frug excerpts
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THEDEOLOGYOFBUREAUCRACY NAMERCANLAW
Ge rdE F rug *
Th e con ce nt rt on of p o t c n d e con omc p ow er n bu re u crt c or
gn z t on h on g th re t en ed t op e rmt unc ont ro b e mn g er d c re
t on n d t of ru t rt e u th e nt c e f e x p re on n w ork n dp o t c Y et
d e fe nd e rof t h e b ure u c rt c f ormh v e rgue d t h t h e rrc h c o c org
n z t o n n ev t b e n d th t t p o w er u b ec t to d eq u te r e t r n t
n t h Art c e P rofe orF rug e xmn e t he t w op rn c p b od e of e g
d o ct rn e d ev o te d t ou t f yn gbu re u crc y c orp ort e n d dmn t rt v e
w H e d e c rb e f ourd f f e re n t t t emp t t od e fe n d corport on n ddmn
t rt v e g e n c e n d e xp n w hyn one of t h e e t he ore c n ov erc ome t he
pr ob e m o f m n g e r d om n t o n n d p er o n e n t on t h t e x t n
h e rrc h c orgn zt on Th e ve ryp ro e c t of bu re u crt c e g t mt on mt
o ur b t y to e nv o n t er n t v e p r t c p t or y fo rm o f o c o rg n z t o n
f orm more c on t en t w t h t he d e of d e moc rt c n t on B y e xp on g
t he d e o ogy of bure u c rc yn Amerc n w t h Art c e d e gn e d t obe
one t ep t ow rd t he re zt on of t h o e d e
TH SArt c e of fe r c rt q u e of th e Ame rc n e g d o ct rn e t h t
1d ef n e n dp erp et u t e b u re u crc y t n y ze c orport e n d
d m n t r t v e w t he t wo m o t m p or t nt r e o f e g d oc tr n e
d ev o te d t o e xp n n gn d u t f yn g rg e c e b u re u crt c p owe r
r gu e th t t he e t w o f e d h v e r e e d on t he m e b c d e n
t h e rt t e mpt t o u g e t h e on g t n dn gf e rt h t b u re u c rc y
*P rof e orof Lw H rvrdLw S c hoo
1Th e p rn c p ou rc e on w h c h re e d f ort h Art c e n c u d e on g e ne r bu re u c rt c
theoryM CROZERTHEBUREAUCRATCPHENOMENON 964 A GOULDNERPATTFRNSOF
NDUSTRALBUREAUCRACY 954 J HURST THELEGTMACYOFTHEBUSNESS CORPORA-
TONN THELAWOFTHEUNTEDSTATES7 8 o - 9 70 9 7 0 P NONETADMNSTRATVE
JUSTCE 169 CPERROWCOMPLEXORGANZATONS2d ed 979 READERN BUREAUCRACY
R M e rt on A G r y B H oc ke y & H S e v n e d 9 52 S W O L N P O L T CS A ND V S O N
g60 Se znck An Approach to a Theory of Bureaucracy 8 AM SOC REV 47 943 Seznck
F oun d t on of t h e Th eory of Orgn z t on 3AMSOC REV 25 948h e re n f t erc t e d
S e zn c k F ou nd t o n R U n ge r P o t c 9 84 u np ub h ed m n u c r pt o n f e n H r v r d
Lw S c hooL b rry on p e c f c mod e of bure u c rt c e g t m c y 2M WEB EREC ONOMY
AND SOC ETY 956005 GRot h &C Wt t c h e d 1978 C B ARNARD TH EFU NC TONSOF
TH EEXECU TV E 2d e d 968J LAND S TH EAD MNSTRATV EPROC ES S 938L JAFF E
JU D C ALC ONTROLOFAD MNSTRATVEAC TON965 F u e r Th e Form n dLmt of
Adud c t on 92HARV LREV 353 978S t e w rt Th e Ref ormt on of Ame rc n Admn t r
tv eLaw8 8HARVL REV 6 6 7 9 7 5R Ca rkCo rp or a teLawa nd Se cur t e s Reg ua t o n
983 unpubshedmanuscrptonf e nHarvardLawSchooL brary onmethodoogyJ
DERRDAOFGRAMMATOLOGY G Spvk trn 1976 R RORTYPHLOSOPHYANDTHE
MRROROFNATURE 979Gord on Ne w D e ve opme nt n L e g Th eory n TH EPOLTC SOF
LAW28D Ka rys ed 9 8 2Kenned y Fo rmand Sub st a ncen Prv at eLawAd ud c a t o n8 9
HARV L REV 685 976 Parker The Past of Consttut ona Theory - And ts Future 42
OHO ST LJ 223 g8 D Kennedy nternatona Lega Structures 984 unpubshed
manuscrptonf e nHarvardLawSchoo Lbrary amasogreaty ndebtedtoMaryJoe
FrugLous KapowDavd KennedyDuncanKennedy MattKramerMarthaMnow Stephen
Pre e r n dRc h rd S t ew rt f ort he rh e p n ddv c e
277
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278HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
formof humn domn t on 2Th f e rd e rv e f romp e c f c c h rc
t er t c h re d by c orp ort on n dg ove rnme nt g e nc e c h rc t er
t c t h t h v e t r d t o n y d en t f ed b ur e u cr c y f or m o f
o c orgn zt on t he h e rrc h c orgn zt on of t w ork f orc e n d
t he e p rt on of t w ork er f romt h e h re h od er orc t ze n w h oe
n t ere t t he ypurp ort t o e rv e 3C orp ort e n ddmn t rt v e w
h v e e mbod e d e re of d f fe ren t t t e mp t t o c on vnc e u t h t t h e e
c h rc t er t c d on o t pe rmt t ho e w h ow e dbu re u crt c p owe rt o
v o t e t he f ree d omof t h o e u b e c t ed t o t rgue n t h Art c e
t h t of t he e d e f en e of bure u c rt c p owe rre n omore t h n
v r t o n o n n g e t o ry b o u t th e c c ep t b t y o f b ur e uc r t c
o rg n z t o n n d th t t h t or y f r f r o m bu d n g c on v nc n g c e
forb u re u c rc y me ch n mof d e ce pt on Th e me ch n mof
d e ce p t on t he more pow erf u b e c u e p e op e re gu ryd e c e v e
t he me v e w e t h e ru d e n ce w h en t h eyg e ne rt e v er on of
t h t oryw e e n gg e n t h k n d of d ec e pt v e p rc t c e w he n w e
c omf ort ou re v e b out b u re u crt c p owe rTh Art c e d ev o te d
t o n n y n d ex po u r e of t h d ec ep t on c on d e r t n ec e r y
p rt of rg erp ro e ct d e gn e d t op romot e f u d e mocrt c p rt c
p t o n n p ec t o f A me r c n f e O ne t ep t ow r d t h t go
t h ou gh on y on e t e p t ore ve t he n d e qu c y of t h e d e o ogy
ththep perpetutecurrentyentrenchednondemocrt cform of
h um n o c t o n
T he A rt c e d v d ed n t o th re e p r t P r t d e c r b e t he w y
n te nd t o n y ze n d c rt c ze e g rgume nt b out b u re uc rc y
t o n trodu c e f ourmod e of bure u c rt c e g t m c y e c h of
w h c h rep re e nt p rn c p w yof un d ert n dn g t h e b ure u c rt c
2 This Article, like organization theory generally, stresses that administrative agencies and
corporatonsas bureaucratcorganzatonssharecommonrfeatures SeeC PERROWsupra
note anayzngorganzatona behavorbydscussngbothpub candpr vatesectorbureau-
craces n ega doctrne however these two forms of bureaucracy are routney separated
nto dfferent categores, one abe ed pubc and the other prvate have crtc zed esewhere
the vab ty of such a pub c/prvate dstncton See Frug The Cty as a Lega Concept 93
HARV L REv 059, 28-49 980 herenafter cted as Frug, The Cty Frug, Ct es and
Homeowners Assocat ons A Repy, 30 U PA L REv 589 982 n order to avod havng
to make yet another critique of the public/private distinction here, I refer the reader to my
previous work if s/he wants to pursue why any attempt to use the public/private distinction to
defend some bureaucratc organzat ons at the expense of others s untenab e
3 The classic definition of bureaucracy, by Max Weber, includes both its organization into
a clearly defined hierarchy of offices and the entire separation of bureaucratic officials from
ownership of the means of administration I M WEBER, supra note i, at 220-2I see also 2
id at 956-58 discussing bureaucratic hierarchy and the separation of public roles from private
life As Weber pointed out, With respect to the separation of the official from ownership of
the means of administration, the situation is exactly the s ame in the field of public administration
and in private bureaucratic organizations, such as the large-scale capitalistic enterprise. i id.
at 222. Many other aspects of Weber s definition of bureaucracy, as well as definitions propos ed
byother reomttedhere
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984BUREAUCRACY1279
f ormP rt d e vo t ed t o d e t e d c rt q u e of c orp ort e n d
d m n t r t v e w o r g n z ed n t e r m o f th e e fo ur m o de F n y
P r t n w er o me p ot en t o b ec t on t o th c r t qu e t he re by
e x p orn gn more g e ne r w y t h e e g d o ct rn e t h t un d er e
bureucrtcpower nAmerc
THEARGUMENT
ATh e S t ore t h t Ju t f yB u re u c rc y
F romt he t me of t h e rn t rod u ct on n t oAmerc n f e rg e c e
b un e c orp ort on n d t he dmn t rt v e t t e t h t re gu t e t h e m
v e r e d p rof oun d que t on b out t h e k n d of n t on w e re c re
t n gn d t h e k n d of p eop e w e re b e c omn gOn e w y t oun d ert n d
t he n t ur e of t he e q u e t on t o ex m n e t he w y d d en t po t c
movementh vecontetedthefoundton growth ndpredomn nce
of bu re u c rt c e n t t e F romt h e rep u b c n of t he Re v out on ry
p e rod4t h rou gh th e Jc k on n p opu t n d b ororgn ze r of
thenneteenthcentury5tomodernwrter oneconomc ndpo tc
d e moc rc y 6d d e nt h v e c h rg ed t h t p u b c n dp rv t e p owe r
h b e come ve t e dn t h e h n d of t he f e w Th c onc e nt rt on of
p ow e rt h eyh v e rgue d t h re t en f un dme nt d e of b e rt yn d
q u t yw h et h ert h e e d e re u nd e rt oodn t e rmof n e c on omy
f oun d ed on w d e p re dn dvdu e nt rep ren e urh p 7 p o t yb e d
on d e moc rt c y c ont ro e d d ec on mk n g8or t he ory of t h e e f
t h t e mph ze t h e b t y of n dvdu t o c on t ro t he n t u re of t he r
w or k n d t he r e e nt f e ch o ce 9 T h e e t r d t o n d e c r t c
h v e c me d re e op rd ze d by t h e e me rge nc e of Ne w Fe u d
m t o u e R o co e Po un d p h r e 0
D d en t h v e o c h r ge d th t t he e me rg en ce o f r ge c e
b u re u c rt c e n t erp re h t rn f orme ddy t od y f e e xp e ren ce
4 See, e g, G WOOD, THE CREATION OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC I776-I787, at 46-48,
5 3 6 5 7 5 9 0 9 69
5 See, e g, A DAWLEY, CLASS AND COMMUNITY THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN LYNN
(I976) (describing Igth century labor protests in terms of their opposition to the bureaucratic
form) L GOODWYN, THE POPULIST MOMENT (I978) (describing the populist aversion to bu-
reaucracy) M MEYERS, THE JACKSONIAN PERSUASION POLITICS AND BELIEF 26I-65 (2d ed
g60 dscuss ng Jacksonan responses to the growth of the corporate form
6 See, eg , M CARNOY & D SHEARER, ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY THE CHALLENGE OF THE
Ig80s, at I9-27 (Ig80) R EDWARDS, CONTESTED TERRAIN THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE
WORKPLACE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY I99-2 I6 (I979) C MILLS, THE POWER ELITE
298324 956
7 See, e g, L HARTZ, ECONOMIC POLICY AND DEMOCRATIC THOUGHT 57-79 (I948)
8 See C LINDBLOM, POLITICS AND MARKETS 356 (I977) ( The large private corporation fits
oddynto democratctheoryandvson ndeed tdoesnotft
9 S ee e g G W OO D u p r n ot e 4 t 9 2 4
1 0 Po und TheN ewFeud a Sy s tem3 5COMLJ 3 9 7 9 3 0
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280HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
S om et m e t h c r t c m r e fe r t o t he e n t o n th t h n v de d
ordn ryh umn c t v t y t h e c k of f u f me n t p eop e d e rve f rom
t h e rw ork t h e e n e of d e n gw t h orgn zt on e e mngyb e y on d
t he row n e v e n n y one c ont ro A t o th e rt me t h c rt c m
dre ct ed t t h e n c re n g me ne n d c on formt yw t h n ev e rydy
f e 12P e op e c t by ref ere nc e t o t he rro e n f e n d t he e ro e
rereproducedende y McDon d McDon d everywhere
Whethertheyemph zetheprobemof humne trngementorthoe
of c onf ormt y c rt c c h rg e th t t h e b u re u c rt zt on of f e h
dmn h ed t h e p o b t y of n u t he n t c ex p ere n ce of t h e e f
D d en t c o mp n t b ou t th e gr ow th o f r ge c e p ub c n d
p rv t e e n te rpr e h owe v er h v e b e en mpy ub th eme n Ame r
c n p o t c d c oure on e th t h b e en ov erw he me dby th e g row t h
oftheeenterpr e ndthevoce oftherdefender Thedefender
of bure u c rc yh v e e d t e merg en c e w th t h e d e of p rog re
t he d vn ce of t he t e ch noog c g e n d t he re t e of mode rn
c om p ex o c et y B ur e uc r c y w e r e t o d n ec e r y n ev t b e
f e t ure of mode rn f e 13On y f ooh romn t c re c t on ry
w ho d e z e p t t h t n ev er r e y e x t e d n d co u d no t co nc e v
b y e x t c ou d h op e to d m n t e o r r d c y t o t er c ur re nt
p u b c orp rv t e b u re u crt c orgn z t on 14On c e t he y e t b h
t h rgume nt of n e ce t y d e f en d er of bu re u c rc y t he n t yp c y
d e mon t rt e w hy t h e e orgn zt on c on t t ut e d e rb e f ormof
h um n o c t o n 1 5 He re m o r e th n n m m ee t ng o r e v en n
t h e f m y p er o n d om n t o n u b ec t to c he ck n d b n ce
M ore ove rf rf romcre t n g dmn h e d e n e of e f mode rn rg e
c e o r g n z t o n h v e m d e po b e n u np r e e d ex p n o n o f
p eop e op portun t y t o ch oo e t he row n f e t y e Ne ve rh v e p e op e
h dmore opt on n f e ormore t me t op uru e t h em n de e d t h e
mode rn workp c e h b e en p ortry e d t h e p c e w h ere c c
r ep ub c n d e c n c tu y b e pu t n to p r c t ce 1 6
11S e e e g C M LLS WHTEC OLLAR2242832842 956A TRAC HTENBERGTH E
NCORPORATONOFAMERC A3869 982Th p e rv v e e n t on t h e compn t D u rkh e m
d e c rb e n ome S e e E D U RKHEMONTHED V SONOFLABORN SOC ETY 35373
G S m p o n tr n 9 33
12Th e c c mod ern w ork d e c rbn g t he c onf ormt y of w h t e c or w ork e r WWHY TE
TH EORGANZATONMAN 956 e e oJ WRGHT ONAC LEARD AY Y ouC ANSE E
GENERALMOTORS 7 979 recountngJohnDeLoren decrptonof enforcedconformty
n d e t h e G e ne r M otorC orp ort on Th e c c g t h c e nt ury t t c k on t h e mor mpc t
o f me ch n z t o n T ho m C r y e S g n o f t he T m e S ee T C A RL YL E S g n o f t he T m e
n SE LECTED WRTNGS6085 A Sh e t on ed 971
13S e e e g RHOF STAD TERTH EAGEOFREFORM22359955 JKASSON C V LZNG
THEMACHNETECHNOLOGYANDREPUBLCANVALUES NAMERCA 776900 t45 5
9 76 M W E BE R u pr n ot e t 2 23 2 4
14S e e e g D B E L LTH EEND OF D EOLOGY 2 45re v e d 962
1 5 Se e e g d t 4 7 74
16S e e JKAS SON uprn o t e 3 t 53 06F or n t te mpt t o e x pn t he g rowt h of
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984BUREAUCRACY28
Th e h t ory of th e c on f c t ov erb u re u crt c orgn zt on n Amer
c mport n t b ec u e t f f ec t ou rc u rre nt t n c e t ow rd t h e e
n t t u t on 17S u bordn t e d d e nt c onc e rn b out t h e e xe rc e of
mn g e r p owe rn d b out t h e dn g er of bure u c rc y top e ron
freedomhve nfuencedboththegrowthndthedefeneof rge
c e o rgn zt on 18n d e ed on e c n un de rt n d t h e c h n gngf orm
of u t f c t on of f ere d f orbu re u crt c orgn zt on n t e rm of n
h t o r c p ro gr e o n fu e ed b y d e ct c o f c r t qu e n d r e po n e
B u t on e c n ov e w ou rre t on h p t o t he h t orc c ont rov e ry
o ve r bu re u cr c y n e c u t er m F ro m th p er p e ct v e t he
h t o r c d eb t e m p y r ep c t e o u r ow n m b v e n t fe e n g b ou t
t he d e r b t yn d t h e dn g erof bu re u crt c n t t u t on t he d e b t e
b e tw ee n bure u c rc yd e f en de r n dd d e nt on e we t c rry
on w t h n ou re v e
L k e t he h t orc d e fe nd e rof bu re uc rt c orgn z t on w e
h v e d opt e d on y mt e dn umberof w y t ore u re oure v e
b ou t t he e n t t u t on Th e e mt e d t t e mp t t o u t f ybu re u c
r c y c m r e th e b e o n wh c h co rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e
w re b u t n t h Art c e d e nt f y f ourd f f e re n t t t emp t t o
n d ert n dn dd e f en d c orp ort on n ddmn t rt v e g en c e
Theefour pprocherepreentrepone tothecrtqueofboth
m n g e r d om n t o n n d t he e ro o n o f t he p c e fo r pe r o n e f
x p re on Tk e n t oge th e rt h eyn o t on y e nc pu t e t h e prn c p
t he me of c orp ort e n d dmn t rt v e w bu t od omn t e org
n z t o n t he or y w ho e
B ef ore k et c h th e e f ourmod e of bu re u c rt c e g t m c y 19
h ou d y w ord b out t h e met hod oogy t h t e mpoy n t h Art c e
Th e fou rmod e re d e t y pe 20t h t e x t rc t d f fe ren t w y of un
de rt n dn gbu re u c rc y f rom myrd of p rt c u r e g d o ct rn e
Ame rc n bu re uc rc y n e f fort t opro te ct mn ort y rgh t g n t t h e t hre t of m ort y ru e
e e WNEL SONTH EROOTSOFAMERC ANB U REAUC RAC Y 830900 982F or c rt c
re v ew of Ne on t h e e e S ch w rt zL b e rtyD e mocrc y n d t he Orgn of Ame rc n
B u re u crc y 97HARV L REv 85 984Th e mod ern w ork p c e h ob e e n de fe n de d on
g ro un d t h t t u rp e r e p ub c n d e n d r ep c e t he m w th m or e u e fu n d pr od uc t ve
f or m o f o c o rg n z t o n S e e R H O FS TA DT ER u pr n ot e 3 t 2 5 7 H D E S A NT
SMON SOCALORGANZATON THESCENCEOFMANANDOTHERWRTNGS76 80 F
M r kh m t r n 9 52
17S e e ge n er y 0 PAZ C LAU D ELEV STRAU SSANNTROD UC TON6J B e rt e n &M
B ert e n t rn 970 u gge t n g t h t on e h ou dun d ert n dh t oryn t h e w y t h t g e o og t
un de r t n d t he g e o f t he E r t h n ex u o f r e t o n h p
18S e e e g RHOF STAD TER uprn o t e 3 t 25556
1 9 A f u e r ex po t o n o f e c h o f th e e mo de p re e nt ed n P r t S ee n f r p p 2 96
377
20d e t y pe me th odoogyd erv e f romWe be rS e e MWEB ER uprn o t e t 922
F oro th e rex pn t on of d e t yp e met h od oogy e e f ore xmp e C MACPH ERSONTH E
POLTC ALTH EORY OFPOS SE S SVEND V D U AL SM 4649 962S t e w rt & Sun te n Pu b c
P r o gr m n d Pr v t e R g ht 9 5 HA RV L R EV 9 3 2 39 4 6 9 82
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282HARVARDLAWREVEW Vo 971276
n d wo rk o f e g c ho r h p B e c u e t he m od e o ne m g ht c
t he m p r d g m 2 1 r e my o wn c re t o n t h ey p n y c n no t m p y
b e d e cr p t on o f w h t e g d oc tr n e r e y r e o r w h t p r t cu r
e g t he or t c tu y h d n m nd n d o ng t he r e g c ho r h p
n t e d k e h um n n te r c t on w t h t he w or d t h e e m od e
c ont n e e me nt b o th of t h e pe ron p e rc e vn g t he w ord n t h c e
me n d of t h t w h c h he e ek t op erc e ve 22n dd t on t h e e
mode c n n o t po by ov e rc ome t h e p rob e mof ov e rmpf c t on
n he ren t n t h k n d of c t e gorzt on Th e vu e of t h e e mode
muttherefore ee ewhereR therthn pretendngtobeobectve
t h ey re d e gn e d to p p e t oy ou t he re d e r c onvn c n gw y
t ound e rt n d t he ph en ome non of bure u c rt c e g t m t on n dmn
t rt v e n d c orp ort e w R t he rt h n of fe rn g t h c k d e c rp t on
of n yprt c u rt h eory ord oc t rn t ruc t ure omet h n gwe w ort h
d on g23t h e y re d e gn e d t o ow u t og rp t h e th eory of bure u c
rc y w h oe w t hou t be n g ov erw he me dby t he v e ry rc h n e of
d et t h t t h ey omt
T h e f r t o f th e e m od e w h ch c t he f or m t m od e c n b e
oc tedwththeworkof tenneteenthnde ry twentethcentury
b u re u c rt c t h e or t u c h MxWe b er F red e rck Ty or n d
E rn t F re un d 24The e t h e or t p ort ry e dbu re u crc y rt on
ze d d c p n edme ch n mf ormpe men t n g t he w h e of t c re
t o r w h et he rt o c kh od er ore g t orTh e y w bu re u crt c
power unthretenngbecue theyundertoodbureucrtc org
nz ton tobeobectve ntrument underthecontroofthoewho
deegtedpowertothem ndeed conttuentcontronotony pre
v e nt e d bu e of mn g e r p owe rbu t op re e rve d ph ere f ort h e
f u e x pre on of u b e c t v e ex p ere n ce n t h e c t v t y of t ho e ou t d e
t he b u re u crc yw h oe w h e t h e b u re u c rc y c rre d ou t
Th e e c on d f ormof bure u c rt c e g t m t on w h c h c t h e
e x pe rt e mod e d e v e ope dn re p on e t o t h e c rt q ue of t h e form t
m od e P r og re v e n d ce rt n N ew D e e r n c ud n g or g n z
t o n th eo r t k e Ph p S e z n ck c o r po r t e m n g er t k e Ch e
t e rB rn rdE t on Myo P e te rD ruc ke r n dD ou g M cGreg or n d
21Th e wordp r dgm oc t e dw t h t he w ork of Th om Kuhn S e e T KU HN TH E
STRU CTU REOF SC ENTFC REV OLU TONS2d e d 970F or c rt q u e of Kuh n u e of t h e
t e rm e e M c n t yre E p t emoog c C re D rmt c N rrt v e n d t he Ph o ophy of S c e nc e
nPARADGMSANDREVOLUTONS5456 74 GGuttnged g80
22S e e Fru gTh e C t y u p rn o t e 2 t 07980 c t n g ou rc e
23F orn e x p o t on of t h e met hod oogy of t h c k de c rp t on e e C GEERTZTH ENTER
PRETATONOFCULTURES330 973
24SeeEFREUNDADMNSTRATVEPOWERSOVERPERSONSANDPROPERTY928 F
TAY LOR SC ENTFC MANAGEMENT947 2M WEB ER uprn o t e t 956005F re und
T he L w o f t he A dm n t r t o n n A me r c 9 P OL S C Q 4 0 3 8 94 A dd t o n o ur ce f or
t he f or m t m od e r e c te d n S ec t on A o f P r t S ee n f r p p 2 97 3 7
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1984 BUREAUCRACY 283
d m n t r t v e w c ho r k e Wo od ro w W o n n d J m e L n d 2 5
greedwththech rgethtbureucrc e werenot nfct con
troedby commnd uedfromoutde Theyrecognzedtheenor
mou rn g e of d c ret on e x erc e d bybu re u crt c m n g e r n d ee d
t he y rgu e d th t t h d c ret on w n ot on y n un v odb e n gre
d e nt o f b ur e u cr t c f e bu t o t v er y r o n d et re n t e d o f
f e rn gbu re u c rt c d c ret on t h e e t h n k er w e c ome d t b e c u e
theypercevedthemn ger ndempoyeewhoexerced ttobe
e xp er t w ho e p r of e o n m m u t n eo u y m t ed t he c o p e of
t h e rp ow er p rev e nt e d pe ron d omn t on n dmde p o b e t h e
c re t v t yn df e x b t yn ec e ry t o t he e f fe c t ve n e of t he b u re u
crtcform
Th e th rd t h eory of bu re u crt c e g t mc yw h c h c t h e u
d c r ev ew m od e w r e ct o n g n t t he e x ce e o f th e
e xp e rt e mode Th o e w ho rt c u t e d t h p on t of v e w n c u dn g
uc h e g c ho r F e x F r n kf ur te r L on F u e r L o u J f fe n d
KennethCupDv 26expreed doubt thte therconttuentcontro
o rm n g e r e x pe rt e c ou d mt t h e e xe rc e of b u re u crt c p owe r
T h t m t h d t o b e o c t ed n t e d n t h e b t y of t he c ou rt t o
re v ew n dw h en n e ce ry t oov e rt u rn t h e c t on of bu re u crt c
orgnz ton Bureucrcycoudberenderednonthretenng nther
v e w on y f d e qu t e y u b e ct t o t h e ru e of w B e c u e t h e
n t ru on of t h e c ou rt w ou db e mt e dh owe v er mn g e r n d
c on t t ue nt w ou d ret n p rmry c on troov e rb ure u c rt c c t v t e
F n y n t he 9 6 0 n d 9 70 b er d em oc r t w h o e de
b out dmn t rt v e w h v e b e en n y zed byRc h rd S t ew rt 27
n d c on e rv t v e re pre e n t t v e of t h e C h c g oS c h oo w hoe w ork
h b ec ome m n t y of c u rre nt w rt n g b out c orport e w 28
c rt c ze d t he e f fe c t ve ne n d c red b t y of t he u d c re v ew mode
25 See C BARNARD, supra note I P DRUCKER, THE PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT (I954)
J LANDIS, supra note i E MAYO, THE HUMAN PROBLEMS OF AN INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION
(I933) [hereinafter cited as E MAYO, HUMAN PROBLEMS] E MAYO, THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
OF AN INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION (I945) D MCGREGOR, THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE
(Ig60) P SELZNICK, LEADERSHIP IN ADMINISTRATION (I95I) Wilson, The Study of Adminis-
tration, 2 POL. SCI. Q. I97, 209-I7 (i887). Additional sources for the expertise model are cited
n S e ct o n B o f P rt S ee n f r p p 3 8 3 4
26 See i K DAVIS, ADMINISTRATIVE LAW TREATISE (2d ed I978) F FRANKFURTER, THE
PUBLIC AND ITS GOVERNMENT 36-80 (I930); L. JAFFE, supra note I; Fuller, supra note i.
Additional sources for the udicial review model are cited in Section C of Part II See infra
p p 3 34 5 5
27 See Stewart, supra note i, at I760-I8I3 Additional sources for the pluralist model are
c t ed n S e ct o n D o f P rt S ee n f r p p 3 55 7 7
28 See, e g, Easterbrook & Fischel, The Proper Role of a Targets Management in Responding
to a Tender Offer, 94 HARV. L. REV. iI6i (198I); Manne, Mergers and the Market for Corporate
Control, 73 J POL ECON IIO (I965) Additional sources for the market model are cited in
S ec t on D o f P r t S ee n f r p p 3 55 7 7
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I284 HARVARD LAW REVIEW [Vol 97 I276
These theorists, who espouse what I call the market/pluralist model,
ground the legitimacy of administrative and corporate structures on
the operaton of ether po tca or market mechansms wthn bureau-
cratc structures As they see t, ether nterest-group po tcs or mar-
ket forces intervene to discipline bureaucratic management in addi-
tion, these mechanisms allow people to express themselves about how
b u re u crc e h ou d op e rt e
Given what I have said about the construction of these models of
bureaucratic organization, the reader should not take too literally my
presenting them in terms of an historical progression but should use
the idea of historical development only as a rough guide Moreover,
as this history has unfolded, each model has not simply replaced its
predecessor Instead, each has been added to the others, so that in
the end all of them have become part of legal discourse Indeed,
current legal theorists often merge all four models together A present-
day corporate law theorist, for example, might assert that corporate
managers, as trustees for the shareholders, can exercise their own
business judgment as long as it is checked by the combined discipline
of proxy fights, derivative suits, and the market in corporate control.
Similarly, an administrative lawyer might say that an administrative
agency can, pursuant to its delegated power, exercise its own discre-
tion as long as anyone affected by its action can, when appropriate,
intervene in its decisionmaking and subect the decision, once made,
to judicial review. One can detect elements of each of the models in
t h e e re t v e y c ommon p c e t t e me nt
Each model of bureaucratic legitimacy is a story designed to tell
its listeners Dont worry, bureaucratic organizations are under con-
trol. All of administrative and corporate law can, in my view, be
understood as an expression of one of these stories or of a combination
of them. These bodies of law comprise, in other words, a series of
assurances that the legal system can overcome the perennial concerns
about bureaucratic organizations. The most prominent concern that
these areas of legal doctrine address is the fear that bureaucratic
managers - whether public or private - can control bureaucratic
power in a manner adverse to the interests of the shareholders or
citizens whom they purport to serve. Because this is the problem of
bureaucratic form that corporate and administrative law predomi-
nantly emphasize, it will be the predominant focus of this Article 29
29 Those who teach and write about corporate law have traditionally excluded from its
coverage problems affecting employees within the corporate structure; these matters have been
left to such doctrinal areas as labor law, contract law, and employment discrimination law.
Indeed, the insistence on understanding the corporate entity in terms of the corporation/share-
holder relationship, instead of the corporation/worker relationship that was Marx's principal
concern, see I K. MARX, CAPITAL ch. IO (B. Fowkes trans. I977), is an important part of the
ideological structure of modern corporate law. Administrative lawyers, on the other hand, have
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984BUREAUCRACY285
Th e e bo d e o f w o e ek t o u re u t h t b ur e u cr t c o r g n
zt on ow mpe roomf ore f d e te rmn t on n d e f d e v e opme nt
Th p ec t of e g d o ct rn e t h ou gh oft e n e pp re nt t h n t h e
f oc u o n m n g e r p ow er n o e m po rt n t t t o o w b e
p r nc p u b ec t of t h A rt c e
Mn yre d e rm yf n d t odd t o t k of c orport e n d dmn
t r t ve w e r e o f t or e t h t u re u b ou t th e c ce pt b t y
of bu re u c rt c orgn zt on Th eymy t h n k t h t t he d e c on t o
c re t e th e e o rg n z t o n t k e p c e ou t d e t he e g y t em t h t
bu re u c rc y t he p rodu c t of p o t c c ho c e orof mrk e t force Th e
w u n de r th v e w m er e y r ef e ct o c f e t f u nc t on o n y t o
correcttheprobemth tbureucrtc orgnz ton generte Other
re d e r h owe v er myre c ogn ze t he c mt h t t h e e g y t e mt e f
hpe thedeveopmentofbureucrtcorgn zt onthroughthe eg
t mt n gf un ct on of w t ou e A e xn d erB c k e w e k n ow n
ph re 30A c c ordn g t oone d e f n t on L e g t mc yme n t h t t h ere
re g ood rgume nt f or p o t c orde r c mt ob e re cogn ze d
r g ht n d u t L eg t m c y m e n p o t c o rd er w or th n e
t ob e rec ogn ze d 31F ort he e re d e r t h e pro ce of d t n guh n g
e g f ro m e g c t v ty n c o r po r t e n d d m n t r t v e w h
b e en ou rc e of b ure u c rt c p owe rn Ame rc n o c e ty 32
n t h Art c e of te n u e t h e n gu g e of e g t mt on t h eort
b ec u e t o ft en e e t t o th nk o f w e r e o f de t h t
f f e ct h ow t he w ord op ert e S of r f orexmp e h v e p oke n of
w d ef n n g p er pe tu t n g e x p n n g u t f y ng n d re u r ng
re ce nt yb e gun t on c u d e t he e mpoyme nt re t on h p n t h e rd ef n t on of dmn t rt v e w
C om p r e B e y v R c h r d on 8 2 F 2 d 46 D C C r 9 50 c on c ud n g th t c o n t tu t on
gu rn t e e d on o t p py t op u b c e mpoyme n t f f dbyn e q u ydvd e dC ourt 34 U S
98 095 , wth Board of Regents v Roth, 408 US 564, 57 & n 9 1972 appyng the
C on t t ut on t op u b c e mpoyme nt A t h ou gh t t me d e w t h t he e mpoyme nt re t on h p
n t h A rt c e h v e g en er y m t ed m y e f d o co rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e w
t o t he b u re u c rc y/h re hod e rorbure u c rc y/ c t ze n re t on h p w h c h re f e rt o t he
b u re u c rc y/c on t t ue nt re t on h p Wt h ou t u c h mt t on myn y w oudb e to o
c omp e xn d t oo e n g th y t of t w t h n n g e rt c e u gge t h owe v er t h t t h e mod e of
b u re u c rt c e g t mc y n dmyn y of t he mn t e rmof t h e b ure u c rc y/ c on t t u e nt re
t on h p c n b e pp e d t o t h e b ure u c rc y/ e mpoy ee re t on h p w e F orre t e d c rt q ue
o f fe de r y r eg u t ed c o e ct v e b r g n n g w e e f or e x m p e K r e L b o r L w d eo o gy
Tow rd Ne w H t orogrph y of C o e c t ve B rg n n gLw 4 ND USRE L L J450 98
S to ne T h e Po t W r P r d g m n A m e r c n L b or L w 9 0 Y AL E L J 5 0 9 9 8 N ot e
S ub e ct o f B r g n n g Un de r th e NL RA n d t h e L m t o f L b er P o t c m g n t o n 9 7
HARV L REV 475983
30SeeA BCKELTHELEASTDANGEROUSBRANCH2933 962
31J HABERMASCOMMUNCATONANDTHEEVOLUTONOF SOCETY78 T McCrthy
trans 979 Habermas defnt on refers to pot ca egt macy but t shoud be understood to
a p p y to corp or a te eg tma cy a s we Se e eg Chat o v TheRo eo fd e o o gy n theAmer c an
C orp ort on n TH EC ORPORATED L EMMA50D V ot w & S S e th e d 1973
3 2 Fo r a r e cent cr t c a a na y s s o fthe concep to feg tma to nn aws e eHy de TheConcep t
o f L eg t mt on n t h e S o c o ogy of Lw 983WSL REV 379983
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286HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
u b out b u re u crt c orgn zt on B u t myrgumen t p roc e ed t
w b ec om e n cr e n g y c e r t h t d o no t be e v e n t he d t n ct o n
b e tw ee n t h e re w ord of bure u c rt c orgn zt on n d t h e w
d t n c t on t h t b o t h e g t mt on t h e or t n d t he ropp on en t
s e emto r ey o nA s fa r a s c a nt e the s to r e s o fb ure a ucr at c
u t f c t o n n y ze d n t h A rt c e d e cr b e b ot h th e d e p ro
p oun d ed n e g d o ct rn e n d t h e k n d of orgn zt on p e op e e e k
toput ntopace Thesearesmpy twoversonsofthesameprocess
o f o c c re t o n w r et ur n to t h p o nt t er n t he A rt c e 3 3
W he th er t he w m p y r e f ec t o rg n z t o n f e or m o d t n
ome w y h owe v er t he v on of t h e w ord t h t un d ere e g d o c
t rn e t h e t ore b out h ow bure u c rc y t ob e und e rt ood
d e fe n de d n dmprov e d re e q uy mport n t n e t h erc e t he
ega systemespousessomewayof makngsense ofcorporateand
d m n t r t v e g en c e T h A rt c e o ff er c r t qu e of t he e t
t e mp t t om k e e n e of bu re u crt c orgn z t on
B TheSubectveObectveDchotomy
n m y v e w o f th e t o r e t h t e e k to e xp n n d d e fe nd
bureaucratc organzatonhaveundertakentwotasks Frst they
h v e ou gh t t ore p on d t o t he f e rof mn g er c ont robyd e mon
t rt n g t h t b u re u crt c p owe r c on tr n edby ome k n d of ob
ectvtyObectv ty thoughttoprotectpeopewthn thebureuc
rc y f romdomn t on n d t o e n u re t h t t h e n t ere t of c on t t ue nt
renotthretenedbytheconod tedpowerexerced bythebu
re u c rc y t e f Th e de f n t on of ob e c t v t yd op te dn t h e e t ore
h v e v r e d w de y n eu tr t y n d p u r u t of c om mo n pu rp o e
r e e x m p e b ut o f th em h v e e mp h z ed v u e o f o rg n
zt on f e t h t e v ery on e c on d e re d t oh odn c ommon t t he
f c t th t t h e e v u e r e h r e d th t m k e t h em o b ec t ve A c
c or d ng y n y n tr u o n o f u b ec t ve p e r o n v u e n to t h o b ec
t v ty h b ee n tr e t ed n co n t en t w th t O b ec t v ty o m
portnttotheecurtyoftho ethretenedbytheorgn zt on
t ruc tu re t h t t mu t n o t b e n f e ct ed by t n t t he u b e ct v t y
S ec ond e c h of t h e t ore h t re d t oh ow t h t bu re u c rt c
organzatondoesnot mt theopportuntyforpersonasef-expres-
onTheyh verepondedtotheconcern boutperon freedom
by u t rt n gh ow bure u c rc y c n p rovde u w t h n mprov ed
b t y to c on tr o o u r ow n v e n o ur o wn w y T h d e of t he
g e nd t he n t t emp t t omk e bu re u crc y c on t e nt w t h u b e c
t v t y w t h th e v u e o f n d v d u t y o c t e d w th t he u n qu e
d e re t h t d t n guh e c h p e ron f romot he r n t h e wordL k e
t h e pu ru t of ob e c t v t y t h e e rc h f oru b e c t v t yh t k e n mn y
33S e e n f rpp 13883
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984BUREAUCRACY287
f or m S om e t o r e f o r e x mp e e m ph z e co n t tu en t b t y to
e n u re th t t h e b u re u c rc yd oe w h t t h eyw n t t t od o n d o th er
e mph ze t he f ree d omof bu re u c rt c of f c t op py t h e row n
e xp e rt e n d t rn n g n t h e rw ork Tob e p e ru v e h ow ev e rt h
p p e t o u b e ct v t ymu t p rovd e ome u rn c e th t n dvdu
cn ec pefromtheenforcedcommonne ofobectvty ndbethem
e v e Abov e e e t h e n t h e p re e n ce of u b e ct v t yn orgn
zt on f e mu t b e p rot ec t ed f romth e d emn d of ob e ct v t y
A t he t or e o f bu re u cr t c e g t m t o n n h or t h r e c om
mon t ruc t ure t h e y t t emp t tod e f n e d t n guh n dre nd e rmu
t u y c om p t b e t he u b e ct v e n d o b ec t ve p ec t o f f e A t he
d e fe n e of bu re u c rc yh v e ou ght t o v odme rgn gob e ct v t y n d
u b e ct v t y un t n g t he d e mn dof c ommon ne n d c ommun t y
w t h th o e o f n d v du t y n d p er o n e p r t en e b ec u e t o
d oo w ou db e e f c on t rd c tory 34M oreov er t h n ev e rb ee n
e nou gh u t t o e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y e c h mu t o
b e gu rn t ee d p c e w t h n t he bu re uc rt c t ruc t ure A re u t
th e n e b e t we en t h e t wore m h b e come t he c rt c f o cu of
e ff or t t o e g t m t e b ur e u cr c y t t h n e th t o w b u re u
c r t c t he or t m u t n eo u y t o e p r t e n d co mb n e th e v u e o f
u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y t op re en t b ure u c rc y b o th n
enhncementnd protectonof berty ndthtthereforepermt
t h e mt opre e n t bu re u crc y e g t mt e
rgue n t h Art c e t h t t h p ro ec t of b ure u c rt c e g t m t on
f u re Th eort h v e n o t b ee n b e t od t n guh n dren d er
c omp t b e t h e u b e ct v e n d ob e c t v e p e ct of orgn zt on f e
b e c u e n o n e b et w ee n u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v t y c n e v erb e
d r wn n t e d e c h mo de o f b ur e u cr t c e g t m t o n h d e
v e op ed t h n c u de d u b e c t v t y on t he ob e c t ve d e of t he
b oun d ryn d ob e c t v t y on th e u b e c t v e d e Th e f c et of org
n zt on f e t h t n ee d t ob e u b e c t ve h v e b e c ome o c on tr n ed
byobectvtytht theyc nnotconvncngy repreenttheexpre on
of h umn n dvdu t y Sm ry t he f c e t t h t n e ed t ob e ob e ct v e
h v e be c ome o rdd e dw t h u b e c t v t y t ound e rmn e t h e rc m
torepreentcommonnteret ndeed opponentofe chndv du
t ory of bu re u c rt c e g t mt on h v e u u y odge dp rec e y t h
f ormof c rt c m g n t t 35Y e t th e e c rt c t he me v e h v e g en
e r y ou gh t on y t o e g t mt e bu re u crc ymore con vnc n gyby
ub t t u t ng t h e row n combn t on of ob ec t v t yn d u b e ct v t y
3 4 L eg t he or t h v e re gu r y u e d t he t er m o b ec t ve n d u b ec t ve n w y t h t
u gg e t t h t on e t he n t th e o f th e ot he r S ee e g K D A V S u pr n ot e 26 t x x
Th u f c ombn e d u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t yw ou d c on f c t w t h n dn u f y e c h o t he r
theywoudcontrdcte chother
35Seegener yJ FREEDMANCRSS ANDLEGTMACY 978 decrbng therecurrent
e n e o f cr t h t h m p r e d th e e g t m c y of A me r c n d m n t r t ve w
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288HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
t er t h e m e cr t q ue h b ee n o dg ed g n t t he m T h A rt c e
e x m ne t h c yc e o f e g t m t o n d e eg t m t o n n d re e g t m t o n
whoen ordertohow t common tructurendthecommon
re on f or t n coh ere nc e
A t t h p on t t my e e mdf f cu t t oun d ert n dw h ybu re u c rt c
t he ort h v e n e ve rb ee n b e t of n d w y t o e n u re t h t t h e
b ure u c rt c orgn zt on c n c ombn e y e t e p rt e t h e re m of ob
e ct v t y n d u b e ct v t y 36 T h e ex p n t o n t h t h o ff er r e e
on t he t e rm dn g e rou u pp eme nt f oun dn t h e w ork of Jc q u e
De rrd 37 n e c h of t h e f ou rt ore of bu re u c rt c e g t mt on
n y zedn t h Art c e t h e re t on h p b e tw ee n u b e c t v t yn d
ob e ct v t y c n b e t b e und e rt ood by c onc e vn g e c h of t he m t he
dngerou uppement oftheother
W h t t he n d n ge ro u u pp e me nt ? 38 T he d e c n m o t
e y b e gr p ed t hr ou gh n e x m p e n d m y e x mp e h b e th e
re t on h p of w t o o c e ty t n o t un c ommon t o t h n k of th e w
u pp eme nt t o t h e norm op ert on of o c f e A upp eme nt
th e d ct o n r y te u o me th n g d d ed e p ec y t o m k e up f or
c k ord ef c e n cy 39L w e e mt ob e ome t h ng dd ed t o o c e ty
n e o ft en h e r o f o c f e ex t n g b e fo re t he re w e g y t em
T he d d t on o f w f r f ro m be n g op t on e em n ec e r y to c ur e
d ef e ct n t h e o c orde rWt h out w oc e ty c n n o t ope rt e
p rop e ryw t h ou t t c c ordn g t oone c c ount t he re wou db e w r
o f e ch g n t 4 0 Ye t w o t hr e te nn g u pp e me nt t
g v e ce rt n n dv d u t he w g ve r t he b t y to m p o e on
36Tounderstandths faure andts mportanceadequatey oneneedstoexamnethe specfc
p r ob ems that eg awr t er s hav ef a ced n ther a c tua d o c trna a nd theo r et c a wo rk Pa rt s
d e vo t ed t o t h t k Th e d c u on p re en t edh e re n trodu c e on y n ov er t h eoret c
expn tonoftheprobem
37 S ee J D E R R DA u pr n ot e t 4 6 4
38D e rrd t h n k w oudh v e w rt te n t he e nt e nc e Wh t t he n dn g e rou u pp eme nt ?
P c n g t he w or d u nd er e r u r e h e wo u d h v e c e d t e m ph z e t h t t ho ug h th e
wordmustbeused nordertocommuncate t sa mstaketothnkthatthedangerous
u pp e me nt n yt h ng t m t k e n o t he r wo rd t o th n k of t he d n g er ou u pp e me nt
assome thng or concept thattsef needstobe subecttoscrutnySee nfranote43
nsteadtheterm suppement ssmp ya wordusedbyRousseau ntextsthatDerrdaanayzes
D er r d n h o wn n y t r e t o d e cr b e ho w Ro u e u h m e f u e d t he t er m t
thereforeunconventona formeto takeRousseaustermanduse theremoregeneray asa
way of anayz ng the structure of ega argument concern ng bureaucracy But because sup-
pement sasoa termthatDerrdaempoystodescrbeh smoregeneraanayss suppement
another name for dfferance J DERRDA supra note at So and because t s the one that
at east for me s the most eas y communcated and dscussed have decded to use the term
ntheway exp a ned nthe t ext makeno c amtha tmy ana y s s cor r es p ond s exa c ty wth
what Derrda hmsef means by the term n hs own work For a genera dscusson of
D e rrd me th odoogy e e JC U LLEROND EC ONSTRU CTON85225 982G Spvk Trn
t or P re f ce t o J D E RR D A u pr n ot e t x x xx v
3 9WEBSTERSNEWTWENTETHCENTURYDCTONARY8 3 2 d ed una b r 9 6 4
40THOB B ES L EV ATHANc h 7 t e d L on don 65
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984BUREAUCRACY289
o c e ty n ew f ormof opp re on t t h en dn g erou u pp eme nt
And p r d ox c y t he on y pp re nt w y t o c u rb t h n e w dn ge r
t hrough t he w t e f t he t h re t p o e d by t h e w h t ob e
re t r n e dby w At e rrf yn gme n ce t he u pp eme nt h ere t h e
w o t he f r t n d u r e t pr ot ec t on g n t t h t v er y me n ce 4 1
Th f m r w y o f u nd er t n d n g th e re t o n h p o f w n d
o c e ty p re e nt p c t ure of u pp eme nt t h t mu t n e ou yn e c
e ry t o t he p re e rv t on of o c e ty n d t hre t e n ng t o t u rvv
Th e dn ge rou u pp eme nt vdy ou gh t b ec u e t e em t h e on y
w y t omk e o c e tyw h t t ou gh t t ob e Th e v eryd e of o c e t y
w t h ou t w p e rmn e nt y d e fe rre d t ou e D e rrd t ermw e c n
t t n o c et y wt ho ut w f w ec n t t n t t o n y by
e t b h n go c e t y un de r w L w n doc e t y b ec ome n e x t rc by
nt er n ke d w d n ge rou y e t un v odb e b e come p rt of w h t
w e me n by oc e ty
Th t ory of t h e u pp e me nt re t on h p b e tw e en w n do
cetyneednowtobe retodo tht ocetybecome thedngerou
u pp e me nt o f w A f te r o ne c n e t b h w o n y th ro ug h th e
c t on o f o c e ty y e t o c e ty t he c t v t y o f hu m n b e ng p o e
t hre t t o t h e d e of e g t yTh proc e of e e n gb o th o c e ty
n d w dn g erou u pp eme nt of e c h o t he rt rp t h e con ce p t
f w n d o c et y o f t he r p p r en t y e p r t e d e nt t e N e th er
o c e tyw t h out w n or w ou t d e of o c e ty e e m me n n gfu p o
b t y n t he w or d t h e u e o f on e of t he e t er m w y e em t o
mpytheex tenceoftheotherMoreover thenotonthte ther w
or ocetyexted nh torywthouttheotherbecome ubectto
m r p r oc e o f do ub t t e em t h t t h r e t o n h p b et we en w
n d o ce ty h w y r e dy e x t ed 4 2 f o o ne c n e e wh y
t he t k o f d r w n g n e b e tw ee n w n d o c et y be co me n
n co he re nt m e n n g e t k S o c et y c on t t ut ed n p r t b y w
n d w c on t t ut ed n p r t b y o c et y
n P rt rgue t h t e v e ry t te mpt t o e p r t e ob e ct v t y n d
u b e ct v t yn bu re u c rt c t h ough t h n t e d re u t e dn re e nt e
nt ermxn gof t he mTh n te rmxn g t h n e rt on of u b e c t v ty
n d ob e ct v t yn t o t h e rn t t h e e dn g e rou u pp emen t h
ctu ybeenbroughtboutbytheverypeopewho oughttoprevent
t T h u pp e me nt t ru ct ur e h b ee n n ec e r y n d u n vo d b e
4 1 J D E RR D A u pr n ot e t 5 4
42 Id. at 157-64. Although this critique of the kind of history that relies on a search for
origins is important to Derrida's work, I do not pursue it here. Through an analysis of the
supplement or differance, Derrida undermines the meaningfulness of the traditional search for
the moment when some human endeavor began or for the cause of its beginning. No matter
how far back one looks for the origin of the ability to make distinctions, for example, it already
exists: it has always already existed. In Derrida's words, We must begin wherever we are.
Id. at I62. But see sup ra note I7 (emphasizing the importance of historical understanding).
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290HARV ARD LAWREV EWV o 97276
n d t hr e te n ng t he n t er we v n g o f w n d o c e ty 4 3 n
n ttempttoovercomethecombntonof ubectvty ndobectv
t y e g t he ort h v e ou gh t n ew n e b e t we en u b e ct v t y n d
ob e ct v t yw t h n b o th t h e ob ec t v e n d t h e u b e c t ve re m of
bu re u c rt c f ormB u t th n e d rw n g e n te rpr e h re produ ce d
t h e me re e nt e n t ermx tu re of u b e c t v ty n d ob e ct v t y e c h
becomngthed ngerou uppementoftheotherR therthn drw
n g n e b et w ee n u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v t ybu re u c rt c t h e or t
hveconceed therf uretoovercometheconfctbetweenub ec
t v t y n d ob e ct v t y t h rou gh n e n d e e re of un u cc e f u t
t emp t t o c ombn e y e t e p rt e t h e t wo ph ere of f e
Th e n b t y of bure u c rt c t h eort t od rw ub e ct v e /ob e c
t v e b oun d ry c n re d yb e un de rt o od n t e rm of t he dn g e rou
u pp eme nt Af t er t h e d e of u b e ct v t y u u y re fe rt o t h e
ph ere of t he e f b u t we c n d e f n e ou re v e on y t h rou gh re t on
h p w t h t he w ordn w h c h we v e Tof n d ou re v e w e e e k
de throughthecommonycretedwordof ngugeknowedge
t hrough n t e rc t on w t h o t he r n dn f f ec t v e f e t h rou gh ovn g
n d be n g o ve d by t ho e c o e t o u O th er f m y f r en d b u
r e u cr t c u tu r f g ur e t he t t e r e n e ce r y f w e r e t o b ec om e
p eron t t he yp rovd e u t he t uf f of our e v e n dp ro t ec t
u n c ru c w y g n t d e t ru ct o n 4 4 B ut t he e o t he r o
t hre t e n to e mn t e ou re p r t e e n e of d en t t yTh e n f u en ce of
other cnbe opowerfu thtour denttybecome productnotof
w h t w e w n t t ob e b ut of w h t o t he rh v e md e u n d ee d t h e re
now y t o e c p e f romt he w ordn ord e rt od t n gu h w h t w e
w n t f romw h t t h ey w n t 45Th e wordw e h re n c ommon
t he ob e c t ve w ord b o th n e ce ry t on d n comp t b e w t h ou r
ubectvedentty
Th e me t ory c n b e t od by t rt n gw t h t h e no t on of ob ec
t v t y O b ec t v ty u u y o c t e d w th t he d e o f m pe r o n t y
orc ommonn e rt h ert h n w t h t h o e of t h e e f w t h t he p e r
pe c t ve of un v e r t y rt h ert h n t h t of p rt c u rt y B u t n y
re fe ren c e tow h t w e h re c o e c t v e ymu t t k e n t o c c oun t e c h
43 Although I use the term supplement in this Article to explain that no subjective/objective
boundaries exist, I do not mean to suggest that the supplemental relationship is the cause of
the problem of boundaries for bureaucratic theorists. Instead, I am simply using this particular
description of the failure of bureaucratic theory because it seems a good way of communicating
my critique; other ways of doing so might well be as good or even better. Thus, rather than
thinking of the dangerous supplement as if it were some thing whose identity needed further
analysis, or some cause whose effects could be traced, or some disease that could be isolated
and cured, one should consider it a theme that is most characteristic of our 'epoch, ' J.
DERRIDA, SPEECH AND PHENOMENA I35-36 (D. Allison trans. I973), and, in particular, a theme
that characterizes the discourse and activity of bureaucratic organization.
44 Kennedy, The Structure of Bl ackstone's Commentaries, 28 BUFFALO L. REV. 205, 2II-I2
979
45 See, e.g., P. BERGER & T. LUCKMANN, THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY (I966).
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984BUREAUCRACY29
of t he n dvdu c ompone n t t h t mk e u p t h e c o e c t v t yTh ere
c n n o m or e be u n ve r c o e ct v e o r h r e d g o e p r t e fr om
t he p rt c u rg o dvn c ed by p e c f c p eop e t h n t he re c n b e n
ob e ct v e w ord of n t ure e p r t e f romt he n dvdu f e t ure of t h e
w ord ou ght t ob e d e c rb edY e t e p rt e n e n dn dvdu t y
t h re t e n t ob re k p rt t h e n ot on of ob e ct v t yTh e n dvdu
p e ct t h t re ou ght t ob e c ombn e d c n b e un de rt o odn o t on yn
t e rm of w h t t he yh v e n c ommon bu t on t e rm of h ow th e y
d f f e rf rome c h o t he rF ore xmp e y ou n d h re mu c h n c om
m on w e r e h um n w e c n r e d E ng h e v en t he k n d of E ng h
prn te dn t h e H rv rdL w Re v e w bu t ou rd f f ere nc e r t he rt h n
ou rc ommon n e c n w y b e e mph ze d f t he y re t he n o t on
t h t w e t oge t he rc re t e w ord of ob e c t v t y c n b e d e t roy e d mpy
by e mph zn g t h e d f fe ren ce e mbod ed n ou rp rt c u r t yTh e
w or d o f n d v d u u b ec t v ty n ec e r y p r t of t he o b ec t ve
w ordbut on e t h t dn g erou t o n y e n e t h t ob e ct v t y
po b e
On ce t h e re d erg r p t h e n b t y t o e p r t e u b e c t v t yn d
ob ec t v t y t h e re on d on o t e b ort e y d e f ne t h e e t erm n t h
Art c e h ou db ec ome c e r Wh t d e f ne ou rp rt c u rze d e v e
ou r u b e ct v t y n dw h t d e f ne t h e ou t d e w ord of ob e ct v e
tr ut h p ro b em t c w h o w e r e u p fo r g r b n de ed w e h
e e b ur e uc r t c t he or t h v e t k en v t r r y o f fe t ur e o f f e
n dd e crb e d t he m e e men t of e t h e r u b e ct v t y orob e c t v
t y Y e t t he e f e t ur e c o u d u t e y h v e b ee n de c r b ed n
t h e opp o t e t e rmb e c u e t h e c t e gore t he me v e c k p e c f c
contentMoreoveronceoneundertnd theret onhp between
u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y t h ou d ob e c e r t h t w e c n n e v er
drw nebetweenthem Therefore mycrtqueof bureucrtc
t he ort re n c e on t h e u b e c t ve / ob e c t ve d c h o tomy n ot de
gn ed t op ropo e b et t erw y of c ombn n g ub e ct v t y n d ob e c
t v t y ore v en t ou gg e t t h t w e u b t t u te re cogn t on th t e v e ry
t h n g u b e ct v e f ort he t h eort re e nt e e rc h f orob e c t v t y
n t e d u gge t t h t w e h ou db n don t he t te mpt t oun de rt n d
thewordn termofthe ubectve/obectvedchotomy wehoud
d e w t h th e pr ob e m o f h um n o c t o n n o t he r w y t
mportnttore zetht weneednotundertndtheword nterm
o f u b e ct v t y n d o b ec t v ty t h t t h d c h ot om y k e o m n y
ot he rc t e gore t hrough w h c h we e x pe re nc e t he w ord h umn
c re t o n n d n ot r ef e ct o n of w h t t he w or d r e y k e 4 6 A
rgue n P rt h owe v er bu re u c rt c t h eort h v e n o t b ee n
b e t o r t c u t e r t o n e f o r o rg n z t o n f e w th ou t re y n g on
omeformofobectvtytht protect u frombureucrtcdomn ton
n d on ome f ormof u b e ct v t y t h t ow u t ob e oure v e
46S e e Fru gTh e C t y u p rn o te 2 t 07475
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292HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
B ur e u cr t c t h eo r t c t f t he y ne ed w e do n ot t o b e e v e n
t h e po b t y of u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e d t n c t on
CTheN tureofLeg Argument
t m y t b e un c e r w hy t he n b t y of b ur e u cr t c t h eo r t
t o c ombn e y et e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y od e t ru ct v e
to e g rgume nt b out b u re u crc yTh e re on b re f y t t e d
t h t t h re e nt e t t emp t tod vd e n d red vd e u b e ct v t y n d
ob e ct v t yh produ ce d f ormof e g d o ct rn e t h t re t t e t h e v e ry
p rob e mof bu re u c rt c d omn t on n dp e ron e f e x p re on t h t
t w c re t ed t o ov e n t e d of p rovdn g w y t od e c d e w he th e r
concretebureucrtc ctvty houdbe pprovedorcondemned
e g d o ct rn e mpypre e nt t ruc tu re t h t w y er c n u e t o
f ormu t e rgumen t f or n dg n t t h e c t v t y un d erre v e w B e
c u e e v ery p e ct of b u re u c rt c f e t h t mu t b e ob e ct v e o
mu t b e u b e ct v e w y er c n rgue e n d e y ov erw h c h of t he e
con f c t n gy et e e nt n gre d e nt h ou db e fo c u e d on The w
e t h ero c t e b e t we en e e n g th e u b e c t v e orth e ob e ct v e d e
t he more mport n t oroff er t e rn t v e b u t n c on t e nt c h eme f or
c ombn ngy e t e p r t n gb o th d e L e gd o c t rne t h u p rovd e
u t f c t o n f or b o th p r t c u r c o ur e o f c t o n n d t o pp o t e
M ore ove r w e h e e n y t t e mp t t od et e rmn e t he re u t by
pp e n g t o t h e f c t of t h e c e p rovd e n o e c p e f romth
prob e mTh e n t e rp ret t on of t h e f c t u f fe rf romt he me n t e r
mx t ure of u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v ty t h t p gu e b u re u crt c t he
oryTh e f c t t o o c n b e c on t rue d e t h ert ou t f y ort o c ond e mn
n ybu re u crt c c t v t y
Re u t p rodu ce d by t h k n d of e g rgume nt c n b e c on vn c ng
o n y f t h ey p re e nt n r t f c y p r t v e w of t he w or d f t
werecompete ftheentre tructureofrgumentwere pprentwe
c ou d e e th t t h e m g n ed r e o u t on o f e g p ro b em m d e
p o b e on yby c on ce n g t he e e me nt of u b e c t v t yn d ob e c t v t y
t h t w ou dp rodu ce t h e opp o t e re u t M ore mport n t y y t e m
t h t c n b e u e d t o e g t mt e omu ch c n h rdyb e c onvn c n gn
t e f fort t o e g t mt e n yt h n gf on e c n d e du ce f rom doct rn e
o rn du ce f rom f c t t u t on c on trd c t ory con c u on t h e re u t
of e g d c oure o e t h e rp ow ert op e ru d e Th e rgume nt t h t
g e n ert e t h e e re u t re re ve e d t ob e t y ze d f ormof rh et orc
on e th t c n b e n v oke d t op p rov e ord pp rov e n y c t on t k en
by t he b u re u crc yTh rh et orc c n u re t d v oc t e n d t he r
u d e nc e of t he e g t m c y of bure u c rt c p owe ron y on g t
m n p u b t y c on ce e d
n myv e w t h e rt f c t y of e g rgume nt c n b e re c ogn ze d
o n y th ro ug h re pe t ed e xp o u re T h u n P r t h g t he r
t og et h ert h e e g rgume nt t h t e e k t ore u re u b out b u re u c
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984BUREAUCRACY293
rc y h u e t h c ont rd c t oryb ody of rgume nt t on t ore v e
h ow w ye r e g c ho r n d or g n z t o n t he or t e mp o y t he
u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e d c h ot omyt od e rv e p rt c u rre u t f rom gen
e r d e ort o c re te t h e p re t en e t h t gv e n re u t c n ov e rcome
t he c onf c t n gn t u re of opp o e d d e On ce t h mn pu b t y
b ec ome e vd en t t h e rgume n t w oe t h e b t y t o c on vn ce n d
t o c omf ort t h t t h e yh v e w he n c on d e re d e p rt e y Th eyw t he n
b egn t o pp e r w h t t h ey re rh e torc d e v ce e mpoy e d to u re
u t h t b u re u c rt c orgn zt on c n b e c on t en t w t h h umn f re e
dom
D Th e Ph en ome n of Ab t rc t on n dRe f c t on
T h o b e rv t o n b r ng m e to t he t m o r p ec t of m y cr t q ue
ofbureucrtc theory fthecretonof neffectve ubectve/
ob e ct v e d c h ot omy both t h e b of bure u c rt c e g t m t on n d
f u re h ow h e g rgumen t c on c ern n gbure u c rc yb ee n b e
t o c on vn ce n yon e? Th e n w e r u gge t t h t b u re u c rt c
t h eort h v e re e d on p e cu ryd e c ep t v e k n d of rhe t orc n t h e r
t t emp t t o c ombn e y e t e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t y
Th k n d of rh et orc h t woc ompon en t S ome t me t n vov e
p pe t o b t r c t o n n d u gg e t t h t o ne c n d e du ce f ro m n
b t rc t on p e c f c f ormof bure u c rt c orgn zt on F orexmp e
t h e con ce p t of e x pe rt e c ou db e n v ok e d to u gge t t h e p o b t y
of n orgn zt on t h t c on t r n t h e ex e rc e of u b e c t v e d c re t on
w t h n t h e bound of p rof e on ob e ct v t yTh k n d of re on n g
o c te d p rt cu r y w t h e g f o rm m t he m o t f m r n d
w d e y c rt c ze d of t he t w of ormof rh e torc n d h n ot u b e c t
t t o g en er d c u o n he re S u ff c e t t o y t h t o ne o f th e
t rumph of e g re mw t od emon t rt e th t t h e re n omet h od
t od ed u ce f romn b t rc t on e x pe rt e n yprt c u r f ormof
o c f e 47 n t e d c o nt r d ct or y fo rm o f f e c n b e c on t en t
w th t he m e b t r ct g o A w e h e e th e cr t c m o f th
q u d e du ct v e me th od of e g re on n g on e of th e t p e of t he
crtqueofthe eg theoryofbureucrcy
t t he o t he rc ompone nt of e g rh et orc t h t w n t t on t rod u ce
t t h p o nt T h c om po ne nt t re t b t r c t on u ch u b ec t v
t y n d ob e c t v t y f t h ey t h eme v e w ere ome t h ng c onc ret e
n dp e c f c k e ome t h n g c onc ret e n d p e c f c F ore xmp e
b u re u c rt c t h eort d c u u b e ct v t yn t e rm of p eop e n c en
t v e n te re t o r v u e f t he e w or d r e fe rr ed t o c t u
t h ng t h t c ou dh v e d e te rmn t e c on te n t m ry t h eyd e c rb e
47F ort he c rt q u e of f orm m e e f ore xmp e D e w eyL og c M e th odn dLw o
CORNELLLQ 7 9 2 4Kenned y Leg a Fo rma ty 2J LEGALSTUD 3 5 9 7 3Ung er The
C rt c L e g S t u d e M ov e me nt 96HARV L REv 56 57083 983
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294HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
o b e ct v t y n t er m o f t he n e ed o r g o o f n o r g n z t o n o r
p e k o f wh t o c et y r eq u re f t he e t oo w er e c t u t h ng
t ob e c ru t n zedOn c e t h v o c b u ry d opt ed t h eort mgh t
t he n h o w ho w pe op e n ce nt v e t he o rg n z t o n g o n d
oc e ty n ee d c n b e mu tu y c on t en t S /h e m gh t y f o r
e x mp e t h t b o th p eo p e n ce nt v e n d th e or g n z t o n g o r e
mot v t ed by e rc h f orp rof t n d t h t t h k n d of p rof t e e k ng
me et on e of o c e ty mport n t n ee d
T h w y o f t k n g h t wo c h r c te r t c F r t b y r ed uc n g
b t rc t on t o more c onc ret e f orm t h e p mk e t h emmore un
d ert n db e Th e c onc ret e t erm c qu re t h e p ow e r d o e
me t ph or t h e gr ow th o f r ge b u n e m er e y u rv v o f th e
f tt e t 48 t o c p t ure t he m gn t on o c omp et e y t h t t h ey e e m
t ob ec ome t h e b t r c t on t e f Th gv e t h e rh et orc t p owe rt o
perude Secondbec uetheconcreteterm cnnevercpture
p ec t o f t he b t r c t on t h ey r em n v g ue n d m n p u b e W h t
d o yo u me n b y u r v v ? F t t e t? T h m n p u b t y o w t h em
t o be h p ed n w d e v r e ty o f w y t o m k e b ur e u cr t c o r g n
z t o n p pe r n t ur n d ne ce r y A o ng t he m n p u t on
n ot t o o obv ou t h c h rc t er t c h e p rt h e rt h n h n de rt h e rh et
or c b t y to p er u d e
Th f ormof rh et orc h ow ev e r w y d e ce p t ve Th e re du c t on
of h umn d e t o t he t t u of t h ng n d t he c on e qu e nt m t k e n
t re t me n t of t h e t h ng f t h eyw e re t h e d e t he me v e
p roc e of te n c e d re f c t on f f yh umn e xp ere n ce by e dn g
p e op e t o t h n k t h t f ormof f e t he y re e dn g t he e q u v e n t
o f f e t e f 4 9 P eo p e th n k of t he m e ve e mp o ye e n d c t
c c ordn g t o t he rc on ce pt on of w h t n e mpoye e f orexmp e
omeone oy t o t he orgn zt on g o t he rebyd p t n g t he me v e
toformof experencen tedof recognzngth ttheycn cretefor
t he me v e w h t t he e f orm h ou db e B u t w th out t h e t rck of
re f c t on bu re u c rt c t h eort w ou dn ev e rb e b e t o d d t o
g et he r d f f er en t f c e t o f f e t o d ev e t ru ct ur e t h t t f e
t h e u b ec t ve d e r e n d o b e ct v e n ee d o f th e n d v du
Norc ou d t h e y f n dn e ed of o c e ty t h t d e mn d c e rt n f orm
o f or g n z t o n to t f y t he m L f e wo u d r et n t c om p ex c h r
c te r p ec t o f f e wo u d m u t ne ou y c o nt n p o b t e f or
c h ng e n d f ru t r t o n t h t m p ed e th o e p o b t e H um n r e
tonhp wthnthebureucrcywoud boththretentodomn tethe
n dvdu n dgv e h er/h mf u f me n t b o th re t r n n d e nh n c e
48 R HOFSTADTER, SOCIAL DARWINISM IN AMERICAN THOUGHT 45 rev ed I955 quoting
S u ndy c hoo dd re byJohn D Rock e fe e r
49 The literature on reification is vast See, e g, J GABEL, FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS AN
ESSAY ON REIFICATION (M. Thompson trans. I962); G. LUKACS, Reification and the Conscious-
ness of the Proletariat, in HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS 83-222 (R Livingstone trans
97 Gabe Re fcaton n Lega Reasonng 3 RESEARCH N LAW & SOC 25 980
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984 BUREAUCRACY 295
her/hs sense of freedom f the contrad ctory nature of these rea-
t onshps were fu y recognzed, peope woud treat a bureaucratc
structures as permtt ng and needng revs on Moreover, the obect
of ths transformaton woud not be merey to f nd the rght structure
or to repace one structure wth another but permanenty to ater the
reat on of structure and freedom50 Ony by contnua y overcomng
the structures that fas fy her/hs human potenta coud the nd vdua
engage n the sef-transformng, se f-creatng process of freedom
Thus, the very proect of bureaucratc theorsts - fnd ng a structure
that s necessary to promote and defend human freedom and reyng
on the devce of refcat on to make such a structure nte gb e - s
tse f an mpedment to human beraton By constran ng the pos-
sb tes of fe wthn fase forms, a such structures deny ndv duas
the ab ty to create and re-create ther own form of fe They
dramatze the dangerous fut ty of the quest for a perpetua-moton
machne of soca and po tca fe an attempt to escape the burden
of udgng and revs ng specfc, contestabe forms of soca fe, the
nst tutona arrangements that defne them, and the vs ons of human
e f ho od n d o c t o n t h t th ey e n c t 5 1
E TheChoceBetweenBureucrcy ndDemocrcy
These assertons about ega argumentat on appy to much more
than bureaucratc eg tmat on ndeed, one purpose of ths Artc e s
to present a genera methodoogy for exposng decept ve argumenta-
ton esewhere n the ega system But have not chosen to dscuss
the attempts to ustfy bureaucracy at random Bureaucracy s the
prmary form of organzed power n Amerca today, and t s therefore
a prmary target for those who seek beraton from modern forms of
human domnaton The deo ogy that reassures us that bureaucracy
s eg tmate s demob zng because t conceas the need to reorder
Amercan socety to brng to fe better versons of the dea of human
freedom Crt ca theory seeks to undermne ths deo ogy by exposng
the fase conscousness through whch peope understand the word
S uc h n e x po u r e t e f n c t o f b er t o n 5 2
Of course ths sort of beraton cannot aone ensure human free-
dom New forms of human assocaton des gned to take the pace of
bureaucracy must themseves be subect to the same crt que But
ths crt que has ts mts - there s a stoppng pace Th s woud
be reached when peop e abandoned abstract arguments that seek to
defend some form of fe as a structure that can protect human nd-
vdua ty - when peope o nty recogn ze that no structure can pro-
50U n g er u p rn o t e 47 t 58386660662
5 1 d t 6 o8
52 For a description of critical theory as an attempt to liberate social actors from the false
constrants of ther deoogy see D Kennedy supra note at 35-o2
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296HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
t e ct u f rome c h o t h ergv e n t he v r b e n t eru b e c t v e n t e rd e
p e nd e nt n t u re of h umn re t on h p Th e formof orgn zt on
t h t w ou d t he n b e c re t e dw ou dn o t b e und e rt ood n n w e rt o
thehumnpredcmentTheywoudbetr np rentyopentotrn
f o rm t o n n o f or m of o r g n z t o n n ec e r y n d w y n n ee d
of t rn f ormt on f orm of orgn zt on c re t e f ormof d omn t on
tht needtobecombtted
u e t h e d e of p rt c p t oryd emocrc y t ore pre e n t th d f f ere nt
k n d of o c orgn zt on Of c ou re ome p rop on en t of p rt c
p t oryd emocrc y re d uc e t t o c onc ret e t ru ct ure t h t ov e t h e
p rob e mof o c f e 53The e p rop on en t h ou db e u b e c te d t o t he
me c rt q ue t h t odge h e re g n t t h e p rop one nt of bu re u c rc y
Butother dvocteof renvgortng thenotonofdemocrcy renot
vunerbe tothecrtque dvncedhere54Theyundertndtheterm
democrcy torefertotheproce bywhchpeopecreteforthem
e v e t h e f ormof orgn ze d e x t e nc e w t h n w h ch t h ey v e On y
bycretngthee formtogethercn peopeconfrontthenterubec
t v e n t u re of o c f e M oreov er un e p eop e d oo t he me v e
t h e rt f c t ruc tu re t h rou gh wh c h t he y op ert e w t h re t e n t o
f unc t on b ey ond t h e rc ont ro n t h v e w t h e t e rm prt c p t ory
d e mo cr c y d o e n o t de c r b e f x e d e r e o f m t ed p o b t e o f
h umn orgn zt on bu t t he d e und e rwh c h t h e po b t e of on t
t r n f or m t o n of o c f e r e c o e ct ed T h e y n t te mp te d
contrbutontotheeffortofmny other55 tomkethecret onof
u ch n e w f ormof orgn z t on p o b e 56
ANANALYSS OFADMNSTRATVEANDCORPORATELAW
DOCTRNES
n t h P r t p n t o u t r t e th e r g um en t ou t n ed n P r t
b y d c u n g p e c f c do ct r ne o f c o rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e w
Th e d o ct rn e e e c t byn ome n e xh u t v e y c ove rt he e t w ore
o f w n te nd m p y to u b ec t ex em p r y f c et o f t h e e bo d e o f
w t o m y n y E c h do ct r ne h t he m e ch r c t er t c T he
d o ct rn e p o t u t e n n t u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e t ru c tu re b u t u b
e c t v t y n e ve rth e e dmt te dn t o t he p e ct t h t n e e d t ob e
53 See, e.g., J. COHEN & J. ROGERS, ON DEMOCRACY: TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATION OF
AMERICAN SOCIETY I46-83 (I983); Markovic, New Forms of Democracy in Socialism, i PRAXIS
N T L 2 3 9 8
54 See, e.g., Pitkin & Shumer, On Participation, 2 DEMOCRACY 43 (i982); R. Unger, supra
note i. See generally B. BARBER, STRONG DEMOCRACY: PARTICIPATORY POLITICS FOR THE
NEW AGE (forthcoming I984) (proposing a reinterpretation of democratic theory).
55 See, e.g., Klare, supra note 29; P. Brest, Participation in the Making and Interpretation
of Constitutions (I984) (unpublished manuscript on file in Harvard Law School Library); R.
U n g er u p rn o t e
56 There is, in short, nothing in this essay that smacks of nihilism. But cf. Fiss, Objectivity
and Interpretation, 34 STAN. L. REv. 739 (I982) (criticizing nihilistic tendencies in legal theory).
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984BUREAUCRACY297
ob e ct v e n d ob e c t v t yn t o t he p e ct t h t n e ed t ob e u b e c t ve
conequenty thedoctrne ttempt todrw yetnother nebetween
th e t wore m B ec u e t h e e g d o ct rn e n qu e t on c n n o t drw
t he e n e t n t e d r e e nt e y r e t t e t he p ro b em o f h ow t o
c ombn e y e t e p rt e u b e ct v t y n d ob e ct v t yA re u t t h e
d oc tr n e be co me o m n p u b e t h t t c n v d t e o r n v d t e
n y e xe rc e of b u re uc rt c p ow er u b e ct t o c rut n y e x pe c t th t
o nc e th e re d er e e t h p ro ce p p e d n um be r o f t me / he w
b e b e t o m g n e o r c t u y c r ry o ut t h e m e pr oc e w t h re p ec t
t o o t he rd o ct rn e w t h n t h e e t w ob od e of w
T o m p f y th p re e nt t o n o f co rp or t e n d d m n t r t v e w
doct rn e h v e orgn ze d t he mn t o t he f ourmod e of bu re u c rt c
e g t m t o n k et ch ed e r e r t he f or m t e x pe rt e u d c r ev e w
n dmrke t /pu r t mode 57t myc ont e nt on t h t c orp ort e n d
d m n t r t v e w t ho ug h no rm y t u g ht n d wr t te n b o ut f
t h eyw e re e p rt e b od e of w c n n f c t b e b e tt erun d ert o od
t oge t he rt hrough t he e f ou rg en er w y of e xp n n gn d u t f yn g
b ur e u cr c y n t h P r t d c u e c h mo de n e p r t e Se ct o n
Wt h n e c h S e ct on f rt n trodu c e th e mod e t e f t h en n y ze
p ec f c e g d oc tr n e n d f n y o f fe r g en er o ve rv e w of t he
mode orof t c rt q u e S ome re d e rm y t t h p on t b e t e mp t ed
t ok p t he f orm t n d e xp e rt e mode on t he g roun d t h t n oon e
b e e v e n t h em n ymore t h t w y t h ey c n mov e d re ct y t o t h e
ud c re v ew n dmrk et /pur t mode c u rre nt y f v ore d bydf
f er en t gr ou p o f e g c ho r F ee f r ee f t h t w h t yo u w n t to
d oOn e w ord of c u t on n ord er h owe v er myc rt q ue of t h e
f n t wo m od e b e d on m y cr t q ue o f th e fo rm t n d ex pe rt e
mode On ce y ou und ert n dw hyn e t he rof t ho e mod e c n b e
convncngyouw eewhynoneofthemorerecentttemptto
u t f ybu re u crc y n dn on e of t ho e k e y t of oow t h em c n
beconvncngether
ATh e F orm t M ode
Th e M ode D e c rb ed 58 C p t v t e d by t he ore of n t ru
me nt rt on t yn dn ot on of t e ch n oc rt c e f f c e nc y f orm t
thnkerh ve ttemptedtoundertnd bureucrcyby kenngt to
5 7 S ee u pr p p 2 8 2 8 4
58Th e prn c p w ork on w h ch h v e re e d n c on t ru c t ng t h mode n c u de E FREU ND
supra note 24 J HABERMAS TOWARD A RATONAL SOCETY 50- 22 J Shap ro trans 970
M HORKHEMER, ECL PSE OF REASON 974 G LUKACs, supra note 49 J MARCH & H
S MON ORGANZATONS 9 58 D MCGREGORs up ra no t e 2 5 a t - 4 4 Theo ry X HS MON
ADMNSTRATVEBEHAVOR2d ed 9 5 7 F TAYLOR s upr a no te 2 4 MURBANTHEDE-
OLOGY OFADMNSTRATON5 39 982M WEBER uprn o te E t zon Tw oAppro c he
t o O rga nz a t onaAna y s s ACr tque a nd a Sug g es t o n5 ADSC Q 2 5 7 9 6 0 No ne t The
Legtmaton of Purposve Decs ons 68 CALF L REV 263 280-82 980 the post vst
mo de A s o hep fuwer eJ MASHAWBUREAUCRATCJUSTCE 9 8 3C PERROWs up ra
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298HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
mc h n e 59Th mc h n e m gery e v ok e n umberof d f f ere nt
d e F r t m c h ne m e n e m p oy ed t o c h e ve o th er e nd
Th e e e nd myb e c on trove r b u t th e mc h n e t e f t k e n op rt
n re ovn g t h e c ont rov e ryTh e mc h n e n eu t r d e v ce
v u e u dgme nt t k e p c e out d e of t op ert on Th e mc h n e
t e f d o e n ot e xe rc e d c r e t on n n y e n e T he m c h ne o
h gh y t e ch n c n d c omp e x d ev c e on e t h t w ou db e dmge d
b y m er e y m n t n k er n g t w o r k b ec u e e c h p r t h
pecfedfunctontht propery ntegrtedwth thepecfed func
t on of t h e o th erp rt M c h n e w ork b ec u e t h ey re w e d e
gn e d n te e c t u e f fort c on c ern n g t he mc h n e g o e n t o t
de gn On ce t h e mc h n e f un c t on n gn c cordn ce w t h n d e
u t e b u ep r nt p ro b em r e t n g to t o pe r t o n c n f e y be
e nt ru t ed t o t ec h n c n f t h e mc h n e f t ow ork p rop e ry on e
c t he p e ron w hod e gne d t orn o t h ere x p ert t of x t Th e re
n ore on t o t h n k t h t t h e ope rt on of mc h n e w poe t h re t
t h t h ou db e ch e ck e dby n ou t d e f orce k e u d c re v ew t he
d c p n e of t he m r k et o r d e mo cr t c c o nt ro F n y m c h ne
re o p owe rfu n d e ff c e n t t h t f e w t hou t th em n con ce v b e
On y f oow ou du gg e t t h t re tu rn t oh n dmde p rodu c t w ou d
b e d e r b e ore v e n po b e Th e re medyf or n yprob e mge ne rt e d
bymc h n e t omprov e t he mn ot t ore p c e t he mw t h romn t c
notonof morehumnformofproducton
T he e t hr ee p ec t o f t he m c h n e t n t ru me nt r e t o n h p
t o pr ed et er m ne d en d t t ec hn c d e g n n d t y mb o c o c
t on w t h mod ern e ff c e n cy re t he c e nt r e e men t n t h e f orm t
v o n o f b ur e u cr c y B u re u cr c y w e r e t o d m p y m e n
t o e ff ec t u te t h e e nd of t c on t t ue n t t he c t ze n or h re h ode r
w ho e n te re t t e rv e B u r e uc r t c o rg n z t o n b e d on t he
c t eg or e o f n t r um en t r t o n t y t h r p y d t n g u h e v u e
n d f ct e nd n d me n d e r e n d p er fo rm n ce 6 0 V u e e nd
n dd e re t he u b e ct v e p rt of t h e h umn p e ron t y re t he
ttrbuteoftheconttuentwhocontrothebureucrcyr therthn
of t he b u re u c rc y t e f Th e bu re crc y ob e ct v e t c n n o t
e x erc e t hre t e n ngd c ret on b e c u e t me re y re p on d t o c on t t
e nt c om m nd f t he h r eh o de r y M x m z e p ro f t o r th e
e g t or y E m n t e d ng er ou h e t h h z r d t d oe o
T he e d r e ct o n r e f o rm y r e z b e t he y m pe t h e bu re u
cr t c o f f c t o re p o nd t o m u t tu de o f f c t t u t o n n w y
note i, at 58-89 (aspects of the classical theory ); Stewart, supra note i, at I67I-88 (aspects
of t h e t rd t on mode
59 On the significance of the machine imagery, see A. TRACHTENBERG, supra note ii, at
38-69; Morgan, Paradigms, Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving in Organization Theory, 25 AD.
Sci. Q. 605 (I980). For a more general analysis of the machine image in igth century American
thought, see L MARX, THE MACHINE IN THE GARDEN (I964)
6 0 S ee 2 M W E BE R u pr n ot e t 9 78 8 0
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984BUREAUCRACY299
d e te rmne dby t he d re c t ve t e f 61n e g t h eory t erm t he re
on n gf romt he ru e u ed by t h o e w h ocon tro t h e b u re u c rc y
f orm t c t h e me re n vo c t on of t he ru e t oge t he rw t h t he c on
cu on they mpy determne theoutcomeofny concretebureu
crt c d e c on 62
Th e bu re u crc y b t y t ore p on d c c u rt e y t o c on t t u e nt
c ommn d e n h nc e d by t h e t ec hn c e x pe rt e of t e mpoy e e
e c h of w homoc cu p e t h e d e te rmn t e p e c ze d ro e t h t /h e b e t
p e rformTh e e ro e re orgn zed bymn ge r t h eme v e e x pe rt
n t h e t ec h n c p rob e mof run n n gn orgn z t on A e mpoy e e
h gh n d ow f un ct on t oge t he rn c c ordn c e w t h th e rp e c ze d
n te gr t e d ro e t he r r e t o n h p b e d no t on p er o n f c to r
b u t on t h e mp eron re qu re me nt of t he orgn zt on f ormSu c h
t e ch n c yd c p n ed orgn zt on op ert n gun d erf ormy re
z b e ru e t he v e ry e e n c e of mod ern e ff c e n cyToq u o t e Mx
We be r f mou f ormu t on u c h n orgn zt on
c p b e o f t t n n g t he h g he t d e gr ee o f e ff c e nc y n d n t h e n e
f ormy t he mot r t on k n ow n me n of e x e rc n gu t h ort y ov er
h um n b e ng f o t he n ee d o f m d m n tr t o n m ke t
c omp e t e yn d p e n b e Th e ch o c e on y t h t b e tw ee n bu
r e u cr c y n d d e t t n t m n t h e f e d o f d m n t r t o n 6 3
t m po rt n t to e e ho w th f or m t m g e o f b ur e u cr c y c n
beundertoodtobe con tentwthhumnfreedom Fr tof
pe op e re c e r y f ree t op u ru e t he row n go n f e w he n t he y c t
b u re uc rt c c on t t u en t n t h c p c t y p e op e c h oo e w h t t h ey
w n t bu re u c rc y t od of ort h e mTh e form t mod e t he ref ore
d e gn e d to e n u re t h t t h f ree dom n ot th re t en ed bybu re uc rt c
p ow erOf c ou re c on t t ue nt myd gree mong t h eme v e b out
w h t c t on bu re u c rc yh ou d t k e n d ome c on t t ue nt my
ttempttoue thebureucrcy powertothretenthenteret of
o t he r B u t u c h po t c c onf c t o c c ur on y ou t d e t h e b ure u c
rc y t t k e p c e mon g c t ze n or h re h ode rorb e t we e n th em
n d t he g roup t h e e g t orort h e v ot n g t ru t ee t h t t rn mt
th e rw h e t o t h e b ure u c rc yTh u c omp n t b out b u re u crt c
c t on h ou db e d re ct edn o t t t h e orgn zt on t d o e n o t d e c de
n y t h ng bu t t t h o e w h oe d e c on t h e bu re u crc y mpe me nt
n gF e ow c t ze n orf e ow h re h ode rm yt h re t e n t he n t e re t
of t h e n dvdu bu t th e b ure u c rc y me re y t h e t oo t h t t h eyu e
t od oo On e h ou dbme t h e murd e re r n dn ot h k n f e f ort he
crme /hecommt
E v e n w t h n t he h e rrc h c orgn zt on t e f t h e de mrc t on of
d c r et e or g n z t o n r o e p e rm t n d v du t o r ec on c e o rg n
61S e e Ken ne dy up rn o te t 687
62S e e RU NGERLAWN MODERNSOC ETY 94 976
6 3 M W E BE R u pr n ot e t 2 2 3
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300HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
zt on f e w t h t he d e of h umn f re ed omAf te r t he b u re uc
rc y orgn ze dn c c ordn c e w t h th e mp e ron d emn d of t ec h
n c n ec e t yNo n dvdu w t h n t h e orgn z t on t h re t e n t h e
n te re t of o t h er b e c u e e c h mpyp e rf orm pprop rt e y d e m
te d t k t w ou d b e b z r r e to c cu e m n g e r of d om n t n g
h e m p o ye e t w ou d b e to c cu e c r t ee r ng w he e o f
d omn t n g t t re Th e mn g e r mpy e f fe ct u t e t h e ob e ct v e
n ee d of t h e orgn zt on n yf e rof p e ron d omn t on ort y rn n y
w t h n t h e h e rrc h y t he ref ore u oryB u re u crc y op e rt e n
c c o rdn ce w t h f m rd e f n t on of f re e domt ob e f ree on e mu t
b e n d e pe n de n t of t h e p eron oru b e c t v e w of o th e r n du b
e rv e nt on y t og e ne r mp eron w 64F u rt he rmore b e c u e
t e ch n c c omp e te n ce d e f ne e c h p e ron p o t on w t h n t h e org
n zt on e v ery on e h t he opportun t y tor e t o t h e e v e of h er/h
b t e T he f or m t v o n th u e m bo d e b o th n or m o f eq u
opportun t yn d t h e d emocrt c d e of e mn t n g t h e re evn c e of
o c h e rrc h e n t h e e e c t on of t ho e w h oe x erc e p owe r65
2 F orm m n Admn t rt v e L w Th e Nond e e g t on D oc t rne
Th e do c trn e of dmn t rt v e w t h t b e t re f e ct t he t te mpt
t o e ff ec t u te u b e ct v e c on t t u e nt g o t hrough n ob e ct v e
b u re u c rc y t h e n ond e e g t on d oc t rne 66Th d o ct rn e g round
t he e g t mc y of g ove rnme nt bu re uc rc e on e g t v e u t h orz
ton ndcontro ofther cton Accordngtothedoctrnethe
e g t u re mu t re t n p rmryd e c on mk n gu t h ort y f org ov e rn
64 See I KANT, Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose, in KANTS
POLTC ALWRTNGS45H Re e d 1977
65 See 2 M. WEBER, supra note i, at 983-84.
66 For general discussions of the doctrine, see S BREYER & R STEWART, ADMINISTRATIVE
LAW AND REGULATORY POLICY 59-85 I979 W GELLHORN, C BYSE & P STRAUSS, ADMIN-
ISTRATIVE LAW CASES AND MATERIALS 52-80 7th ed I979 Although the doctrine has long
been considered largely defunct, it has recently been subject to something of a revival, both by
commentators, see, eg , J ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST I3I-34 (I980) T LowI, THE
END OF LIBERALISM 297-99 (I969) Wright, Beyond Discretionary Justice, 8i YALE LJ 575,
582-86 (I972), and, at least rhetorically, by the courts, see, e.g., Industrial Union v. American
Petroleum Inst, 448 US 607, 67I (ig80) (Rehnquist, J, concurring in the udgment) National
Cable Television Ass n v. United States, 4I5 U.S. 336 (I975). For a critique of this revival, see
S te w r t u p r n o te t 6 9 3 9 7
Because the nondelegation doctrine, like the other doctrines discussed in the context of the
formalist and expertise models, is a judicial invention, one can also understand it in terms of
the judicial review model. Later in the Article, I discuss the doctrines explored in the formalist
and expertise models from the perspective of the judicial review model. See infra pp. I334-
1355. My discussion of the nondelegation doctrine at this point is designed to emphasize the
way the doctrine portrays the bureaucracy/constituent relationship itself. The doctrines attempt
to ground bureaucratic legitimacy on constituents' control can readily stand alone, independent
of any attempt to ensure constituents ability to control the bureaucracy through judical inter-
vention. Compare, e.g., J. MASHAW, supra note 58, at I-4, I87-90 (criticizing the effectiveness
of judicial review and advocating instead the formalist model), with, e.g., Liebman & Stewart,
Bureaucratic Vision, 96 HARV. L. REV. I953 (I983) (reviewing J. MASHAW, supra note 58)
d e fe ndn g t h e u d c ro e
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984BUREAUCRACY30
men t c t v t yb ec u e t re p re e n t t h e u b e c t v e de re of t h e
d e moc rt c e e c to rt e B u re u crt mu t c rry ou t t he w h e of t h e
p e op e e xp re e d by t h e rc ho e n re pre e nt t v e n o t th e row n
p e ron c on c ep t on of t h e g ood S u b e ct v t y or t e t t h e
mport n t p e ct of u b e c t v t y t h u o c t e d ou t d e t h e b u
reucrcy Thenondeegt ondoctrneeek toenforcebureucrtc
ob e ct v t ybyprev e nt n g t h e e g t u re f romh f t n gn y c rt c
p e ct of u b e c t v e de c on mk n g t o t he b u re u c rt c g e nc y f
u ch d e e g t on of p ow e r t te mpt ed t w b e d ec re d unc on t
tuton
Th e n on d e eg t on d o c trn e h ow ev er h n ev e r e rte d mp e
n d rgdd e mrc t on b e tw ee n u b e c t v e e g t v e d e c on mk n g
n d ob e ct v e b u re u c rt c mp e me nt t on Th e do c trn e o n e rt
u b e ct v t yn t o t h e b ure u c rt c ro e n d ob e ct v t yn t o t h e e g
t v e on e Admn t rt v e g e nc e h v e n e ve rb ee n re t rc te d t o
p u re y ob e c t v e fun ct on ome roomf ord c re t on ry c t v t yw t h n
t he c ommn dmpe men t n gbure u c rc yh w y e eme dn d
p e n b e 67Th e t k of t h e non de e g t on d o ct rn e h b e en t od
t n guh t h e k n d of d c re t on g e n c e c n e x erc e f romt h e k nd
t h t mu t b e e xe rc e d on yby t h e e g t u re Th e d t n c t on drw n
by t h e d o ct rn e t h t t h e e g t ure mu t mk e t he f undme nt
p o c yd e c on n ou ro c e t y 68w h e t h e b ure u c rc y p e rmt t ed
t he e e w y n ec e r y to m p e me nt t ho e d e c o n f C on gr e h
y d ow n by e g t v e c t n n te g b e p r n c p e to w h ch t he p er o n
orb ody u t horze d to c t d re ct ed t o c onf orm 69t h e pe ron
t o wh om u th or t y d e eg t ed c n t h en f u p th e de t 7 0 n
o t h erw ord t h e e g t u re mu t b e t h e p rn c p n d t he b u re uc rc y
t h e g e nt n t h e formu t on of g ove rnme nt p o c yTh g e nc y
frmeworknotony enure bureucrtcob ectvtybyforcng d
m n t r t v e g en c e t o t y w t h n th e bo un d e t by t he e g t ur e
b u t o f ford t h e g e n c e t h e mount of d c ret on n d p e n b e
tother effectveoperton
n d d t on t o d m t t ng d n ge ro u u pp e me nt o me u b
ectvty ntobureucrtcobectv tythenondeegtondoctrneem
b od e n ob e c t ve re t r n t on e g t v e u b e c t v t yTh e n on d e
67 Eary statements of the nondeegat on doctrne mted agency dscreton to factf ndng
the eg sature was responsbe for the task of determn ng the expedency or ust operaton of
governmental policy, whereas the bureaucracys role was simply ascertaining [the] fact[s]
in obedience to the legislative will Field v Clark, I43 US 649, 693 I892 But this definition
of the bureaucracys dscreton, proved demonstraby too narrow to descrbe egs atve phe-
nomena or to fulfill political needs L JAFFE, supra note i, at 34 As a result, the history of
the doctrine is characterized by increasingly expansive statements of the amount of bureaucratic
d c ret on t h e do c trn e p e rmt S e e n f rn o te 6870
68 Arizona v California, 373 US 546, 626 I963 For a defense of this statement of the
d oc t rne e e JFRE EDMAN uprn o t e 35 t 7894
69Hmpt on v U n t ed S t t e 276U S 394409 928
7 0 U n te d St t e v G r m u d 2 20 U S 5 o 6 5 7 9
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302 HARVARD LAW REVEW Vo 97 276
e g t on d o ct rn e d e gn e d t opu t ome ob e ct v e mt on t he
egsaturesdesre toavoddec sonmakngbypassngthe bucktothe
bureaucracy Ths ob ectve restrant on the eg satures power to
deegateauthortysuppementsthedoctrnesgenera effortto ocate
pocymakngauthortyn thehandsoftheegs ature71Yetcourts
thathaventerpretedthenondeegatondoctrnehaverecognzedthat
o neo fthe cr t c a ng red ents o fp o cy makng a utho r ty s the a b ty
todecdehow muchtodecdeonesef andhowmuchto etothers
decdeasprobemsdeveop Toorgorousarestrctonon deegaton
woud r ender t mpo s s b e t o exer c s e p ower a t a 7 2 The
e g s a tu re m u st b e f re e t o c ho os e t he f e x b t y at ta n a b e
by the use of ess restrct ve standards 73 Accordngy, the nondee-
gatondoctrnemustspecfywhenthe egsaturecanrefusetodecde
p ub cp o cy s s ue s no rd er t o pr e se r vefexb ty a nd whent ne ed s
todecdethemnordertocontroexce vebureucrtc d creton
We now have the conf ctng structure of the nondeegaton doc-
trne before us Wth respect to the reatonshp between the eg sa-
ture and the bureaucracy the crt ca task of the doctrne s to confne
the bureaucracy wth n the obect ve mts charted by the egs atures
subectve po cy udgments Vewed from the standpont of the eg-
sature aone the doctrne seeks to mpose obectve constrants on
the egsatures subectve desre to shrk ts responsb tes From
the pont of vew of the bureaucracy aone, the doctr ne must permt
agences adequate subect ve dscret on they must have enough room
to maneuver or the whees of government w stop 74 The non-
deegaton doctrne s thus cruca y dependent on the nes t seeks to
draw between the approprate funct ons of the egs ature and those
of the bureaucracy between egt mate and egt mate egs atve de-
cs ons to deegate power and between the proper knd of bureaucratc
u b e ct v t y n d t n ee d ed ob e c t v t y
nan attempttodrawthese nes thecourtshaveartcuateda
seres of te sts that a deegat on of power must meet n order to be
co nst tut o na the eg s a tur emus t a y d owna n nt e g b e p rncp e
71 See Wright, supra note 66, at 583 ( At its core, the [nondelegation] doctrine is based on
the notion that agency action must occur within the context of a rule of law previously formulated
b y e g t v eb od y
72 Hampton v Un ted States, 276 US 394, 407 928
73 Yakus v. United States, 32I U.S. 4I4, 426 (I944); see I K. DAVIS, supra note 26, ?? 3.I,
3.2, 3.5; Stewart, supra note i, at I695. The Court expressed a similar view in Buttfield v.
St r n h n 9 2 U S 4 7 0 9 6 4
Congress legislated on the subject as far as was reasonably practicable, and from the
necessities of the case was compelled to leave to executive officials the duty of bringing
about the result pointed out by the statute. . .. To deny the power of Congress to
delegate such a duty would, in effect, amount but to declaring that the plenary power
vested in Congress to regulate foreign commerce could not be efficaciously exerted.
d t 4 96
7 4 F e d v C a r k 4 3 U S 6 49 6 94 8 92
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984BUREAUCRACY303
d ec d e th e f un d m en t p o c y qu e t on e xe rc e t h e e e nt o f
t h e e g t v e f unc t on 75Th e e t e t p p e rh rmon ou y t o c ombn e
u b e c t v t yn d ob e ct v t y t he y c omf ort u byugg e t n g t h t f
t h ey re met t he re w b e d e q u t e e g t v e d e c on mk n g t o
e n u re me n n gfu bu re u c rt c ob e ct v t yy e t n o t omu c h e g t v e
d e c on mk n g t op rev en t n ee d ed bu re uc rt c d c ret on A w e
h e e t h e t e t c n u gge t t h e p rop e rf u on of u b e c t v t yn d
ob e ct v t y on ybyre t t n g t h e u e t ob e d ec d e dTh e on y c on t en t
t h t wo rd k e n te g b e f un d me nt n d e e n t h v e
t he rc p c t y t oun t e b o th t h e u b e c t ve n d ob e ct v e e e men t of
t he n ond e e g t on u e B u t w h e t h e rt re ng t h e n t h e rb t y
t ou gg e t t h t f t h ey re p rop e rypp e d e v e ry t h ngw b e
r g ht t h e r we k ne e n t he r n b t y to g en er t e n y c on t en t
p p c t on L e g rgume nt b out n ond e e g t on c on t of ppyn g
t he e t e t t op e c f c d e e g t on of p ow e r pp c t on t h t g e n ert e
c on t rd c tory c on c u on n yd e e g t on b ot h d oe n dd o e n o t t
fythereevnt tet
On e formt h e g rgume nt t k e t o t re t t he k e yw ord of
t he e t e t b t rc t on bu t on e c n d e d uc e f romt he e b t rc t on
o pp o t e r e u t 7 6 C o n d er f o r e x mp e p ec f c d e eg t o n o f
u t hort y t h e F ed e r P rc e Admn t rt orp ow e rt of x p rc e of
c o mm od t e f t he p r ce n h u dg me nt w b e f r n d eq u t b e
n dw e ff ec t u t e th e p urp o e of t h e A c t 77L e g rgume nt b out
whetherth deegton meetthetetof thenondeegt ondoctrne
t he g o o f y ng d ow n n n te g b e pr n cp e c on t n
t re t n g ome p e ct of t h e u b e c t ve ob e c t ve c ombn t on t h t t he
t e t u n te f t w e re t he t e t o n y me n n g t m g ht b e r g ue d
f orexmp e t h t t h e d e eg t on me e t t h e t e t b ec u e t h e te t re q u re
o n y m t ed d et T he e g t ur e ne ed t o p r ov d e on y n n t e
g b e p r n c p e n ot b u ep r nt T h r gu me nt e mp h z e t h e
n ee d f or u b e ct v t y on b o th d e of t h e e g t ure /bu re u c rc y
b oun d ry t he mport n ce of e g t v e f e x b t yn d t h e n ec e t y
of bu re u c rt c d c ret on A t e rn t v e y t mgh t b e rgu ed t h t t h e
de e g t on f t he t e t b e c u e t h e t e t re qu re d e qu t e d e t
Th e e g t u re mu t p rovd e n n te gb e p rn c p e n o t emp ty
w ord Th rgume nt e mph ze t h e n e ed f orob e ct v t y on b o th
d e of t h e b oun d ry t he mport n ce of re t rn n g e g t v e
b d c t on of re p on b t yn d of c u rbngun con tro e d bu re u crt c
75 See Arzona v Ca forna, 373 US 546, 626 963 Hampton v Unted States, 276 US
394, 409 I928 Amalgamated Meat Cutters v Connally, 337 F Supp 737, 746 D DC I97I
76 See Cohen Transcendenta Nonsense and the Functona Approach 35 COLUM L REv
809 935 Dewey, supra note 47 See genera y Snger, The Lega Rghts Debate n Anayt ca
Jursprudence from Bentham to Hohfed, 982 Ws L REV 975 d scussng the rea st proect
t ffectedgthcentury n ytc ur prudence
77 See Yakus v Unted States, 32 US 44 944 consderng ths anguage under the
nondeegtondoctrne
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304HARVARDLAWREVEWVo 97276
d c ret on B e c u e t h e w ord n te gb e d e gn e d t o combne t w o
c ont rd c t oryn o t on on e en b n g t he e g t u re t od e e g t e n d
n e re t r n n g t b o th rgume nt c orre ct y ppy t h e te t Th e
d u n t u re of t h e g o g e ne rt e t h e t wo d ed c h rc t e rof e g
r gu me nt w e t u t m t e n de te rm n c y T h e te t m er e y
re t t e t h e qu e t on of t he pp rop rt e e x te nt of d e e g t on t c n n o t
n f orm d e c on t h t re q u re re ou t on of t h e d e eg t on u e
An terntvemethodof eg rgumentre e onthephenomenon
of re f c t on d e c rb e dn P rt J78Th mode of rgume nt t re t
n te g b t y n ot g o t o b e c h ev ed b ut o me th ng o me
t h n g t h t e t h erd o e ord o e n o t ex t t h e f o cu n o t on t h e
me n n gof t e t b u t on th e f c t of t he d e e g t on t e f B u t
b e c u e t h ere h n ev e rb ee n t t u te t h t gv e t h e bu re u crc yn o
n t ru ct on w h t o e ve rn d t h e re h n ev e rb ee n one t h t gv e t
c omp e t e yd et e dn t ru c t on e v ery t t u te d e e g t n gp owe rt o t he
b u re u c rc y n f c t c ombn e ome prn c p e t ob e f oow edw t h
n d ec on b ou t o th e r p e ct of t he p rob em ddre e dC ont rd c
t ory e g rgume nt c n t h u b e g e n ert e d by e mph zn g on e f c et
o f th e g t v e c t o n t t he e xp en e o f t he o th er C o n d e r g n
thedeegtonof prcecontro uthorty Tofndthedeeg ton
p rop er on e wou d e mph ze w h t t h e e g t ure d dd e c d e n d t h e
c on t r n t t h t t he e d e c on mpoe on t he b u re u c rc y t h e mge
ofobectvty togetherwththednger nherentboth nexce ve
nt e rf ere nc e w t h e g t v e d e e g t on d ec on n dn e x c e v e c on
tr n t on bu re u crt c f e x b t y t h e n ee d ed u b e ct v t y 79To r
gu e th t t h e d e e g t on mprop er on t he o t he rh n d on e w ou d
e mph ze w h t t he e g t u re f e d t od ec d e n d t h e un ch rt e re d
b ur e u cr t c f e x b t y th t t h f u re c re t e t he m g e of u b e c
v t y t og et he rw t h t he n e ed t o c on t rn b o t h e g t v e b d c t on
of d ec on mk n gre p on b t yn dbu re u crt c d c ret on t h e
neededobectvty80 Becue every ttutecombnethe ngredent
forbothrgument theybothcorrecty ppythe tet ofnondee
g t o n t o th e f ct e ve n u m ng t h t t he t e t h d u n t r y me n n g
w h c h t d o e n o t
Thebfurctednturebothofthetet ndofthe ttutory nguge
t o wh c h th e te t p p e d h p e e g r gu me nt n e v er y de e g t o n
c e E v e ry t t u te c n b e t t c k e dn dd e fe n de dw t h t he me
rgume nt B e c u e t h e non de e g t on d o ct rn e t e t re y on w ord
t h t c ombn e b o th d e of t h e u e t h e yprovd e nogu dn c e w h t
o e ve rb ou t w h e re t od rw t h e n e mongd e e g t on On ce t h
p o nt r ec og n ze d m n y e g c ho r r et re t t o t he f c t T he
u e c n n ot b e d e c de dn t h e b t rc t t he y y b ec u e e ve ry c e
7 8 S ee u pr p p 2 9 3 9 5
7 9 S ee e g Y k u 3 2 U S t 4 26
8 0 Se e e g d t 4 5 R ob er t J d e nt ng
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984BUREAUCRACY305
t u rn on t ow n f c t 81B u t th e f c t t h e me v e on y re t t e t he
prob e mTh e e g t u re d e c d ed ome th n g n df e d t od ec d e
o t he r n o th n gn t h e f c t d e nt f e w h c h p e ct t ob e t re t e d
t h e more mport n t B o th t h e g o n d t he f c t re t t e t h e u e t o
b e d ec d e d b ec u e t he n e ce ry n e b e t we e n u b e ct v t y n d ob
ectvtycnnotbedr wnThedemndfor bureucrtcobectv ty
c n n ot b e o t e d fromt he d e mn df orbu re u crt c u b e ct v t yn or
c n t h e d e re f ore g t v e u b e c t v t yb e o t ed f romt he d e re
to re t r n t h t u b e ct v t y
3F orm m n C orport e Lw Agen c yTh e oryn dTru t e e The
o ry A e mb od e d n c o rp or t e w t h e fo rm t v o n fr m e
c orp ort e e g t mc y n t e rm of t he h re hod e rmn g e men t re t on
h p r e t o n h p n o g o u t o th e e g t ur e g e nc y re t o n h p n
d m n t r t v e w C or po r t e th eo r t t r t w t h th e u mp t on t h t
ubectved cretonconcernngcorporte ctvty houdbe odged
n t h e h re h od er n d t he y e e k t o c on t n t h e c orp ort e b ure u c
rc yw t h n t h e mt e t by t he e g t mt e e x erc e of h re h ode r
w Th f orm t t ruc t ure f ort he h re h ode rmn g e me nt re
t on h ph b e en e b ort ed n t w ov erydf f ere nt w y Th e f rt
v er on p ort ry t he re t on h p on e of prn c p n dg e n t U n de r
t h v e w e v e ry c orport e c t on un de rt o od e t h er n e x p c t
d e c o n of t he h r eh o de r p r nc p o r t he d ec o n of t he r
g e nt t ow homt he yh v e d e e g t ed u t hort yAn t e rn t v e v e ron
of t he f or m t m od e r e ec t t h p r nc p g en t n o gy n t e d t
dhe ren t p ortrym n ge me n t t ru t ee f ort he h re h ode r
f d uc r e w ho e rv e th e h r e ho d er n te re t n t h e b o r t o n
of t he f orm t mode mn g e me nt d c ret on mt e dn ot b e c u e
h re hod e rc n d re c t mn g e me n t c t on but b e c u e mn g eme nt
u n de r e g du ty t omp e me nt t h e h re h od er w h e n dn ot
t o wn
AgencyTheory Agencytheor t pctureoftheh rehoder
mn g e men t re t on h p h t h e me g en e r u b e ct v e /ob e ct v e
t ruc t ure t h e form t t h eort d e c rp t on of th e e g t u re g e nc y
re t on h p n dmn t rt v e w B ot h t t rb ut e t he u t hort y of t he
gentthebureucrcyto thedeegtonof powerfromtheprncp
t h e h r e ho d er o r e g t ur e d e eg t o n t he p r nc p u b ec
t v e yd e re B o th p ortry t h e b u re u c rt c g e nt un de rt he c on
t ro o f t p r nc p T he e m g e o f t he p r nc p v o un t ry t r n f er
of u t h ort y n d of t b t y t ow e du t m t e c on t roov e rt h e
e x erc e of t h t u t h ortygroun dbure u c rt c e g t m c y on t he u b
ec t v e d e re of t h e h re hod e ror e g t ure n o t t h o e of t he
bureucrcy 82
81 Overwhelming is the conviction that broad forms of words are chaos, that only in
close study of the facts salvation lies Llewellyn, What Price Contract? - An Essay in
Pe rp e ct v e 40Y ALE LJ70475 93
82 For a classic formulation of agency theory, see V MORAWETZ, TREATISE ON THE LAW