy with an emphasis on export -led growth strategy and economic diversification to

achieve improve standards of living (Parliamentary Paper, 58:1997). However, natural

resource based production still accounts for almost 60 percent of domestic export in the

period 1997-88. This can also be a warning that Fiji needs to assess carefully its position

because of the great temptation to continue the overexploitation of natural resources, which

will mean shorter fallow periods, or permanent removal of forest. The overexploitation of the

forest may give way to permanent agriculture or the introduction of new exotic species which

totally destabilises the environment.

Indigenous trees will be seen as a weed and competition to the new introduced

commercial species (Ferguson, 1997), which are placed of more values than native trees. This

is because of it shorter mature period and its demand in the international market. (E.g. Pinus

carribea -for its wood chips and Honduras Mahogany because of its shorter mature period

compared to native hardwoods).

Other important socio-economic underlying causes of deforestation are Poverty and

Inequality. Westoby (1989) claimed poverty and inequality, not population growth, are the

principle causes of deforestation. They certainly motivate people to clear forest in societies

where the distribution of income, wealth and property rights is skewed in favour of a

privileged few. Barber et al (1994b), states that timber trade is not the only cause of

deforestation, rather its the conversion of forest by marginalised people when inequality exist

in the distribution of sources of well being is of more significant. In Fiji as elsewhere in the

world it is difficult to disentangle poverty and inequality from population growths Chambers

(1993) states that the more people there are, the more they destroy the long term potential of

fragile environments, and the poorer this makes them and their descendants.

ck 24

Some people in Fiji are landless and occupy marginal and fragile lands. In this case

the ecosystem, especially the forest, suffer a low resilience capability because the scale of

economic and subsistence activity no longer relates to the natural capacities of the forest

ecosystem to regenerate and absorb the pressure and waste disposed by the society (Turner,

1995). The use of the environment in this case is unsustainable. The failure to adequately

account for natural capital such as forest and the contribution it makes to economic welfare

will lead to misperception on the country's economic development. (Costanza and Daly

1992). This often occur because at time the value of the forest is taken into account because

of its timber values only and its other standing values are neglected by those who are poor in

the community.

Myers(1994) and Gills (1996) have argued that much of the tropical deforestation in the

tropic is due to slash and burn agriculture practised by poor farmers. This is clearly visible in

Fiji where lands less people play a major role in the encroachment on forest. In Fiji poor

agricultural households can have two opposite effects on deforestation. Surplus labour, when

using intensification of agricultural production can lead to the reduction in deforestation rate,

but in the absence of intensification it can result in conversion of forest into agricultural land.

The outcome may depend upon the size of the land holding and the rootlessness of the rural

poor. Household need is a key cause of deforestation [7]. (Goldsmith, 1998).

2:State Interventions.

In the development of any country, it is important to have some sorts of stale intervention

to regulate and control resource usage. According to neo-classical economic theory, land and

other scarce resources should be allocated according to their market values (Turner, 1995). In

practice, allocation is often contained by the intervention of the stale in order to implement its

policies on agriculture and forestry (Goldsmith, 1998). The stale sometimes assists but some

other times it can also promote the spread of land use, which is physically and economically

unsustainable. Pearce and Brown (1994) state that, "As market allocation of Innd doc* not

"v

25

take account of the environmental service provided by forests, since this lack market vakies,

the state can play an important role in compensating for this market failure".

In Fiji, more often the pricing, investment and institutional policies for forestry actually work

to create the conditions for short term harvesting by private concessionaires, and in some

instances, even subsidise private harvesting at inefficient level through its policies (Britton,

1980). Environmental policies in the country have been presented in national development

plans since 1971 (UNCED Report, 1982). However, their implementation through practices

and resource allocation has been minimal. Unfortunately, environmental concerns have been

effectively sectionalised rather than becoming an across the board approach throughout the

Government.

Fiji's environmental laws are many and varied and are relic of the colonial period when

environmental problems were limited and clearly sectoral (UNCED Report, 1982). Most of

these laws are old and ineffective in a modem environmental management context they suffer

from the lack of enforcement due to inadequate staffing, lack of technical resources and

funding or administrative failures. Development of a specific environmental planning

function has taken place within the Town and Country Planning Office .An inter-ministerial

Environmental Management Committee has been operating since 1980.However a "high

level"government cordinating body is now required to control the numerous ad hoc

environmental-related activities taking place. Since 1989 a small under resource Environment

Unit with few professional specialists has been operating in the department (UNCED Report,

1992). This sign of the lack of emphasis the govemment has been placing on the cnvironmcnl

in creating such a long-standing delay in the policy and management of the environment.

Moreover, there is a lack of value and attributes to environmental education in Fiji.

Apart from the infamous "Abour day"[8]. Fiji over the years has achieved high standard of

education provision, however environmental education is not included in Ihe school curricula

as a formal subject. Cun-ently environmental awareness and concern in all communities in Fiji

26

are at low level. Effective environmental control and management will require further

direction and resources and will be obtained if there is further rise in the level of Community

awareness.

Market and policy failure occur only when market do not take into account of the value of

ecosystem services and policies are not mordified to correct market failures (Barbier et al

1994)." Missing market" (Pearce and Brown, 1994) resulting from under valuation of forest

which also leads to market failure (Goldsmith, 1998). The table below, (Table 3.4) shows

Fiji's external debts from 1985 to 1992,and from it one can infer how much Fiji will have to

look at its natural resources as a mean of raising quick cash or to pay loan instalment.

Table 3.4: Fiji external Debts ($ millions) 1985-1992

*l *.ll

CJlM'ljnJ'IUiMlllllluIll11>. nl-St• i^j i

<. \UN ll.ll

ilIlO ipi'l

Jl 11

-..'I t)

441

l2~2 '

441

T2 '1

101,"

4'.6

122

1U"S I9v>

J_I'Xjd ' |vy|

.

1

1 i 'J02

1

1 Si.

1 . .Source. UNCED Report,1992.

From the table above (Table 3.4) Fiji has a reduction in its external debt and so is its

debt-service ratio. However this does not imply that Fiji is clear from external dependency of

Aid from major donor countries [9], Fiji at present is looking at the environment mainly from

agriculture and other natural resources (which both affect deforestation), as a mean of raising

cash by rapidly liquidating forest stocks or converting lands to agriculture to raise cash crops

for export in order to meet its economic development aspirations. It is important to nolc that

according to the FAO (1993), land with less than 10 percent tree cover is considered as non-

forest land. Fiji has some lands, which fall on that category, but is still considered as forest

(UNCED Report, 1992). The Conservator of Forest (Fiji) Mr K.Yabaki, in his stalement to

the University of the South Pacific Pacific week in 1986,admiticd some of the problems of

Fiji's forest degradation, as he mentioned, the reasons are:

27

1 .Improper logging practices by unnecessarily exposing too much vulnerable soil

surface resulting in longer re growth periods.

^Irresponsible agricultural developments and practices on steep slopes stripping the

land bare and leaving forest in total ruins.

3.Poor road alignment and engineering on hills and slopes causing more forest

degradation than it supposes to be.

Fiji has scope to improve on its environmental policies which should be integrated and

considered as part of the total development plans rather than being isolated and treated as a

separate entity of development,

However, one must also note that not all forest clearance is necessarily destructive.

Where clearance of suitable classes of unproductive land can result in stable and sustainable

food crop production. According to Pearce and Turner (1990) the replacement cost should

bring about maximum benefits to the environment and the society affected. [10]. However a

desirable scale of economic activity should be reached in which one does not "erode" the

environmental carrying capacity over time (Tumer, 1993). What often does not exist in Fiji is

the appropriate set of policy instruments to regulate the scale of economies, in form of

taxation's linked to natural capital depletions, and, perhaps in cases where uncertainties is

great, assurance bonds [11] can be tied to resource development (Costanza and Pcrrings,

1990).

Another way of looking at the transition in land use which explains the substantial

reduction in forest covers, is through according to Goldsmith (1998) is the "Normative and

Critical model of national land use transition", as the Figure 3.2 below shows.

28

those near major urban centres are greatly occupied and pressure is laid on its resources. In

most cases it is the forest that is exploited to make way for development, in forms of

infrastructure and other economic activity

Land allocations and the politicised of national planning which often leads to uneven

developments are also great externalities affecting deforestation and the neglect of the forest

by most development planners. According to the Core-Periphery theories of political

economy which attempts to explain the above relationship-the Core (Urban and semi urban

based areas) will always benefit from the surplus productions of the Periphery (rural, and

marginallised area) (Hall, 1966). The over reliance on the country side for development [12]

in Fiji, will surely leads to the continuous degradation of the already used up environments,

thus reducing fallow periods and leaving some parts of the land permantelly degraded.

One can envisage that deforestation has come in varied forms and in many reasons,

however what really is affected are the people who occupy these areas and their livelihood,

which the next chapter will focus on.

Notes:

This excludes small mills operating, and supplying processed timber to larger mills

2 Variables includes, land policy, land zoning, and resource usage.

3. As in the International market which demands timber and other forest products

4. Concepts of sustainability based on efficiency and Inlergenerational equity. Ref.

Tumer.K, 1993: "Sustainable Environmental management". Wiley's and Sons .NY

5. The new exotic species introduced to replace the indigenous forest, including

Cocoa, Mahogany and Pine.

6.1n Fiji economic growth is achieved but unequal development still exist especially in the

rural areas, the trickle down of economic growth is yet to be felt in some of these

areas, (rural and remote island). These can be achieved if the government can finance rural

30

community reforestation programmes, especially the replanting of common indigenous

tree species, which are useful source ofFood.juelwoods and medicine to the rural people

7.Needs of individuals can not be compromised, so the need for food and a better standard of

living, such as school fees for the children, and the meeting of every day social obligations

are paramount in Fijian society.

S. This take place once a year, where everyone in Fiji especially at school and community

level, people is encouraged to plant trees to replace for lost or harvested trees.

9,Donor countries include the EU, Australia, the WorldBank and the ADB (Asiandevelopment bank)

10. This implies what is being utilised to replace the forest that are being removed it must beof worthwhile values to supplement for lost.

11 .Compensations informs of cash or other forms of capitals to support livelihoods of peopleinvolved.

12. The use of the environment for agriculture, mining, and commercial logging

31

foiImpact of deforestation on local livelihoods

The analysis presented in this section is based on the following effects.

The physical effects that deforestation has on the environment, the economic effects that it

has on individual households at village, community, and national level. Moreover I will also

look at the social effects it has pn the people, and finally the political implications of the

effects of deforestation at local and national level.

4.1.Ecological Impacts.

Deforestation in Fiji is taking place at a rate, which exceeds regeneration (Fiji Pine

Commission Report, 1980). This has affected a large segment of the environment. The

disappearance of certain tree and animal species has begun to be observed in Fiji. Snakes and

certain species of Iguana, which are unique to the country, are now very rare. They have been

either driven further into the forest or have been destroyed in forest fire (result of extensive

land use), or their habitat completely destroyed resulting in death (National Trust of Fiji

report, 1988).

Mangrove swamps have been destroyed for construction of new infrastructure and tourism

developments. This has led to the decline in the number of marine tidal species and their

habitats. Removal of sources of food and the elimination of producers in the food chain h a s

seriously affected" the coastal marine ecosystems. This problem has social and economic

implications, which I discuss later in the chapter. The continuous removal of Irce and neglect

to replant in the coastal areas'has also led to accelerated coastal erosion in many areas, which

have lead to salt water encroachments. This is because trees that were once relied upon lo

stabilise tidal zones soil and reduce impacts of storm surge but have now disappeared. T h e

impact on the land is significant and good agricultural lands have been destroyed and lost Into

the sea (National Trust of Fiji report, 1988).

-\r Deforestation in Fiji has destroyed other forest values and functions. The South East of

the main island of Viti Levu (Serua Province) has been vulnerable to drought and severs

flooding during rainy seasons averaging 3000mm-4000mm from November to April each

year. Clear evidence was in April 1-15,1980 when cyclone Wally hit the group resulting in

extensive flooding and landslides. This has been directly linked to watershed destruction.

.̂ Moreover increasing effects on declining soil fertility have begun to be felt in the area too.

, Soil gains fertility straight after logging, but later loses its fertility very rapidly in the

"" subsequent years and become severely depleted in the long term, years after. More new land

areas and loss of even more natural forests and its functions [lJ.rThe removal of trees has

contributed to the salinastion of soil, leaching of nutrients, laterisation of minerals and

accelerated soil erosion of topsoil, thus reducing the land productivity.

The loss of top soil as a result of removal of forest cover, has resulted in the sedimentation

of most rivers in Fiji.This has resulted in low lying areas being prone to floods during heavy

or slight rainfall. Some of the villages whose watersheds have been heavily degraded suffer

from flooding five to six times in a year depending on the frequency of rainfall. This is

accompanied by siltation of drinking water [2], In addition to this, the many activities that

take place in the deforested parts of the islands, for instances, road building and the

constructions.of road for timber haulage's, has led to the decrease in ground water reserves,

while many brooks, and springs disappear.

Vegetation also influences climate at micro level. Growing evidence suggest thai

undisturbed forest helps to maintain the rainfall its immediate vicinity by recycling water

vapour at a steady rate back into the atmosphere and through the canopy's effect in promoting

atmospheric turbulence. At smaller scale vegetation has a moderating influence on climalc

and may create quite specific microclimate. Some organism is dependent on such

microclimate for their existence.

4.2.Economic impacts.

Deforestation has wider economic implication and effects. Firstly deforestation has led

to a loss of future financial security and source of economic springboards [3] (Barraclough et

all995). The current generation are removing the forest with little considerations on the

future of their children (Utting, 1993). The forest containing rich subsistence, and

pharmaceutical level wealth, these resources which could have great values in future if

maintained or used at a sustainable level.

These trees have been for generations been cheap and valuable source of medicine, food

supplies and fuels for the people thus implies that the loss of the forest ecosystem means the

end of these functions and thus forcing the community to look for alternatives. This is either

in the dependence of foreign food sources or the reliance on cheap sources of food medicines

and fuel and even had lead to communicable diseases (Thaman, 1979), which I will discuss

later in the chapter.

4.3:Societv transformation and its impacts.

The traditional set up of most Fijian village is mainly based around subsistence

lifestyles, as in pre contact and in the early turn of the century. The introduction of cash into

the society as mentioned by Britton (1980:251) was through.

"The penetration by western capitalism of the pre-capitalist world laid

The fecundations of an externally oriented distorted and dependent form

of development. This occurred through the subordination of indigenous societies

and the highly exploitation of local resources by foreign capital"

This at the turn of the 20th century has completely revolutionised their way of thinking.

Most of the forest was easily given out in exchange for axe, tabbaco, and knifes or liquor, the

34

trend still exist today where the Fijian community have been continually dependant on their

environment as quick source of making cash to meet their social and economic obligations.

People always want money, for their children's education, modern housing, transport and

other social and economic need. For many people all they have to sell is their tree, and

logging companies will'give easy money for it. The royalties and taxes they pay contribute lo

national economy, but no one really knows whether people are getting a fair price (UNDP

report, 1994). Deforestation as the result of timber trade has brought about the same type of

dependant mentality that was mentioned by Britton (1980) above, thus encouraging the

landowners to continue to give their forest to be harvested.

However, some aspects of the Fijian society lack many of the "growth generating"

factors (Watters 1969), institutions or attitudes of minds that are necessary conditions before

systematic economic growth can begin. Natural resource such as forest are greally available

but control over them is too widely scattered and is perpetuated in the Malaqali (clans)

system, which is an obstacle to economic development and savings. In most cases Ihe

royalties received are all used up as soon as they are shared out. Communities do little to

compensate for the loss of forest and its values for the future generations in forms of savings

and investments for the damage caused. (Jeffries, 1997).

The subsistence economic systems, which once formed the basis of community

livelihood and its subsistence affluence have, began to disappear from the society. One of the

major reasons is the loss of the bases in which they once greatly depended on. This includes

the declining productivity in subsistence agriculture as a result of declining soil fertility.

Farmers are now forced to depend on artificial fertilisers, which lakes away even more money

from the already poor households. Loss of fish stock as a result of river siltalianx have alia

been experienced, resulting in people starting to depend on canned and frozen fish from the

market to supplement their diets. This of course has economic and health hazards 100. The

continues dependence on these products have resulted in its price hike.

4.4.Social and cultural impacts

Human culture co-evolve with their environment. The natural environment

provides for many of the inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and educational need of the people.

The people of Fiji having great respect for their forest because of the many sacred entities it

show this holds. Trees hold the secrecy of most Fijian Societies; they signify traditions,

culture, heritage and totems, thus the whole identity of society. The loss of certain trees

means the loss of cultural heritage of tribes and clans (/ Cavuti) or the identity. Trees have

religious and spiritual significance; they are often associated with the curing of sickness, the

exorcism of evil spirits and good yields. For instance the Ti plant are planted around gardens

to chase away evil spirits and for good yields (Thaman, 1979). These trees also hold great

ceremonial importance to the people of Fiji, e.g.; the panadanus that is used for trade in

ceremonies woven as mats, and baskets.

Deforestation has also brought about breakdown in some rural societies. This has result in

the quest for survival, and the limitations of available natural resources on which mosl

normally depend on. Loss of traditional cultivars because of the declining soil fertility and

loss of farmlands have resulted in the change in trends of social relationships. This is evident

in the decline in regional trading system in gift exchanges within extended families or

residential groups (Britton, 1980).

The rapid urban migration of people in search for alternative means of livelihood, is

another social implications of deforestation in Fiji. Deprived of their sources of livelihood and

with few alternatives, most are doomed to seek menial occupations in the commerce, service

or waged labour. This migration may include temporary or permanent, trying to provide for

remittances enabling rural communities receiving them to undertake productive activities,

other than overexploiting soil and forest resources. This includes finding employment in

mining, road construction; urban developments often all engendered by the same process

leading to deforestation. Often these jobs are temporary and low paid. Bui employment is

37

seen as better suited for spreading existing incomes among rural people than bringing greater

prosperity to the communities (Barraclough et al, 1995). In 1993,the urban growth was at a \ j

j jrate of 3 per cent per annum, which exceeds total population growth rate of 2.0 per cent per

annum (UNDP Report, 1997).

Such movements of people have forced most social obligations in society to be abandoned,

the neglect of cultural leaderships and the loss of respect for the vanita or the community set

up. Elders and chiefly systems are neglected in a modern Fijian society, where the idea of

capitalism has taken over, coupled with the lost of loss of livelihoods.

There is also conflicts over limited natural resources. Claims over ownership of farmland

are major causes of conflicts in rural communities. Moreover, ownership over once open

access natural good such as fruit trees, water sources and sea is now limited. People have

responded knowing the limitations over the use of available resources in their locality, and

have tried hard to avoid external predators from other societies in using up their already

limited resources. This is seen as threat to their survival and may lead to confrontations and in

some case lead to legal restrain.

The declining soil fertility, which has been due to the loss of forest, has resulted in some

changes in relation to property rights in who could use the forest. This has been incorporated

into the legal system and a bundle of institutionalised rights and obligations. They now

regulates relationships among individuals, families, social groups corporate entities and the

state in their access to the land and its products, including the rights to anticipated future

benefits (Barracolough, 1995).

4.5:Food security and health impacts

Primarily, the destruction of the forest habitat,.which holds abundant food source?, has

resulted in the loss of some of the major traditional food source and security. The forest holds

38

an abundance of food sources, which replace domesticated crops in time of famine or in time

of natural hazards. For instance; wild yams and pandanus fruits replaces staple crops such as

taro, cassava and breadfruits when natural hazards such as hurricanes affect cultivation.

During this time people remained self sufficient through increased utilisation of these famine

crops and marine resources (Thaman, 1979).

Today, people greatly rely on government handouts and poverty alleviation funds to help

sustain their livelihood. People are starting to feel the stress that the environment is

experiencing due to continuing degradation. This is also evident in the loss of delicacies,

which are now replaced by imported food. One just has to go to a Fijian feast to see that

imported tinned fruits from New Zealand and Australia now preferred and served as desserts,

rather than local delicacies which are really rare to find. (Thaman, 1980)

The forest has for generation been a source of medicines. The loss of trees due to

deforestation or re-aforestation [4] has meant a loss of trees with great medicinal values

(Refer to table 1.2). Around 70 per cent of Fiji's trees have medicinal use (Weiner, 1984).

Deforestation has led to the complete dependence of people on modern western

medicines, which are often at times really expensive for people. Moreover the loss of these

medicinal plants have resulted in the declining numbers of natural healers who administer

traditional medicines which was once serve a majority of rural people previously unreachcd

by modern medicines. Even today in Fijian society people still hold great respect for it.

With the declining traditional food sources in Fiji, coupled with the increase in food prices

the health of people is greatly affected. Evidence shows that the decline in nutritional values

of people and their preference of cheap food sources has led to high incidence of disorders,

This includes iron deficiency, arnemia, obesity, general and micro nutrient deficiency,

cardiovascular problems, hypertension diabetes, gouts and dental diseases. (UNDP, Report

1997)

The loss of these food sources is not only limited to forest food sources. They also

include those from the rivers and the sea. The rivers are being heavily silted that, prawn and

other fish that once survive on it have disappear and are unable to reproduce in such

environments (Fergusson, 1997). In addition, coastal marine habitats are destroyed through

loss of mangroves and coastal forest. This is a direct result of siltation of river mouths causing

fish to move further into the sea, and also the diminishing of coastal marine creatures which

are food sources to people, such as mud crabs and lobsters.

4,6 :Positive impacts of deforestation

The removal of forest has also its positive impacts. Ecologically, the timber trade has

allowed people to be concern about their environment and an increasing awareness of its

problems. The establishment of environmental laws and logging codes have helped saved

significant amount of forest, which could have been otherwise been destroyed. The

establishment of the Fiji Pine Commission to plant exotic forest to relive pressure from native

timber has been notable. The theme of Fiji's forest management programmes has been based

on sustainability practices. This is achieved through reforestation and an educational

campaign in rural area on sustainable forestry management (Fiji Parliamentary Paper No.40,

1997). The effects have included the saving of some important tree species and watershed

protection. This is highlighted in the Ifiji code of national logging practice clause 3.1.1 (c)

"Filter buffer strip are required for the protection of designated streams.... They are lo remain

undisturbed ...and shall not disturb high creek banks". (Ministry of Forest Fiji, 1990). This

often includes the buffer of at least 10-30 meters from every stream.

Culturally, some Fijian society just came to realise and treasure much about their culture

and their originality, when they reflect on their diminishing identity. Totem trees are

removed, totem fish destroyed and the symbols of their societies beginning to disappear. This

has helped in the establishment of some major Eco tourism areas such as Ihc Tavuni hill forts,

40

1I

and various other forest reserves not only as a security for future needs but also of its cultural

importance. _

Economically, however there is a rise in standard of living of people who are directly

involved in the timber trade. These include landowners, workers and the community as a

whole. There has been an improvement in the standard of household consumption and

savings. (Hamilton, 1993). In addition to this the loss of commercial values from the

environment has led to the change in pattern of timber trade. This is from whole log

shipments to stimulating of wood based processing industries in the country. This is to try and

maximise the commercial values of timber and compensate for the consequent loss from the

environment.

Moreover, timber trade has brought about development in rural areas, in form of

infrastructure development such as roads and housings and also as an "immediate" solution

to poverty alleviation in most rural areas as a result of the diminishing subsistence affluence.

Chapter Summary,

However, a varied development that has taken place in Fiji has brought about drastic

change in the rate of forest areas converted to other land use types. The disappearance of

certain tree species and animals has also been experienced. The impact it has on the land is

great, loss of good agricultural lands, pollution of rivers and the transformation of coastal

lands by sea intrusions to name a few.

The livelihoods of the people have been greatly affected too, loss of valuable famine

food crops, the loss of valuable marine and river fish which has made up the diet of people for

years thus leading to various malnutrition and communicable diseases.

41

Rural poverty can also be linked directly to deforestation, the loss of fuels and

medicines and the continuous dependence supermarkets for supplies, which could have been

extracted from the forest.

Nevertheless, deforestation has also brought about some positive impacts on the

conservation and management of the forest. People's livelihoods have also been improved,

from royalties gained from timber trades and also through Intensive agriculture practices.

However one cant get away from the fact that deforestation is unavoidable, but the biggest

debate is how to sustainably utilise the forest to bring about the best for both conservation

purposes and at the same time getting the most out of it.

1.Forest role in the physical environment such as watershed protections.

2.Siltationsfrom runoffs from bare soil

3.Forest as a major source of economic development

4.Planting of exotic species will mean the removal of indigenous species to allowthese commercial trees to growths include regular weeding or "line cutting" usknown locally.

' • • . ' • ' • ! • ! , • • ' • • ' > / • • ' : V ' '

• . - :: •-£•••• - : > ' ' . • ; ' . ' • ' • '.

!. . . . .sV• • • • ; ! ' • - • , • : • . ' . • - . : / ' . . • • : • :

i • - . - . - . - . if . . . • : . . . • • • : - . •

! ' • .•••!•" . • ' . ' • i V ' V : ; - - ' ' - ' ' " . . •

42

RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS

Finding long term solutions and offering recommendations for sustainable development

for the forest is not always easy. However in this chapter I will try and discuss some of the

possible long-term alternatives. This will be based on experiences from countries that have

gone through such processes and how they have tackled it or are trying to tackle the problems.

Within the Fijian context the first step to better environmental management is perhaps the

raising of awareness of people regarding the use of forest. Most of the problem occurs

because of the misunderstanding and conflicting views by actor's [1 ] regarding the use of such

resources. Below are the alternatives, which I have decided to comment on in this paper.

5.1:PeopIes participation in forest management.

Over the years there has been a lack of consideration of the local people in the decision-

making regarding natural resource use, in particular the forest in which most forms the bases

of livelihoods of people. These people have rich knowledge regarding the environment in

which they survive (Thaman, 1979). One must understand that in consulting local people we

are looking at their needs and will help in making accurate measures for development (Hatch,

1986). Rural people's knowledge represents the single largest resource not yet mobilised in

the development enterprise and developers cannot ignore it anymore.

The effective participation of people at the local, indigenous, village and local community

is essential to effective conservation policies, as shown in box 5.1.This knowledge should

receive full and fair consideration by other actors. This will involve devising of institutions

and political structures that will integrate the view of local people. These institutions

according to Humphery, 1996 should serve two main purposes. They act as a scrutinising

agent of the activities of actors who are involved in the use of ihc forest, to ensure that they

are adhered to conservation and sustainable development norms. In addition, they also serve

43

The teaching and strengthening of such institution will help the elite, wealthy and

westernised new generation to hold appreciation for their cultures and thus hold respect for

the environment. One will also able to appreciate that subsistence living is an important tool

for development [4] in a country like Fiji at its takeoff stage [5] of development. It forms the

basis for self-help and a way of reliving pressure on the government to continually help the

poor.

When the plan for sustainable development can clearly address and carry out activities

in regard to strengthening the base of peoples livelihood and to improving their subsistence

practice, then the enforcement of environmental rules would be easier. However, one must

not fail to note that the greatest problem facing the people of Fiji today are those arising from

their present position of social change (Watter, 1969). These change include that of transitions

from traditional pattern to a new hybrid patterns which are ultimately derived from the forces

of the impact of the west on island societies and the challenges inherent in the introduced

western technology and values.

The challenge lies in the proper blending of these two elements of change to give a

sense of direction for forest sustainable development. This will mean finding ways to re orient

consumption patterns in agriculture and the use of the forest in a way that improves the

quality of human life, while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystem

(Hamilton, 1983). It requires building an economic system where basic need are satisfied

while protecting the forest and its surrounding ecosystem so as not to deprive the people of

the future from satisfying their needs (Chicinski, 1998).This can involve establishing

programmes to educate rural population on the linkage between strengthening village s

livelihood, environment and development.

singh_al

Pencil

Secondly, in regard to pricing and marketing policy, the improvement in taxation should

be designed to appropriate rents and return them to public revenues and savings compulsory

savings in form of investments for landowners. This is to reduce the concessionaires from

exploiting of resource rapidly to capture more rent earlier rather than later. Moreover in

stating price for the forest they should never be too low, this can lead to excessive use. A

better alternative is to ensure an efficient use of resources, the output should be priced at their

marginal social cost [6], which will include the marginal cost of production and the external

cost of pollution and resource degradation (Refer to figure 5.1).

In addition to this, policy should be emphasised in improving the informal sectors of the

timber industry like carving, boat building, and simple rural carpentry work to improve

financial return from timber product by adding values to it (UNDP, 1997).

Another way the market mechanism could be an important element is the introduction of

Timber Certification. This is where companies are to produce or purchase timber from well

managed sources and they have to prove it, and they are to be provided with a framework of

environmental standard (Eco labelling) (Dudley, 1996). The advantage of Timber

Certifications as mentioned by Dudley, 1996 are:

1 .Help distinguish those companies seeking genuine effort to make reform in environment

and those making fraudulent efforts. This will allow the differences in market

penetration and price to reflect change in forest.

2.To provide companies with a clear idea of what is expected from them in term of forest

management buying policy, and some assurance that if they meet the required standard

they will avoid further stressful and damaging conflict with NGO's and others.

3.Provide an open forum for industry and other interest groups to debate issues regarding

. forest policy and management.

49

B) Improving policy on sustainable development.

There should be an improvement in the laws that govern environmental usage. More

values should be attributed to environmental awareness and education. This is to make the

role of environmental policies easier to implement. The establishment of special gene pool for

indigenous species should also be seriously viewed now reason is that due to the rate of

removal of forest and emphasis on exotic species these indigenous species have been ignored.

Other things that need to be addressed for sustainable development can include.

1.Institutional strengthening

2.Protection of the whole existing bio diversity in the country

3.Environmenatl information and education

4.Environmetal legislation improvement and follow up have implemented procedures

5.The no pricing mechanism for resource and energy conservation can be overcome by

applying "user pay" or" polluter pay" principle.

6.The improvement, evaluation and enforcement of the logging codes.

7.Revive and expand community based forestry scheme which ensure more rational use of

forest and a better life for people who live near them.

8,Close linkage and clear work co-ordination between various government ministry to

support sustainable development policy, especially those who are directly involved in

exploiting the forest. This with the aim of avoiding overlapping decisions being made

about development involving the environment {Eergusson, 1997).This should also

include the proper planning, monitoring and passing correct information's to enable a

proper set of goal is set for sustainable forest management Refer to Figure 5.2.

9.Development of a compulsory investment where companies have to pay a proportion of

profits into a tax-free fund, which can be reclaimed, if spent on approved type of forest

improvement.

lO.Rationing areas or volume cut each year, ie; in an annual allowable cut and check on

efficiency of harvesting.

50

b. Field delineation of coupe and reserve boundaries, also the reservation of nesting

trees and other wildlife habitat to sustain flora and Fauna population. In addition the

retention of tree species or sizes for regeneration fruits or nut production, and species

balance (Fergusson, 1997).

5.4;Conseivation by finding alternative,

There should be attempts made in hying to conserve the forest, This can be done through

several alternatives.

1 .Improving the agricultural practises, through proper irrigation's and water harvesting, so

as to maximise agricultural use of land and improve yields. This is also to reduce the quest

for deforestation through the clearing of new farmlands. This is especially in practices

such as upland sugarcane and ginger productions with high rate of natural erosion.

2.Estabishment of micro credit capital for poor household's [7], which acts as subsides. This

will involve funding for improving agriculture and improving other small scale rural

industries. Which with the hope will relieve the pressure from the environment and

improve the diminishing subsistence livelihoods.

3.The setting aside of lands in every communal land as forest reserves not only for future

timber and watershed protections. It should encompass forest, woodlands, and stands o f

bamboo's, reed bed, alluvial flood plains, wastelands(can include fallow

areas), hunting, gathering grounds, surface and ground waters for the poorer

people, ensuring that the means and rights to exploit these are reserved to them.

^Rehabilitating existing reserves. In the view of landowner corporations and support. This is

a programme to educate landowners and provide alternative packages to support

livelihoods.

52

5. Banning on the export of unsustainable harvested native timber with aim of protecting

small proportion of indigenous forest that are already protected by legislation by making it

less commercially attractive to clear fell native timber. In addition to allow time for

transition from unsustainable to sustainable harvesting. Here adjustment assistance is to be

Offered to landowners whose land is to be covered by the policy.

53

Note,

1,Actors include the role of the government, the people, the NGOs and the companies

involved in the limber trade.

2. This include the poor and the landowners whose lands are being marginalised.

3.Chipko movement was developed in India in 1970.Local women demonstrated to protectstand of forest from commercial harvesting which the government has endorsed. They huggedtress to prevent it from being harvested. Further reference refers to Mitchell B,1997. "Reoitrce and environmental management''pp204-206.

4Jt is the basis of livelihood in Fiji, and it still remain to a great portion of the population

4.As in Rostows model of Economic growth

5.looking at the Future benefit from the standpoint of the present. What is the value of thepresent forest in YearX. This will include looking at the interest rates and Discounting the

future.eg .Forest Y worth STnow, interest rate at r rate .In year 2,the value of thepresent forest would be:Year 2=1 +rYear3=(l+r)X(l+r)

6.Marginal Social cost include looking at what damage it has caused to society and al whatprice they should be sold at to compensate for society loss. These compensation a part of itshould go back to society.

7. Those who fall below "poverty line", and the poor land less people who are more likely todamage the environment in their quest for survival.

In recent years, concern about the destruction of Fiji's tropical forest has led to increased

interest in the role of actors involved in timber trade and forest conversions. These actors

involve the government in its economic development policies, rural people in their quest for

survival and the role they play in destroying the forest through shifting cultivation. In addition

the various local and foreign companies that exploit the forest in timber trade is perhaps the

largest source of forest destruction in the country.

Fiji with its geographical isolation and small size, it is blessed with forest cover

approximately half of the land area. Now over 40 percent of it are being exploited, in one way

or another with increasing pressure on the forest there is no room for complacency (Fiji Pine

Commission, 1991).

The forest has been central to the people's livelihood; it has over years provided many

functions for society. It has been a springboard for development, a major source of wealth,

food security, a warehouse for medicines, and building accessories, and in addition a living

museum containing rich symbols of peoples cultures.

Deforestation through commercial forest exploitation and commercial food cropping share

equal responsibility for most of the destruction that takes place. However, Fiji over the years

has suffered from deforestation through the following reasons.

1 .Lack of proper knowledge on timber resources and forest functions.

2.The need for foreign earning

3,Lack of proper environmental impact assessment (EIA)

4.Poor regulatory control of impacts

55

5.Lack of proper regards for environmentally and culturally sensitive areas

6.Lack of proper "serious" legislation to control and effectively monitor the rate of

deforestation at all levels.

7.The limited environmental campaign and education for environmental awareness.

The rural poor, who are often blamed for deforestation, are victims of socio-economic

and political process and institutions over which they have no control (Mannion et al, 1998.).

However, it is these people who suffer the most when their livelihood is slowly taken away

from them. Forest policies should be location specific, involving the local people. This is

because these are the people who are targets for developments, and they should be put as of

priority in any developmental policies (Chambers, 1983). This will mean that policy

programmes and projects intended to check deforestation and its negative social impacts have

to be based on a full appreciation of the dynamics of local peoples livelihoods.

The increasing population in Fiji will mean that more lands have to be utilised for

development purposes. This will mean expansion in settlements and more infrastructures. The

forest has to be cleared in this case and some areas will have to be permantally without forest.

But the extend in which these development are to take place and the amount of forest it will

have to remove has to be clearly evaluated. Proper compensations should be offered and the

idea of sustainability should always be of prime importance, the future generation should be

always be thought of and compensated for by the present generation. This will also mean a

better resilience rate of the natural environment and the forest yielding a better rclum to

sustain development in many sectors of the economy.

No single plan of action is going to save Fiji's forest, however the prevention of further

degradation through proper management and evaluation will help raise the standard of living

of people, their knowledge about the forest and their valuation of it (Mannion A et al, 1992).

Given the lack of data on forest inventories about Fiji compared to its neighbouring South

56

Pacific counties, Fiji will have to improve its forest management capabilities with the

introduction of tighter legislation and follow up policies. This will mean better co-operation

from all stakeholders who are involved in forest debate in Fiji. The WWF (1994) stated-that

companies and individuals who continue to "buy" cheap timber in open market risk buying

into the process of deforestation and forest degradation world wide.

Lastly, changing forest management and its policy can help reduce many of the

detrimental social and environmental impacts associated with forestry operation. According to

Dudley et al (1996), there are also limitation to this. Firstly well managed forest even if well

managed, they cannot fulfil all ecological and bio diversity functions of natural or semi

natural forest, so that management changes supplement, rather than replace the need for a

good protected area network. Secondly there is no universal blue print of managing forest.

General principle exist, and they must be adopted and tailored to individual ecological and

social conditions.

For Fiji lies the challenges in the way of trying to sustainable manage its forest in the wake

of development. This can be achieved with the integration of better forest management and

clear communication among actors involved. It must be noted that the forest should be

managed in a way so as to achieve development at the same time meet the environmental

need of the present generation and compensating the future. This will mean that

environmental protection in Fiji should constitute an integral part of development process

and not considered in isolation from it.

57

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61

ANNME&

Below is a list of some International conventions and agreements which I haveselected from various International negotiations which I think is very important forFiji to note in its quest for sustainable development and Forestry planning.I have tried to only highlight in here only some clauses. However, the rest of theagreements that are found in various International agreements are of great relevance.

Elements of conventions, agreements, protocols, charter for theconservation and development of world's forest.

Annex A.FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGAINISATION FOR THE UNITED NATIONS, ROMEDRAFT, 18 OCTOBER 1990.

In accordance with general usage, the preamble could set forth the motives and the

basic principle of the instrument.

1 .Motives should include:

a) Resources. Forest is a precious resource to mankind for the protection of

food, fibre, fuel, and shelter. The forest play a major role in the economies of

many countries. There are close links between forest conservation and forest

development in contributing to sustainable socio-economic development and to

the satisfaction of basic human needs.

b) Biological diversity. Forest is a major source of biological diversity. They

contain not only woody species and wild animals but-especially in the moist and

seasonal tropics and in some part of the sub-tropics a wealth of other plant

species of actual or potential socio-economic values, including gene pools of wild

and primitive cultivars of our main food crops.

c)Social and Cultural diversity. Forest are important for the maintenance of social

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and cultural diversity, particularly for local peoples, including indigenous and

forest people, and other community who depend on forests. They are also of

educational, scientific, cultural and spiritual importance for many people-

Including urban people who do not directly depend upon forest for their

livelihood.

d) Protecting watersheds. Forest is important for maintaining and protecting

watershed and for the protection of other biosystems, including riverine and

coastal area, as well as protecting urban areas from flooding.

e) Maintain soil cover. Natural and replanted forest are important for maintain

soil cover, arresting desertification and the long term sustainability of

agricultural land; they provide other essential environmental services on a local

or regional level.

f) Climatic sustainability. The conservation of worlds forest is essential for global

climatic stability, particularly having regards to the important contribution of

forest destruction to global warming through the emission of carbon dioxide,

methane and other trace gasses and to the role of forests as reservoirs and sinks of

greenhouse gases.

2.Principles

At least three basic principles could be recognised.

a) Sovereignty'.The sovereignty of states over the forest resources and potential

resources under their jtirisdiction.

b) Stewardship. The stewardship of those resources in such a manner as to ensure

the attainments and continued satisfaction of human needs for

present and future generations.

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o) Burden sharing. There should be an equitable sharing by the international

Community of the burden of forest conservation and

development, including the application of financial compensation

mechanism to offset opportunity cost of forest conservation

undertaken for the purpose of contributing to international

environmental goals.

3.Formulation of National Forest Policy.

A national forest policy, forming an integral part of national land use policy aiming

at the sustainable use of all natural resources, should be formulated by means of a

process seeking the consensus of all actors involved: government, local populations

and private sector.

In this context the parties should undertake to adopt clear targets or objectives for

the conservation, reforestation, afforestation and/or sustainable development of forest,

together with measures to achieve this at national level.

Parties should also agree to formulate or revise forest conservation and development

plans covering at least the following main elements:

a) the preservation of primary forest by means of establishing designated

protection areas, including natural reserve areas, parks, landscape, protection

areas, ethnological protection areas and resource protection areas.

b) the protection of other ecological sensitive forest ecosystems

c) the sustainable utilisation of forest in the interest of socio-econom ic

development and environmental protection

d) The scope and methods for reforestation and afforestation and for the

rehabilitation of degraded areas

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e) the monitoring of forest resources.

4) Protection of indigenous population.

Parties should pledge:

a) Respect for the basic rights and needs of local populations including

indigenous and forest peoples and other communities that depend on the

forest.

b) The promotion of the rights and sustainable livelihood and cultural integrity

of indigenous people through policies and laws that recognise and protect

their land, economic, intellectual and cultural rights.

c) Direct and effective participation of local people in planning and decision

making related to forest areas.

5) Control on activities likely to jeopardise sustainable use of forest.

Parties should agree to control activities that degrade the potential use of a

forest as an economic and ecological resource, particularly:

a) Agricultural practices that result in permanent impoverishment of the soil

and vegetation.

b) The clearing of forest for grazing purpose only.

c) Extractive industries (such as mining and logging).

d) major public or private development scheme (such as road and dams)

In the case of the last two categories, parties should agree to insist that a full

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is carried out before the operation starts and

there is a regular monitoring of effects once the operation is underway and following

its completion.

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ANNEX B.

Non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a globalconsensus on the management, conservation and sustainable developmentof all types of forests.

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DVELOPMENTRIO DE JANEIRO, JUNE 1992.

Principles/Elements

1. States have in accordance with the charter of the UN and the principles of

environmental laws, the sovereign rights to exploit their own resources pursuant to

their own environmental policies and the responsibility to ensure that activities

within their jurisdiction, or control do not cause damage to the environment of

other states or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

2. States have the sovereign and inalienable rights to utilise, manage and develop

their forest in accordance with their development needs and level of socio

economics development and on the basis of national policies and consistent with

sustainable development and legislation, including the conversion of such areas

within the overall socio-economic development plan and based on rational land

use policies.

3. National policies and strategies should provide frame work for increased efforts,

including the development and strengthening of institutions and programmes for

66

the management, conservation and sustainable development of forest and forest

lands.

4.The provision of timely, reliable and accurate information on forest and forest

ecosystems is essential for public understanding and informed decision making and

should be ensured.

5.The role of planted forests and permanent agricultural crops as sustainable and

environmentally sound sources of renewable energy and industrial raw material

should be recognised, enhanced and promoted.

6.Forest conservation and sustainable development policies should be integrated with

economic, trade and other relevant policies.

7.Appropiate indigenous capacity and local knowledge regarding the conservation and

sustainable development of forest should, through institutional and financial

support, and in collaboration with the local communities concerned, be recognised,

respected, recorded, developed and, as appropriate, introduced in the

implementation of programmes. Benefits arising from the utilisation of indigenous

knowledge should therefore be equitably shared with such people.

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ANNEX C:

INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER AGREEMENTS, 1994 AS NEGOTIATEDUNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE ANDDEVELOPMENT.

1."Tropical timber" means non-coniferous tropical wood for industrial uses,which

grows or is produced in the countries between the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of

Capricorn. The term covers logs, sawnwood, veneer sheets and plywood. Plywood

which includes in some measure conifers of tropical origin shall also be covered by

this definition.

2."Further processing" means the transformation of log into primary wood products,

semi-finished products made wholly or almost wholly of tropical timber

3.One of the prime objective of the agreement is to promote sustainable development

4.To promote the expansion and diversification of international trade in tropical

timber from sustainable source by improving the structural conditions in international

markets by taking into account, on the other hand, a long term increase in

consumption and continuity of supplies, and on the other, prices which reflect the cost

of sustainable forest management and which are remunerative and equitable for

members, and the improvement of market access.

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