from creekology to rocket science the evolution of remote sensing gis in oilgas exploration
TRANSCRIPT
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From Creekology to Rocket Science:
The Evolution of Remote Sensing/GIS
in Oil and Gas Exploration
A Presentation for
2011 Texas GIS Forum
October 26, 2011
Austin, Texas
David G. Koger
Fort Worth
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Becoming an Expert
takes 10,000 hours, timing & luck
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Becoming an Expert
takes 10,000 hours, timing & luck
and the desire to show up
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Becoming an Expert
takes 10,000 hours, timing & luck
the desire to show up
and learning “dialogues of business”
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Becoming an Expert
takes 10,000 hours, timing & luck
the desire to show up
and learning “dialogues of business”
and learning after school‟s out
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Becoming an Expert
takes 10,000 hours, timing & luck
the desire to show up
and learning “dialogues of business”
and learning after school‟s out
e.g. the expert mortician
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Creekology: Seeing into the Earth
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Creekology: Seeing into the Earth
„Seepology‟...Native Americans extracted medicinal goo
The first oil wildcatters drilled at the bends in streams
Early USGS maps showed rough stream drainage patterns
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Creekology
Satellite data—large scale and highly accurate—merged creekology with geology.
Photogeologic work was now possible without troublesome mosaicking.
Remotely sensed data are spatially and spectrally better than airphotos, and has
A greater variety of sun angles, moisture conditions, and seasonal samplings.
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How this will work
Agenda: • Part 1: Case studies (natural disasters;
environmental; damages & liabilities; exploration; logistical support)
• Part 2: Photogeology; how images work
• Part 3: Field work: it costs a lot. Getting better data; saving time and money on your surveys
• Part 4: Other stuff to know, time permitting
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Part 1: Case Studies
...Liabilities, Damages,
Operations and
Planning…
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Case study #1
Put it back the way you found it. (not an unreasonable request…)
What is a weed, after all? (everybody knows what a weed is, right?)
Causing damage to the bushes
and what‟s beneath the bushes (USLE).
Putting it back (how hard can that be?)
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Case study #1
Put it back the way you found it. (not an unreasonable request…)
What is a weed, after all? (everybody knows what a weed is, right?)
Causing damage to the bushes
and what‟s beneath the bushes (USLE).
Putting it back (how hard can that be?)
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Case study #1
Put it back the way you found it. (not an unreasonable request…)
What is a weed, after all? (everybody knows what a weed is, right?)
Causing damage to the bushes
and what‟s beneath the bushes (USLE).
Putting it back (how hard can that be?)
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Case study #1
Put it back the way you found it. (not an unreasonable request…)
What is a weed, after all? (everybody knows what a weed is, right?)
Causing damage to the bushes
and what‟s beneath the bushes (USLE).
Putting it back (how hard can that be?)
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Case study #1
Put it back the way you found it. (not an unreasonable request…)
What is a weed, after all? (everybody knows what a weed is, right?)
Causing damage to the bushes
and what‟s beneath the bushes (USLE).
Putting it back (how hard can that be?)
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Case study #2
300,000 acres burned up
Whose land was damaged?
What portions were grassland, crops, trees?
Where‟d the fire actually start?
Who‟s responsible?
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Mapping Wildfire
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Wildfire 6 hrs later
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Wildfire Damage Outline...LS5
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Wildfire Burn Severity
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Fire Severity on Property
Boundaries
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High Water Marks
Creating up-to-date information.
A word about coastlines, tides, erosion (and where the fish are).
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Freshwater or Ocean; currents and
thermal differences for fishing
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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Large-scale Data Management:
Photogeology Mapping of Nebraska
The goal was to foment exploration, so we conducted a photogeology study of Nebraska at medium scale, using satellite imagery, gravity and magnetics.
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Large-scale Data Management:
Photogeology Mapping of Nebraska
We acquired topographic maps at 1:250,000 and 1:100,000 scales) for spatial reference with the satellite imagery.
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Large-scale Data Management:
Photogeology Mapping of Nebraska
Structural interpretations were made from and overlaid onto the imagery.
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Large-scale Data Management:
Photogeology Mapping of Nebraska
The interpretations were overlaid onto topo maps to provide a universal map reference display.
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Large-scale Data Management:
Photogeology Mapping of Nebraska
A merge of imagery, map, and interpretation.
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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Landsat
bands 7, 4,
and 2;
composited
as color on
the following
slide
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Landsat
composites
from two
different
dates. Also,
the
geometry
differs.
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Regional (250K+) Interpretations
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Regional + Local (24K)
Interpretations
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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Romania
Identify features of exploration interest (e.g. fault/frax, structures, tonal anomalies)
Update WWII-era maps
Identify high-cost damage areas (e.g. vineyards....)
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Data Types & Sources: Multi-sensor merge
(Landsat + SPOT)
The area had only WWII-era maps....
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Data Types & Sources: Multi-sensor merge
(Landsat + SPOT)
This is the 5-meter panchromatic SPOT image that supplied the spatial detail in the study, while 28.5m Landsat data provided the spectral information.
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Data Types & Sources: Multi-sensor merge
(Landsat + SPOT)
The multi-band Landsat was encoded to hue and saturation, while the higher resolution SPOT was assigned to intensity.
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Data Types & Sources: Multisensor merge
(Landsat + SPOT)
The photogeology interpretations are overlaid.
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Data Types & Sources: Multisensor merge
(Landsat + SPOT)
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Data Types & Sources: Multisensor merge
(Landsat + SPOT)
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
![Page 58: From creekology to rocket science the evolution of remote sensing gis in oilgas exploration](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022081801/5558ece4d8b42ab8168b5244/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Paraguay Information Needed
Where are existing roads that can be used for moving equipment and laying out field work equipment,
Where are the tracks of previous field work?
Update maps...collect detailed knowledge of the area,
Find water sources: rivers, ponds, springs.
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Gold = Your New, Geometrically
Accurate Roadmap
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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Stress-Strain Ellipsoid
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Compression at 100K Scale
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Stress-Strain @6K Scale
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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“Remote Sensing Image Analysis
Toward Understanding
Sequestration Potential of
Southern Kansas” DE-FE0002056 – “Modeling CO2 Sequestration in Saline
Aquifer and Depleted Oil Reservoir to Evaluate Regional CO2
Sequestration Potential of Ozark Plateau Aquifer System,
South-Central Kansas”
by
David G. Koger
Ralph N. Baker, PhD
Fort Worth
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Information needed:
Is it safe to inject CO2?
Will it come back up?
How quickly?
Where?
Where might it get trapped?
What are the cost trade-offs?
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Remote Sensing to the Rescue
• Help map the subsurface
Conduits / Compartments;
Migration fairways / Sealing mechanisms
• Define structural & stratigraphic elements
these affect Fluid Movement
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(Information, continued)
All of which supports:
Environmental Risk Analysis and
Helps determine reservoir suitability for CO2 storage
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Because knowing the contrasts of
Conduits vs. Compartmentalization and
Migration Pathways vs. Sealing Factors
Must be understood & modeled to predict Fluid Movement and reservoir integrity
because this is how we can know
how and where groundwater flows and, therefore,
How/if CO2 injections might affect the water table (e.g. we expect some CO2 leakage along fractures; high porosity/permeability zones are especially noteworthy….
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Regional Gravity & Magnetics
Define Major Basement Block Boundaries, Structural Grain
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Regional Gravity & Magnetics
Define Major Basement Block Boundaries, Structural Grain
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Regional Satellite Photogeology
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Local on top of Regional
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Exploration Examples
Nebraska
Fayetteville Shale
Marcellus Shale
Romania
Paraguay
Costa Rica
Kansas DOE three times
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“Remote Sensing Image Analysis of the
Bemis-Schutts Field,
Ellis County, Kansas”
in support of U.S. Dept of Energy/KS Geological Survey’s
DE-FE0004566 – “Prototyping and testing a new volumetric curvature tool for
modeling reservoir compartments and leakage pathways in the Arbuckle
saline aquifer: reducing uncertainty in CO2 storage and permanence”
by
David G. Koger
Ralph N. Baker, PhD
Koger Remote Sensing, Fort Worth
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Stress/Strain Model
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Regional-scale work
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Local-Scale work
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Local-scale interpretations
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How this will work
Agenda: • Part 1: Case studies (natural disasters;
environmental; damages & liabilities; exploration; logistical support)
• Part 2: Photogeology; how images work
• Part 3: Field work: it costs a lot. Getting better data; saving time and money on your surveys
• Part 4: Other stuff to know, time permitting
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How satellites work:
They collect their data with scanners. Other scanners are:
•video cameras,
• fax machines,
•barcode readers,
•Magnetic Resonance Imaging machines,
•video game characters‟ vision...
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Part 2 (how images work)
About satellite data
• How it collects & organizes data
• Attributes of these data
Spectra, spatial, temporal
Photogeology for exploration
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Part 2 (how images work)
About satellite data
• How data are collected & organized
• Attributes of these data
Spectra, spatial, temporal
Photogeology for exploration
![Page 88: From creekology to rocket science the evolution of remote sensing gis in oilgas exploration](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022081801/5558ece4d8b42ab8168b5244/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
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WorldView-2
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Docks and Cranes pre-quake
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Docks and Cranes Collapsed in
Water (after quake)
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Presidential Palace, post-quake
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Relief Supplies Arrive
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Haiti Damage Severity Map
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Part 2 (how images work)
About satellite data
• How it works
• Attributes
Spectra, spatial, temporal
Photogeology for exploration
![Page 98: From creekology to rocket science the evolution of remote sensing gis in oilgas exploration](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022081801/5558ece4d8b42ab8168b5244/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
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ROY G BIV
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Digital Image Processing
“Pixel” = “picture element” ...one spatial unit plus the spectra.
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Part 2 (how images work)
About satellite data
• How it works
• Attributes
Spectra, spatial, temporal
Photogeology for exploration
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Landsat TM footprint
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Reducing Data to Information
A typical project area encompasses: •2-6 Landsat scenes (600MB to 1.8 GB raw data) •12-36 USGS raster topo sheets (500 Mb to 1.5 Gb) •Ancillary magnetics and gravity surveys (200 MB) •High resolution aerial imagery (800MB to 2 GB) For a total of 2.1 to 5 GB of raw data Color composites, PCAs, structural interpretations, and ancillary data can make 12-15 GB of additional files All this fuss over data selection, processing, and analysis is because the process must deliver the information needed to make decisions.
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Landsat TM processing
Landsat Band 7 raw data
with brightness and contrast stretches applied
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Landsat TM processing
Same area: Band 1 raw data
stretched
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Landsat TM processing
Band 3-2-1 composite of raw data
Same, stretched
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Landsat TM processing
Band 7-5-4 composite of raw data
Same, stretched
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Landsat TM processing
Multitemporal Principal Components Analysis (or De-correlation Stretch).
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Spatial Resolution…detail
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Part 2
About satellite data
• How it works
• Attributes
Spectra, spatial, temporal
Photogeology for exploration
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At left, March 12 shows vegetation patterns in the early spring (bright greens). At right, December 23 vegetation is dormant. Both images are “true.”
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Palo Pinto Landsat multi-temporal comparisons
September and March
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Multi-temporal 1m data comparison for tax appraisal purposes
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Part 2
About satellite data
• How it works
• Attributes
Spectra, spatial, temporal
Photogeology for exploration
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You can never have too
much information
What you do have:
production trends,
a regional framework,
well logs here and there, and
maybe some field work.
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Available information is massive:
Surface and subsurface geology maps
Current and historic well logs
Topographic maps
Seismic analyses
Gravity surveys
Magnetic surveys
Satellite and aerial imagery
Geochem surveys
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The ideal tool would:
1) fill in every empty space of the mosaic
2) highlight anomalous conditions, and map structure: large folds and astroblemes or localized fracturing
and reefs.
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An even better tool would:
a) sample at intervals in time (all seasons, wet and drought conditions, over decades), and
b) offer adaptive scale to support either frontier or mature basin analysis.
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Two Kinds of Tools:
• Those that find structure
• Those that find anomalous conditions
Remote sensing does both
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The Crust of Earth is:
• Thin, unstable, and floats
• Bombarded with energy daily
• Generates soil @ 3 tons per acre per year
• Washed down and compacted daily
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Remote sensing photogeology
is a blend of several disciplines:
optics
physics
electronics
cartography
natural science
computer sciences
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Patterns: Their causes and effects
Subsurface activity imprints the surface for many reasons :
constant micro-earthquakes,
settling,
erosion,
micro-seepages.
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Microbes are everywhere!
We are 1/10th us; 9/10th microbes.
H.pylori causes 90% of peptic ulcers.
Antibiotics fight harmful microbes.
Yogurt has good ones.
They‟re in amber, meteorites, Mars rocks, and 250 million-yr-old crystals.
A billion microbes in 1 gram of topsoil.
Dead microbes make topsoil.
Other microbes clean up oil spills.
A trillion are on each of your feet.
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Healthy topsoil…
retains water better,
resists erosion,
has more oxygen,
better nutrients,
Microbes and earthworms like it,
compacts less, and
is friendlier to roots.
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Hydrocarbon-eating microbes
Thrive above oil and gas reservoirs.
Create a magnetic residue.
Are counted.
Deplete oxygen in soil.
Do not build good soil.
Seeps are mostly vertical; dynamic.
These conditions have been recorded for 39 years....
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Finding Structure: Astrobleme
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Astrobleme with magnetics
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The Information in Photogeology
Lineaments: Faults, fractures, fracture orientation and joints can
have surface expression as: Linear escarpments. Changes in the directions
they face can mean strike-slip faults. Linear and right angle bends in drainage courses. Drainages running in parallel. Aligned drainages on opposing sides of a drainage
divide. Tributaries entering main streams in direct
opposition. Moisture accumulation in linear patterns; alignment
of water bodies
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The Information in Photogeology
Lineaments (continued): Linear vegetation patterns due to water
availability. Aligned notches on ridge crests. Subtle dip changes, varying lithologies or
changes in rock texture. Variation in thermal signature. Large topographic trends align with
basement lineaments. High fracture densities enhance
hydrocarbon mobility at depth
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The Information in Photogeology
Positive Structures at Depth can appear as…
Surface tonal anomalies.
Circular features can indicate buried structure.
Vegetation differences: health, leaf water content, population distribution.
Differential compaction, loading, increased fracture density over and adjacent to buried structure.
Soil color and texture alterations…staining, bleaching, cobbling.
Local, slight topographic highs or lows.
Subtle variations in moisture accumulation on the flanks of buried structure.
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Mapping and GIS: making it all fit
Google Earth: “cans” and “can’ts”: Very popular new web tool;
•Fast and easy for finding places and routes
•Reasonably accurate cartographic information;
•High resolution imagery in some locations;
•Excellent 3D visualization tool
However: •Not accurate enough to be used as an exploration map
•Image dates unknown
•Most areas outside cities and large towns in low resolution
•Color imagery not good enough for photogeologic analysis
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How this will work
Agenda: • Part 1: Case studies (natural disasters;
environmental; damages & liabilities; exploration; logistical support)
• Part 2: Photogeology; how images work
• Part 3: Field work: it costs a lot. Getting better data; saving time and money on your surveys
• Part 4: Other stuff to know, time permitting
![Page 135: From creekology to rocket science the evolution of remote sensing gis in oilgas exploration](https://reader035.vdocument.in/reader035/viewer/2022081801/5558ece4d8b42ab8168b5244/html5/thumbnails/135.jpg)
Field Work
Support
Requires Leadership…
Knowing where you‟re going….
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Field Work Support in Three Parts
1) Strategies to get you the best possible data
2) Logistical hoops to jump through ($), and
3) Tools that will help you
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Wait a second: has your
area been shot already?
“Earth Detective” work on an unusual application for
(free) satellite data....
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Has your area been shot?
Google Earth
Landsat 5
Landsat 7
Airphotos in archive
• Military
• DOT
• USDA
• Farm Service
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Has the area been shot?
The trouble with airphoto coverage: • it is spotty • often monochromatic • often mono-temporal
Satellite data • have an archive that goes back 29 years • they‟re inexpensive…mostly free • they cover 10,000 square miles • you get to choose:
the right sun angle the right soil moisture the right vegetation cover
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No shoots as of 29Jan95
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No shoots as of 21Oct05
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No shoots as of 30Oct08
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No shoots as of 29Nov09
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Has the area been shot?
The trouble with airphoto coverage: • it is spotty • often monochromatic • often mono-temporal
Satellite data • have an archive that goes back 29 years • they‟re inexpensive…mostly free • they cover 10,000 square miles • you get to choose:
the right sun angle the right soil moisture the right vegetation cover
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Yes, there were shoots in the area
as of 18July06
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Only six months later, seeing it is
difficult due to the low sun angle:
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What you should know about
supporting field work
Somebody is responsible. Apparently, it‟s you.
Good information won‟t just happen…it demands good planning.
List all the things that can go wrong in the field. Plan for them.
Field work is expensive. Your project will go over budget unless good information supports your plan....
Collecting the best quality field data results from
a good plan.
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Field work Support in Three Parts
1) Strategies to get you the best possible data
2) Logistical hoops to jump through ($), and
3) Tools that will help you
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The Subsurface
...is where the treasure—water or oil—is: how can we
see down there?
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On the Geology Side:
Expensive subsurface surveys are useless unless they produce a proper image of the subsurface.
Advanced modeling—before the shoot design—of the strata below will dictate your:
• receiver and source spacing,
• the location and spacing of lines
• the geometric organization of the signal source and receiver locations, i.e. the design.
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Magnetics: “basement topography”
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Regional Drainages
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Topo on DEM
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Satellite data on DEM: slippery slopes
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Surface composition: i.e. slippery soils
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The Subsurface in 3-D
Generate a model of the earth at depth using:
• surface & subsurface structure maps,
• velocity information, and
• other seismic data.
Ray tracing from the target horizons will identify your optimum shoot parameters
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3-D Earth Model
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Initial Design
Test it to ensure that subsurface coverage is not compromised.
A full patch, 3D ray tracing shows:
• which parameters will best image your target.
3-D ray tracing may be re-run after “no permit areas” or other obstacles are found.
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3-D Ray Tracing
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Final Design
Subsurface model is in place
Offset sources & receivers have been ray traced in the model
Hazards are identified
Protocol for handling offsets is established
…meaning: geophysical decisions are not left to the field crew
We‟re now ready to go to the field
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Field Support in Three Parts
1) Strategies to get you the best possible data
2) Logistical hoops to jump through ($), and
3) Tools that will help you
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Knowing What’s in
Real World…
Dealing with it.
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Realities of Designing Field Work
The goals of field work and land owners are often in conflict.
It takes knowledge, effort, and time, to:
• identify the project‟s requirements and
• endure the permitting process.
A third party consultant will save you time and money.
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Two Costly Philosophies
Being Rigorous: • a strict technical design w/o regard for
obstacles on the ground… Your field personnel have to deal with whatever
obstacles they encounter.
Being Serendipitous: • personnel are sent to the field w/no
coordination... They wander around—on your dime—until a
solution develops You get degraded results, waste your time and
money, and you never establish professional proficiency.
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Five steps to planning
(and permit approval):
Establishing the boundaries of the field work
Locating sensitive sites and hazards
Determining how you will avoid or minimize effects to sensitive areas (i.e. establish protocols)
Instructing your working teams about how they‟ll implement the protocols
Monitoring in-the-field performance (somebody must be the “Coach”)
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The Project begins. Money’s
on the line. Somebody has to:
Find the landowners
Establish their correct tract boundaries (for permitting and ground control)
And you: must assume that all the information that you carefully collected is incorrect.
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assume that all information is
incorrect, regardless of source
All sources have incorrect data:
• Tax assessors,
• Land companies,
• Digitized plats,
• Other public and private domain data.
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Field Support in Three Parts
1) Strategies to get you the best possible data
2) Logistical hoops to jump through ($), and
3) Tools that will help you get (and make...) correct information
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Your Problem: Taxing agencies draw polygons to identify tracts, which is how they send tax bills…
So, the shape and location of the tract doesn‟t really matter to them.
Your Solution: current aerial photography or satellite imagery, ortho-rectified to obvious, photo-identifiable ground control points.
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Example:
up-to-date satellite image vs. air
photo vs. topo map
Satellite data have greater detail and geometric fidelity. They are only a few days old, and they‟re cheap.
Air photos are old, don‟t show recent construction activity, new structures or ponds.
Topo maps are even more out of date.
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Satellite Data
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Aerial Photography
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Topographic maps
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Red = Good
Yellow = Costing You Money
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Accurate Cadastral Boundaries
Corrected boundaries :
• Prevents trespass
• Builds confidence of landowners
• Plan source and receiver offsets in “no permit” areas
• Provides surveyors with correct mapping
• Provides client with correct land mapping
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Field Conditions
that Explode Your Budget:
Terrain & relief (slope)
Soil type & erodeability
Vegetation (i.e. what it is, what it will cost if damaged)
Hydrologic features & drainage basins
Weather
Arrange to get the right equipment in position in advance of need.
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Knowing Slope & Surface Geology
Avoids This....Vibes can’t maintain coupling
on steep, rocky slopes
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Knowing hydrology will avoid running cables
through drainages multiple times
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Know your hydrology & soil types
so you can identify liquefaction areas
(caused when vibes shake)
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Know about new construction...without planning
ahead, your sampling points will have to be
dropped or offset “on the fly”.
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How this will work
Agenda: • Part 1: Case studies (natural disasters;
environmental; damages & liabilities; exploration; logistical support)
• Part 2: Photogeology; how images work
• Part 3: Field work: it costs a lot. Getting better data; saving time and money on your surveys
• Part 4: Other stuff to know, time permitting
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Independent Explorationists:
Lean operations, often rely on the work of consultants for photogeology.
Many could be using remotely sensed data interactively.
Work on hand is insufficient to support a remote sensing specialist of their own.
Some are familiar with photogeology.
One RSPg project can high-grade enough areas to support prospect-generation for two or three years.
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Preparing for a Photogeology Study:
Objectives: frontier, previewing, to buy leases or evaluate existing leases?
What is the land type, topographic relief, jungle, arid....
Best platform.
Cost, budget, savings.
Time of year.
Scales.
Using same data for logistics and documentation
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The Future of Photogeology
Image data is more accessible (in terms of speed and storage) with CDs, smaller computers, better software and training (more cross-pollenization with other disciplines).
Small, special-purpose satellites are taking the place of large, multipurpose systems.
There are no technological barriers to satellite data design or use; only markets are lacking.
Precision Agriculture will drive the remote sensing market even more.
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Important Issues for Remote Sensing
Government space/business policy is unstable…short-term government budgetary processes make business‟ long-term planning needs treacherous.
Government interests are long-term but business has short-term profit motives.
Government/Industry partnerships are necessary if our nation is to stay competitive…other nations realize this critical need to cooperate and it is the U.S.'s critical shortcoming.
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In Conclusion…. Seismic and well logs, gravity and basement magnetics can
confirm structures first detected photogeologically.
Detecting rising hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon-induced chemical changes in soils can be done remotely and cheaply, especially as a lead tool.
Select a contractor who speaks in terms you understand and impose the same standards you apply to other tools.
The need to constrain Landsat interpretations with all available geologic data cannot be overemphasized.
Remote sensing photogeology replaces no common tools; rather, it aids in the planning and layout of more expensive methods.
Oil industry observers say “new technologies” will help today‟s explorationist survive in the face of rising costs and regulations. Few specify how, but it is clear that remote sensing photogeology can lower finding costs.
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From Creekology to Rocket Science:
The Evolution of Remote Sensing/GIS
in Oil and Gas Exploration
A Presentation for
2011 Texas GIS Forum
October 26, 2011
Austin, Texas
David G. Koger
Fort Worth
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From Creekology to Rocket Science:
The Evolution of Remote Sensing/GIS
in Oil and Gas Exploration
A Presentation for
2011 Texas GIS Forum
October 26, 2011
Austin, Texas
David G. Koger
Fort Worth