Francesco Paolo COLUCCIFrancesco Paolo COLUCCI

Psychology Department, University of Milano Bicocca, Milan, ItalyPsychology Department, University of Milano Bicocca, Milan, Italy

Common Sense, Everyday Practices and Common Sense, Everyday Practices and

Media CommunicationMedia Communication

francescopaolo.colucci@unimib.itfrancescopaolo.colucci@unimib.it

The problemThe problem““Processes ofProcesses of changechange in our daily life” in our daily life”

The The processes ofprocesses of changechange: central question for all : central question for all scientific – Galilean (Lewin 1931) – thought.scientific – Galilean (Lewin 1931) – thought.

Criticism of social representations theory, in Criticism of social representations theory, in particular their relation to the problem of change particular their relation to the problem of change and to the concept of common sense.and to the concept of common sense.

A conception of common sense isomorphic with that A conception of common sense isomorphic with that of the everyday and in terms of its relation to the of the everyday and in terms of its relation to the ““théories savantesthéories savantes” conveyed through media ” conveyed through media communication.communication.

Change <-----> (Everiday Life <--------> Common Change <-----> (Everiday Life <--------> Common Sense)Sense)

Common Sense <--------------------------> Théories Common Sense <--------------------------> Théories SavantesSavantes (media communication)(media communication)

(the risk of ’Scholasticism’)(the risk of ’Scholasticism’)

The dualism dividing the reified from the The dualism dividing the reified from the consensual and, in the last analysis, social consensual and, in the last analysis, social representations from science:representations from science:

““The contrast between these two universes is The contrast between these two universes is psychologically powerful. The border between psychologically powerful. The border between

them splits collective reality, even physical them splits collective reality, even physical reality, in two. Obviously, science is the mode of reality, in two. Obviously, science is the mode of

knowledge corresponding to reified universes knowledge corresponding to reified universes and social representations the one corresponding and social representations the one corresponding to the consensual universes...” (Moscovici,1981, to the consensual universes...” (Moscovici,1981,

p.187)p.187)

1)1)Controversial aspects Controversial aspects of social representations theory of social representations theory in relation to the problem of in relation to the problem of

changechange

In fact, limiting here what is a much wider In fact, limiting here what is a much wider question, Moscovici seems to reduce “the contrast question, Moscovici seems to reduce “the contrast between these two universes” to one between between these two universes” to one between the the mode of knowledgemode of knowledge of science and that of social of science and that of social representations: representations:

““Bien que, dans n’importe quelle culture, il existe Bien que, dans n’importe quelle culture, il existe deux types de savoirs, deux modes de pensée non deux types de savoirs, deux modes de pensée non

seulement différents en degré mais aussi en seulement différents en degré mais aussi en qualité. C’est une interprétation que nos qualité. C’est une interprétation que nos

recherches autorisent. Toutefois, à ce stade de recherches autorisent. Toutefois, à ce stade de notre connaissance, il faut rester prudent”. notre connaissance, il faut rester prudent”.

(Moscovici, 1994, p. 230).(Moscovici, 1994, p. 230).

A “bifurcated mind” (Wagner and Hayes, 2005, p. A “bifurcated mind” (Wagner and Hayes, 2005, p. 57).57).

Dualism (Dualism (“bifurcated”) conception “bifurcated”) conception problem of problem of change ??change ??

Change Change (Everiday Life (Everiday Life Common Sense) = Common Sense) =

dialectical relations between changes in real dialectical relations between changes in real conditions and changes in subjectivity.conditions and changes in subjectivity.

Subjects cannot be viewed solely as entities that Subjects cannot be viewed solely as entities that attempt to anchor themselves to what is already attempt to anchor themselves to what is already known, to fixed points.known, to fixed points.Conflicts between opposing themata (eg Darwinian Conflicts between opposing themata (eg Darwinian vs Creationist ideas): a process of negotiation that vs Creationist ideas): a process of negotiation that can help to explain, more than change the continual can help to explain, more than change the continual re-emergence in different forms of old, “archetypal” re-emergence in different forms of old, “archetypal” conflicting conceptions.conflicting conceptions.

““On dit depuis longtemps que notre pensée, surtout On dit depuis longtemps que notre pensée, surtout notre pensée sociale, tend a conserver son acquis, a notre pensée sociale, tend a conserver son acquis, a

préserver les connaissances, les normes, les préserver les connaissances, les normes, les croyances et les explications qui existent déjà... Ainsi croyances et les explications qui existent déjà... Ainsi le monde sociale se maintient à titre de lieu stable et le monde sociale se maintient à titre de lieu stable et

prévisible” prévisible” (Moscovici, 1994, p. 228(Moscovici, 1994, p. 228).).

The problem of change risks, therefore, remaining The problem of change risks, therefore, remaining substantially unresolved in the theory of social substantially unresolved in the theory of social representations.representations.

That is, unless one understands by change:That is, unless one understands by change:

the process whereby social representations are the process whereby social representations are formed formed ((but S. R. are conservative) but S. R. are conservative)

or as a gradual slow or merely superficial or as a gradual slow or merely superficial transformation: something like the continual and transformation: something like the continual and fleeting changes in flowing water that does not alter fleeting changes in flowing water that does not alter the riverbed, in the old metaphor used by the riverbed, in the old metaphor used by Wittgenstein (1969) and then also by Moscovici Wittgenstein (1969) and then also by Moscovici (1993).(1993).

Problem of change substantially unresolved Problem of change substantially unresolved The problematic definition and analysis of the The problematic definition and analysis of the relations between common sense and social relations between common sense and social representations.representations.

A (possible) relation between common sense and A (possible) relation between common sense and social representations:social representations:

‘‘First-hand knowledge’First-hand knowledge’ or or common sensecommon sense properly properly speaking – thespeaking – the universaluniversal cognitive basis shared cognitive basis shared ((partagépartagé) by all men, which makes communicative ) by all men, which makes communicative exchange possible – and ‘exchange possible – and ‘second-hand knowledge’second-hand knowledge’ – the– the set of set of social representationssocial representations, relating to the , relating to the most diversemost diverse objects, that are continually formed objects, that are continually formed and transformed (Moscovici and Hewstone, 1984). and transformed (Moscovici and Hewstone, 1984).

As a “first-hand knowledge”common sense tends to be As a “first-hand knowledge”common sense tends to be unchangeable and it cannot be the object of debate, unchangeable and it cannot be the object of debate, disagreement or negation; tend towards continuity disagreement or negation; tend towards continuity rather than change and it is very unlikely that it will be rather than change and it is very unlikely that it will be able to explain and, above all, bring about change:able to explain and, above all, bring about change:

In S.R. theory: C.S. In S.R. theory: C.S. objectification + anchoring:objectification + anchoring:

• the process of objectification is “the first process the process of objectification is “the first process necessary to the elaboration of social representation” necessary to the elaboration of social representation” (Abric, 1996, p. 78) and, as a consequence, common (Abric, 1996, p. 78) and, as a consequence, common sense always transforms the abstract into concrete sense always transforms the abstract into concrete images [is it incapable of abstraction?]; and by its very images [is it incapable of abstraction?]; and by its very nature simplifies (Guimelli, 1994, p.13);nature simplifies (Guimelli, 1994, p.13);

• the process of anchoring, the “mode of knowledge” of the process of anchoring, the “mode of knowledge” of social representations, proceeds in a basically univocal social representations, proceeds in a basically univocal way by leading the uncertain back to the certain, the way by leading the uncertain back to the certain, the extraneous to the familiar, to what is securely extraneous to the familiar, to what is securely acknowledged and commonly accepted or socially acknowledged and commonly accepted or socially shared.shared.

A set of interconnecting questions - the same elusive A set of interconnecting questions - the same elusive problem:problem:

common sense = social representations common sense = social representations (“the modern version of common sense”)?(“the modern version of common sense”)?

common sense common sense social representations? social representations?

what relation between the whole and the part?what relation between the whole and the part?

common sense common sense cognitive processes ? cognitive processes ?

C.S. C.S. ideologies / cultures / mentalities / ideologies / cultures / mentalities / collective memories ?collective memories ?

‘‘common sense’ = ‘everyday thought’ = ‘everyday common sense’ = ‘everyday thought’ = ‘everyday knowledge’ = ‘common knowledge’ = ‘lay knowledge’ = ‘common knowledge’ = ‘lay knowledge’?knowledge’?

2) The unsolved problem 2) The unsolved problem of common senseof common sense

common sense common sense scientific thinking / science / scientific thinking / science / several sciences / “several sciences / “théories savantesthéories savantes”/ “specialized ”/ “specialized knowledges”?knowledges”?

medicine or politics ≠ subatomic physics or medicine or politics ≠ subatomic physics or molecular biology.molecular biology.

protoscientific protoscientific scientific scientific protoscientific //protoscientific //

oror

Protoscientific Protoscientific scientific scientific protoscientific protoscientific scientific / “specialized knowledges” (medicine scientific / “specialized knowledges” (medicine

or politics) ...or politics) ...

How common sense can be How common sense can be understoodunderstoodIf C. S. If C. S. noyau central noyau central generating S. R = this generating S. R = this

function function requires activity.requires activity.Therefore:Therefore:

Not:Not:A)A) Forms of knowledge or self-evident thinking like a Forms of knowledge or self-evident thinking like a

becalmed and stagnant sea : they cannot be the object of becalmed and stagnant sea : they cannot be the object of debate, disagreement or negation; confined to enabling debate, disagreement or negation; confined to enabling communication, the possibility of mutual understanding,.communication, the possibility of mutual understanding,. nothing other than “what everyone knows”; uniform, nothing other than “what everyone knows”; uniform, predictable, unreflexive, incapable of criticism and predictable, unreflexive, incapable of criticism and doubt, if not a “dark area of ignorance”; a “natural doubt, if not a “dark area of ignorance”; a “natural attitude” (Schutz 1962-1966), attitude” (Schutz 1962-1966), tacit ordinary knowledge tacit ordinary knowledge that suspends doubt,that suspends doubt, pre-interpreted and pre-interpreted and intersubjectively shared typifications intersubjectively shared typifications through which through which social reality is reproduced; “a kind of cognitive social reality is reproduced; “a kind of cognitive routine”, which is manifested as a “routine”, which is manifested as a “tendency to remove tendency to remove every problematical featureevery problematical feature”.”.

In S.R. theory: C.S. In S.R. theory: C.S. objectification + anchoringobjectification + anchoring

Instead:Instead:

B)B) Also a source of negotiation, misunderstanding Also a source of negotiation, misunderstanding and conflict: ‘common’ should not be equated and conflict: ‘common’ should not be equated with ‘uniform’with ‘uniform’; characterized by “polysemy and ; characterized by “polysemy and polymorphism” to the extent that it is polymorphism” to the extent that it is intrinsically contradictory. It both rejects doubt intrinsically contradictory. It both rejects doubt and lies at its origin; it confirms and takes for and lies at its origin; it confirms and takes for granted existing reality but is also able to reflect granted existing reality but is also able to reflect critically on it and to change it, to be alternately critically on it and to change it, to be alternately conservative and revolutionary.conservative and revolutionary.

A) A) ≠ ≠ B): two opposing ways of understanding B): two opposing ways of understanding common sense.common sense.

A) ≠A) ≠ B): two opposing ways of B): two opposing ways of understanding common sense.understanding common sense.

A)A) The mainstream or predominant position: The mainstream or predominant position: an essentially elitist conception that an essentially elitist conception that considers solely scientific thought as considers solely scientific thought as valid and holds that only philosophers valid and holds that only philosophers and scientists, who have the exclusive on and scientists, who have the exclusive on such thought, are capable of doubt, such thought, are capable of doubt, criticism, innovation and creativity.criticism, innovation and creativity.

B)B) Conception of common sense followed by Conception of common sense followed by a minority and proposed here – a minority and proposed here – formulated by Antonio Gramsci (1975; formulated by Antonio Gramsci (1975; Colucci, 1999a).Colucci, 1999a).

Conception BConception B::

Common sense, as “Common sense, as “bon sensbon sens”, (i.e. its “sound ”, (i.e. its “sound kernel”) has the capacity to criticize and reject kernel”) has the capacity to criticize and reject superstitions and religious beliefs (Voltaire superstitions and religious beliefs (Voltaire Dictionnaire philosophiqueDictionnaire philosophique (1764) (1764) Gramsci) Gramsci)

This “good sense” is not a simple mediocre This “good sense” is not a simple mediocre reasonableness: It expresses, rather, the capacity to reasonableness: It expresses, rather, the capacity to grasp the real connections between things and their grasp the real connections between things and their consequences; critical capacity to see through the consequences; critical capacity to see through the deceptions of ideologies imposed from above (by the deceptions of ideologies imposed from above (by the dominant classes) often through the use of fear, to dominant classes) often through the use of fear, to unmask the “verbiage (unmask the “verbiage (fumesticheriefumesticherie) of ) of philosophers” (Gramsci); philosophers” (Gramsci);

today, the myriad of ideas being constantly today, the myriad of ideas being constantly transmitted by a omnipresent television and by other transmitted by a omnipresent television and by other even more recent and nonetheless strongly even more recent and nonetheless strongly persuasive mass media.persuasive mass media.

This C.S. lies at the origin and provides the This C.S. lies at the origin and provides the foundations for philosophy and science and foundations for philosophy and science and

sometimes anticipates the ideas of philosophers sometimes anticipates the ideas of philosophers and scientists: able to create and not only submit and scientists: able to create and not only submit

to and metabolize what is created by scholars to and metabolize what is created by scholars (“(“savantssavants”), scientists, and philosophers.”), scientists, and philosophers.

C. S.C. S.

↕↨↕↨

(Philosophy – Science – Theories (Philosophy – Science – Theories Savantes)Savantes)

Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista VicoNeapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico

““Vico’s formula, Vico’s formula, verum ipsum factumverum ipsum factum, is here profoundly , is here profoundly significant. From the very outset, my research has been significant. From the very outset, my research has been carried out from the perspective of this construction or this carried out from the perspective of this construction or this making of the social” (Moscovici, 1999, p. 222;making of the social” (Moscovici, 1999, p. 222; lectio lectio magistralismagistralis on the occasion of his on the occasion of his Laurea honoris causaLaurea honoris causa from the University of Bologna)from the University of Bologna)

““verum ipsum factumverum ipsum factum”: men can only know what they ”: men can only know what they making and truth derives from making: “the criterion of making and truth derives from making: “the criterion of truth for a object lies in making it” (Rossi, 1998, p 22) truth for a object lies in making it” (Rossi, 1998, p 22) basis of History (i.e. basis of History (i.e. Scienza NuovaScienza Nuova))

History consisting not of physical objects (like the natural History consisting not of physical objects (like the natural world) or mental objects (like those in mathematics) “but of world) or mental objects (like those in mathematics) “but of reasons, proposals, actions, fears, hopes and of languages, reasons, proposals, actions, fears, hopes and of languages, myths, laws and civil institutions. In this world, man is no myths, laws and civil institutions. In this world, man is no passive spectator…given that passive spectator…given that he is both actor and he is both actor and protagonist in itprotagonist in it” (ibid., p. 23).” (ibid., p. 23).

Roots of C.S.in the 18th centuryRoots of C.S.in the 18th century

verum-factum verum-factum Vico’s ideas on common sense: “uniform Vico’s ideas on common sense: “uniform ideas among entire peoples” - popular knowledge” ideas among entire peoples” - popular knowledge” (“(“sapienza volgaresapienza volgare”).”).

Fundamental creative functions of “uniform ideas”Fundamental creative functions of “uniform ideas”: : the the essential one of guiding human action, which at the essential one of guiding human action, which at the same time generates these same ideassame time generates these same ideas - origin of natural - origin of natural law (law (Principj di Scienza NuovaPrincipj di Scienza Nuova 1744: 1744: DegnitàDegnità xii, xiii, xvii) xii, xiii, xvii) and natural languages (“common vernaculars”).and natural languages (“common vernaculars”).Fundamental contents of “uniform ideas”Fundamental contents of “uniform ideas”: fables, beliefs, : fables, beliefs, rites, “mythical poetry”, for the first time understood as rites, “mythical poetry”, for the first time understood as creations no longer of single individuals but of “common creations no longer of single individuals but of “common knowledge” and, hence, from the imaginations of “entire knowledge” and, hence, from the imaginations of “entire peoples”.peoples”.““Common knowledge” so important that the “secret Common knowledge” so important that the “secret knowledge of philosophers” takes its origin from it knowledge of philosophers” takes its origin from it ((Scienza Nuova, Libro secondoScienza Nuova, Libro secondo).).

““uniformuniform” = ‘common’, ‘shared’ by those belonging to ” = ‘common’, ‘shared’ by those belonging to the same, even wide-ranging, culture. the same, even wide-ranging, culture. NotNot entirely entirely standardized, banal, passive, unproblematical ideas to be standardized, banal, passive, unproblematical ideas to be taken for granted.taken for granted.

Abric, Flament and other scholars at the University of Abric, Flament and other scholars at the University of Aix-en-Provence:Aix-en-Provence:

practices and representations “practices and representations “s’engendrent s’engendrent mutuellement"mutuellement" (Abric, 1994a; 1994b) (Abric, 1994a; 1994b)

Social / Everiday Practices Social / Everiday Practices Social Representations Social Representations

But an underlying determinism remains:But an underlying determinism remains:

External / Real Conditions External / Real Conditions (Social / Everyday (Social / Everyday Practices Practices S. R.) S. R.)

Without any inverse action being considered possible:Without any inverse action being considered possible:

Real Conditions Real Conditions (Everyday Practices (Everyday Practices S.R.) S.R.) Real ConditionsReal Conditions

Common sense and everyday Common sense and everyday life: from practices to praxislife: from practices to praxis

Real Conditions Real Conditions (Everyday Practices (Everyday Practices S.R.) S.R.) Real Conditions Real Conditions

This problem of change This problem of change the meaning of the meaning of everyday practices / lifeeveryday practices / life

3 Different conceptions of everyday life3 Different conceptions of everyday life::

A)A) The more traditional or usual conception:The more traditional or usual conception:

everyday life = ‘stability’, ‘the obvious’, ‘the everyday life = ‘stability’, ‘the obvious’, ‘the taken-for-granted’, ‘routines’, ‘rituals’, and taken-for-granted’, ‘routines’, ‘rituals’, and ‘regularity’ (Fiese, 1992; Fiese and Kline 1993); ‘regularity’ (Fiese, 1992; Fiese and Kline 1993); everyday is “contrasted with special days” … “as a everyday is “contrasted with special days” … “as a routine contrasted with extraordinary spheres of routine contrasted with extraordinary spheres of society” … “as a sphere of natural, spontaneous, society” … “as a sphere of natural, spontaneous, unconsidered, true experience” and so on (Wagner unconsidered, true experience” and so on (Wagner and Hayes, 2005, 25).and Hayes, 2005, 25).

B) Everyday life as characterized by dualism – Two Everyday:B) Everyday life as characterized by dualism – Two Everyday:

B1) “time without history”, that of “normality”, of work B1) “time without history”, that of “normality”, of work and the and the other routine and obvious, compulsory and other routine and obvious, compulsory and repetitive repetitive practices practices that ensure continuity and the that ensure continuity and the reproduction of a reproduction of a “reassuring protective order”; “reassuring protective order”;

B2) losing this traditional “negative connotation”, it can B2) losing this traditional “negative connotation”, it can also also become the “place” for change and “innovation”.become the “place” for change and “innovation”.

(Lefebvre, 1958-1961, 1968; Heller, 1974).(Lefebvre, 1958-1961, 1968; Heller, 1974).

C) Conceptions of everyday proposed here: rejects both the C) Conceptions of everyday proposed here: rejects both the reductionism and unidirectionality of the A) and the dualism of reductionism and unidirectionality of the A) and the dualism of the B):the B):

fragility of concepts like ‘unconscious’, ‘obvious’, ‘ordinary’, fragility of concepts like ‘unconscious’, ‘obvious’, ‘ordinary’, ‘routine’, and ‘regular’ set in opposition to ‘conscious’, ‘routine’, and ‘regular’ set in opposition to ‘conscious’, ‘reflective’, ‘extraordinary’…‘reflective’, ‘extraordinary’…

dividing line separating “the reality that we experience as dividing line separating “the reality that we experience as obvious and taken for granted” or “unconsidered” from the obvious and taken for granted” or “unconsidered” from the one we experience as having opposing characteristics eludes one we experience as having opposing characteristics eludes us continually.us continually.

Conception C) of everydayConception C) of everyday practices practices / life proposed / life proposed here:here:

↨↕ ↨↕

Theory of Activity / Tätigkeit / PraxisTheory of Activity / Tätigkeit / Praxis

(Bologna - (Bologna - 1991 International Seminar dedicated to 1991 International Seminar dedicated to Gramsci’s ideas on the interconnected concepts of Gramsci’s ideas on the interconnected concepts of common sense, common sense, praxispraxis, and hegemony relevant to , and hegemony relevant to

social psychology)social psychology)

SS AA OO

INTERIORIZATIONINTERIORIZATION

ESTERIORIZATIONESTERIORIZATION(Stadler, 1980, p.146)(Stadler, 1980, p.146)

Isomorphism between:Isomorphism between:

Conception B) of common sense (Antonio Gramsci Conception B) of common sense (Antonio Gramsci 1975).1975).

AndAnd

Conception C) of everyday practices / lifeConception C) of everyday practices / life

““il est vrai que partout s’étend et se précise le il est vrai que partout s’étend et se précise le quadrillage de la ‘surveillance’, il est d’autant plus quadrillage de la ‘surveillance’, il est d’autant plus

urgent de déceler comment une société entière ne s’y urgent de déceler comment une société entière ne s’y réduit pas; quelles procédures populaires (elles aussi réduit pas; quelles procédures populaires (elles aussi

‘minuscules’ et quotidiennes) jouent avec les ‘minuscules’ et quotidiennes) jouent avec les mécanismes de la discipline et ne s’y conforment que mécanismes de la discipline et ne s’y conforment que

pour les tourner...”pour les tourner...” (de Certeau, 1990, pp. xxxix-xl)(de Certeau, 1990, pp. xxxix-xl)

Media communication in everyday lifeMedia communication in everyday life Work: ‘flexible’ precarious Work: ‘flexible’ precarious hardly possible to hardly possible to be still considered as routine – everyday practicesbe still considered as routine – everyday practices

Social relevance of other activities: consumer Social relevance of other activities: consumer behaviour: people tend to identify with one behaviour: people tend to identify with one another and associate another and associate as consumersas consumers and and nono longer only aslonger only as workers workers

Michel de Certeau:Michel de Certeau:

Subjects of everyday life as first of all consumersSubjects of everyday life as first of all consumers

producers-consumers producers-consumers writers-readers (of writers-readers (of imagesimages))

The virtual reality ‘The virtual reality ‘constructedconstructed’ by media: ’ by media: importance of social representations – importance of social representations – ““reconstructionsreconstructions” of the most varied social ” of the most varied social objects (Moscovici)objects (Moscovici)

The importance of imagination and fantasy:The importance of imagination and fantasy:

Vico: “…respect for the moment of fantasy in human life…; a Vico: “…respect for the moment of fantasy in human life…; a passionate defence of the world of the imagination, poetry, passionate defence of the world of the imagination, poetry,

myth as a world that has its own dimensions and myth as a world that has its own dimensions and characteristics and cannot be directly adapted to the method characteristics and cannot be directly adapted to the method

of reason” of reason” (Rossi, 1998, p. 38).(Rossi, 1998, p. 38).

Man is not passive popular imagination possesses creativenessMan is not passive popular imagination possesses creativeness abilities.abilities.

““mythical poetry”mythical poetry”▼▼▼▼

virtual reality created by modern media.virtual reality created by modern media.

media communication media communication ←← Conflict Conflict →→ ordinary people: ordinary people: virtual and mythical reality of media are instrument of power virtual and mythical reality of media are instrument of power

and social control and social control citizens not entirely passive / their feeling and thinking is not citizens not entirely passive / their feeling and thinking is not

an “echo”.an “echo”.

1) The case of the anti-cancer cure used by a 1) The case of the anti-cancer cure used by a doctor,doctor,

Professor Di Bella, which erupted in Italy Professor Di Bella, which erupted in Italy in the latein the late

1990s. (Colucci, Montali, 2004; Montali, 1990s. (Colucci, Montali, 2004; Montali, Colucci, 2002)Colucci, 2002)

cancer = prototypical illnesscancer = prototypical illness

General hypothesis: this case gave rise to a General hypothesis: this case gave rise to a conflict between “the reified universe” – scientific, conflict between “the reified universe” – scientific, medical and governmental institutions – and “the medical and governmental institutions – and “the consensual universe” – laymen, patients and their consensual universe” – laymen, patients and their relatives – meant here as an expression of relatives – meant here as an expression of common sense.common sense.

Two researches: The capacity of laymen Two researches: The capacity of laymen readers to reinterpret communication, be readers to reinterpret communication, be critical and express the need and demand critical and express the need and demand

for change.for change.

An important role was played by the An important role was played by the mass media in mass media in fomenting the conflictfomenting the conflict while at the same time while at the same time

representing it.representing it.

FFeatures of social representation: sacredness of eatures of social representation: sacredness of science; irrationality and emotiveness; religiously science; irrationality and emotiveness; religiously

emotional way in which illness is experienced.emotional way in which illness is experienced.

Nevertheless:Nevertheless:

Conflict consensual vs reified Conflict consensual vs reified needs of ordinary needs of ordinary people.people.

Not only justified but have a rational basis since they Not only justified but have a rational basis since they have to fight against the arrogance and narrow-have to fight against the arrogance and narrow-

mindedness of conventional medicine and “official” mindedness of conventional medicine and “official” science with their alien institutionalized practices.science with their alien institutionalized practices.

2)2) Political change in Italy from the early Political change in Italy from the early 1990s:1990s:

relations between citizens and mediarelations between citizens and media communicationcommunication

during election campaigns from 1994 during election campaigns from 1994 onwards.onwards.

It emerged that citizens are able to It emerged that citizens are able to employ theemploy the

rationality of “rationality of “good sensegood sense” to express new ” to express new wordword

views and to demand for change in views and to demand for change in opposition toopposition to

professional politicians who are still tied professional politicians who are still tied to the to the old familiar patterns, old familiar patterns, familiar especially tofamiliar especially to

themselves (Colucci, Camussi, 1996).themselves (Colucci, Camussi, 1996).

““Personalization” process (typical feature of the social Personalization” process (typical feature of the social representations of politics) persistently more present in representations of politics) persistently more present in the discourse of experts than in that of citizens: the press the discourse of experts than in that of citizens: the press and the experts reduce general political issues in Italy to and the experts reduce general political issues in Italy to the figure of Berlusconi, thereby attributing to him a the figure of Berlusconi, thereby attributing to him a practically absolute role.practically absolute role.

The experts’ discourses and media communication The experts’ discourses and media communication focuses on political tactics and disputes.focuses on political tactics and disputes.

Citizens concentrate more on “real” social problems, both Citizens concentrate more on “real” social problems, both specific (taxation, inflation, work) and general (war, specific (taxation, inflation, work) and general (war, immigration, terrorism, Europe).immigration, terrorism, Europe).

Analysis of radio conversations between citizens and experts Analysis of radio conversations between citizens and experts during election campaigns (Montali, Colucci et al. presented during election campaigns (Montali, Colucci et al. presented at this Congress, 2006):at this Congress, 2006):

In brief, the discourse of citizens is not entirely characterized In brief, the discourse of citizens is not entirely characterized by simplification processes, heuristics and cognitive shortcuts, by simplification processes, heuristics and cognitive shortcuts, anchoring and objectification. These are not the processes that anchoring and objectification. These are not the processes that distinguish the discourse of citizens from that of experts.distinguish the discourse of citizens from that of experts.

A final question: the role of the expertA final question: the role of the expert Conflict between media communication – as the Conflict between media communication – as the expression of a power that aims to controlling and expression of a power that aims to controlling and guiding public opinion – and the so-called “guiding public opinion – and the so-called “hommes hommes ordinairesordinaires”, “never completely subjugated” (de Certeau) ”, “never completely subjugated” (de Certeau) who, on the contrary, attempt to give expression to their who, on the contrary, attempt to give expression to their criticisms and defend and assert their own needs.criticisms and defend and assert their own needs.

Conflict between Conflict between opus nostrumopus nostrum and and opus alienum opus alienum (Moscovici).(Moscovici).

What, in such a conflict, is the role of elites and experts What, in such a conflict, is the role of elites and experts who reject the role of the “cunning priests” of the who reject the role of the “cunning priests” of the dominant power, guardians of the constituted order, and dominant power, guardians of the constituted order, and who instead intend to side with ordinary people in who instead intend to side with ordinary people in defense of their freedom and needs?defense of their freedom and needs?

The role of the ”The role of the ”minorités activesminorités actives” (Moscovici)” (Moscovici)

The The question ofquestion of hegemonyhegemony, the role of intellectuals , the role of intellectuals (Gramsci).(Gramsci).

Hegemony Hegemony as both a political and cultural as both a political and cultural struggle:struggle:

The educational system is the main arena in the The educational system is the main arena in the struggle for cultural hegemonystruggle for cultural hegemony

(The educational system = Today the mass (The educational system = Today the mass media and information system)media and information system)

The struggle for hegemony, to be carried out The struggle for hegemony, to be carried out within the institutions by opposing dominant within the institutions by opposing dominant class culture, is inevitably a long-lasting process class culture, is inevitably a long-lasting process involving all subjects. involving all subjects.

All subjects: every “single concrete individual”.All subjects: every “single concrete individual”.

Intellectuals and ordinary people, elites and the Intellectuals and ordinary people, elites and the masses.masses.

Elites Elites Masses Masses

Masses, who have needs and ideas that they are Masses, who have needs and ideas that they are able to express and insist on.able to express and insist on.

The Gramsci’s contradiction:The Gramsci’s contradiction:

Democratic, perspective: Elites Democratic, perspective: Elites Masses Masses

Elitist position: In the struggle for hegemony he Elitist position: In the struggle for hegemony he assigns the primary role to the Party (The assigns the primary role to the Party (The

Communist Party), “modern prince” (“Communist Party), “modern prince” (“moderno moderno principeprincipe”) and to the “intellectuals organic” to that ”) and to the “intellectuals organic” to that

Party.Party.

De Certeau’s utopia: ‘confidence’ in a widespread De Certeau’s utopia: ‘confidence’ in a widespread capacity for opposition and resistance that eludes capacity for opposition and resistance that eludes

any political guidance: any political guidance:

No possible positive role for elites-No possible positive role for elites-minorités activesminorités actives, , experts.experts.

Citizens express demand for independent experts Citizens express demand for independent experts ((independent fromindependent from industry and both industry and both economiceconomic and and

politicalpolitical interests). interests).

Demand for a critical provider of information free Demand for a critical provider of information free from any ties and any kind of conditioning.from any ties and any kind of conditioning.

This is a figure that recalls, in part, that of the free-This is a figure that recalls, in part, that of the free-thinker in the 18th century when common sense thinker in the 18th century when common sense

and public opinion – the “and public opinion – the “ÖffentlichkeitÖffentlichkeit” ” (Habermas(Habermas, 1962) – , 1962) – became protagonists in became protagonists in

society.society.

These notions gain meaning if linked to those very These notions gain meaning if linked to those very concrete realities that are people and their needs.concrete realities that are people and their needs.