Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics

Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics

Lecturer at Department of English Language & Literature University of the Punjab , Lahore Pakistan

1

Aspects of Language

Language

LangueParole

LanguageLanguage Performance

3

Langue

The following rules & conventions constitute langue:

The combination of Sounds & Pronunciation (Phonetic, Phonology)

Formation of Words (Morphology)

Construction of Sentences (Syntax)

Contextual Meanings (Pragmatics)

Words Relationship(Semantics)

Grammatical System

To Saussure:

Language is a grammatical system

That exists in the brains of a group of individuals

In the form of word-image & knowledge of conventions

Language exists perfectly

within a society/ collectivity

Not in any individual speaker

Product of Social Agreement

There is a similarity of:

Sounds

Words

Meaning

among the native speakers of a language

They have the same images and signs in their minds

The social bond constitutes language

Parole

Parole belongs to the individual

It is the concrete physical manifestation

of the abstract langue

That exist in mind

An individual makes use of this knowledge

To produce actual sentence i.e. parole

LANGUE

VS.

PAROLE

Langue vs. Parole

Langue is Social

A set of conventions & rules

Shared by all the speakers of a language

Parole is Individual

Individual performance of language

In speech or writing

Langue vs. Parole

Langue is Abstract

These conventions exist in the minds of the speakers

Who belong to that society

That has created the language

Parole is Concrete

It is physical, makes use of the physiological mechanism:

Speech organs

In uttering words and sentences

Langue vs. Parole

Underlying system

Which makes the individual

performance (parole)

meaningful

If we hear unknown language

We cant understand

As we do not share the langue

Performance

Sound and sentence

Parole cant be a mean of

communication &

understood without langue

Langue vs. Parole

Language System

Consist of stable:

Conventions

Rules

Codes

Language Behaviour

Production of sentences :

Unpredictable

Heterogeneous

Whimsical (capricious)

Variable

Langue vs. Parole

Legislative side of Language

Like law langue is relatively fixed

It does not change with each individual

Langue maintains:

The social order

Homogeneity of the language

Executive side of Language

It uses the law or code the language

It executes langue through Individual acts of speaking and writing

Langue vs. Parole

Language can be studied

It is well defined

Homogenous object

It is in form of written symbols

So, it can be studied

Parole can not be studied

Unpredictable mass of speech act

It cannot be accurately represented

It is heterogeneous

So variable that cannot be studied

Analogy of a Game of Chess

Rules are determined

Understood by all the players

But each game is different

Depends on the individual performance

Which differ from player to player

ARGUMENTS ABOUT

DICHOTOMIES

BY

SOCIOLINGUISTS

Unreal Dichotomies

Langue and Parole are interrelated not separate

Speech has both an individual & social side

We cannot conceive of one without the other

Parole is not possible or effective without Langue

Langue also changes gradually under the effect of parole

Parole has Social Aspect

It is concerned with the language use in social situation

Has some systematic & predictable features in social situations

It has effect on langue

Gives a useful insight into language process

Can obtain the data ,gives better understanding of langue

It is now easy to study through recording

Audio, video devices

COMPETENCE

VS.

PERFORMANCE

By

Noam Chomsky

Competence vs. Performance

Speakers Knowledge

Native language (structure)

Mastery of the system of rules

Is speakers linguistic competence

Speakers Production

Production of actual sentences use in real-life situation

The way of using linguistic competence is linguistic performance

Competence vs. Performance

Set of Code

Competence is set of principals/code which a speaker masters

The abstract/internal grammar which enables a speaker to utter & understand infinite number of utterances

Encoding/Decoding

Performance is what a speaker does

It is the act of encoding or decoding

Competence vs. Performance

Free from Interference

Due to slips of memory

Lapses of attention

Easy to study

It is ideal thus gives coherent picture of the language

Can be studied easily

Prone to Interference

It reflects many such lapses

Difficult to study

It is difficult to get a direct coherent record of performance

Difficult to study

LANGUE

VS.

Competence

Langue vs. Competence

Same & Social

It is same with every language user

It has social aspect/agreement/bond

Different & Individual

Based on inbuilt LAD enables a person:

To acquire competence

To internalize the rules of the language

To generate an infinite number of sentences

Speaker A may be more competent than B

Though share the same conventions of language

LINGUSTIC SIGN

VS.

SYMBOL

Linguistic Sign

It is a physical marker carries some information

Direct

Brief

Precise (only this not other)

Parts of Sign

The linguistic sign is consist of two parts:

Sign

The signifier The signified

The word The concept

which signifies The object

Word Represents Concept

Word does not represents the actual object in real life

But the concept/image of the object we have in our minds

If the word tree represents the real object (tree)

The word for this object in all languages would have been the same

We see an object and form a concept of it in our minds

Word/Concept Relationship

We invent a word consisting of some sound-images

That represents the concept exists in mind

The relationship between the sounds/words and the concept they signify

An arbitrary

No logical reason why we choose a certain word

To represent the concept

Since signs are arbitrary

They differ from language to language

Every society constructs its own concepts of the real world

Links these concepts to certain signifiers & signified (chosen arbitrarily)

Validity of Sign

This relationship once establish as social fact

Continues over a long period of time

Social agreement gives it validity

Relational Entity

Signs are the relational entities

Exist in terms of complex relationships to each other

Signs make up the whole system of a language

Symbol

A kind of sign that signifies several concepts

on the basis of the primary relationship of signifier/signified

Thus the word tree signifies concept of tree (primary relationship) may also signify:

Life, growth etc becomes not only sign but also symbol

Symbol means more information e.g. waving ones hand

Symbolic of farewell

Dismissal etc.

SUBSTANCE

&

FORM

Language Quality

Language Quality

Substance Form

Raw MaterialParticular Order

Meaningless Meaningful

Substance

Phonic Graphic

PhonemesMorphemesGraphemes

soundslettersalphabets

/k/ /b/ /t/ -tion, -able, -co. A, d, c, h

Form

All distinct sounds &written scripts are the substance of a language

It is meaningless (only noisy)

Required some form to become meaningful

When sounds, letters, words are arranged in a certain way i.e.

We can see some meaning in them

It becomes form of a language

It is just like a shapeless log of wood

The carpenter makes a chair / table out of it

He changes substance into form

Saussures Term

Language Quality

Substance Form

SignifierSignified

Mere sound/words Meaningful/ Concept

Specific Arrangement makes Form

Sounds when arranged in particular order

Signify something meaningful

Words when arranged in a particular order

Express some meaningful idea/action

The arrangement itself gives form to the substance of the language

Levels of Form

Form

Expression Content

Shape/form of ElementsLevel of Meanings

Regardless of Meanings Grammar & Semantics

The bachelor gave birth to a baby

Linguistic Study

To sum up we say:

Substance is element/ raw material of language

Form is the associative order

In which elements are brought together in a meaningful way

So, form is the concern of linguistic study, not substance

Form makes it study substance

Structure/system

&

Syntagmatic/paradigmatic

relationships

Language

Structured System of Systems

Elements are inter-related A System

(At each level of its structure)

Phonological MorphologicalSyntactic

Soundswordsword-classes

Elements of sounds/words/class are inter-related

Structure

An ordered composition of many elements/parts

Each part being related to the whole

Also related to other elements within it

Inter-relationship of elements constitute SYSTEM

Within each system, elements are selected & combined to build up structure

The Phonological System: Word Structure

To build up a word such as TAKE

We will select some sounds

Out of several possible sounds

We combine them in a particular order

decide which one is to occur 1st, which later

Structure: Process of Selection

Certain rules operate:

We can select only one element from a class of similar elements

A particular consonant from same class

A noun from a class of nouns

/k/ /b/ /t/ all are consonants

Structure: Process of Combination

Certain rules operate:

We combine the chosen elements in a particular order

We can combine:

/t/ + /eI/ + /k/ but not /eI/ + /t/

These elements are combined in a particular sequence

Language Structure : Orchestra

The member of an orchestra are all related to each other as a whole

By their specific roles

Smaller groups (violinists, bass player) perform their function in relation to other

Players cannot be added or taken away without changing its quality

Structure Constitute System

Structure: an order composition of many parts

Order Composition of many parts

Brass

Woodwinds

Violin

Harp

Springs

Cello

Piano

Drum

Flute

Elements Relationships

Relationship

Paradigmatic Syntagmatic

Paradigmatic Relationship

The relationship between those elements which are similar as belong to same class/category is PR

Which holds between several elements of same class within a system

Elements can be replaced by another elements within the same system and class

The phonological systemThe syntactic system

The relationship between The relationship

Plosive Consonants between nouns

Syntagmatic Relationship

The particular sequence between elements is syntagmatic relationship

In syntagmatic relationship, the elements have to be combined in the proper sequence

We cannot violate the sequential order

Significance of these Relationships

These relationships are like two intersecting threads

That build up the fabric of language

On the basis of these relationships, the rules of selection & combination operate and constitutes the structure of a language

Language has duality of structure

Selection of elements at one level

Combination of these elements at another level

To form a structure unit

Limited number of elements can construct large number of combinations

Variation & Flexibility

Both selection (paradigmatic) & combination (syntagmatic) processes unable us to construct different sentences

To Sum up

System Set of Paradigmatic R (in elements)

Structure set of Syntagmatic R (each level)

Phonological System Phonological Structure

Vowels/ ConsonantsCombination of it

Syntactic System Syntactic Structure

Word-classesCombination of it

Sound Level

Sentence Formation

Diachronic

&

Synchronic

approaches

Language Study

Synchronic Diachronic (traces)

Chronos Historical development Records

Time Language Changes

Language at particular time in between successive point in time

(as a living whole/ state)

Synchronic Approach

This state of language is:

Accumulation of all the linguistic activities of language community

Irrelevant time Factor

To study language linguists:

Collect samples of language as it exists

Describe it regardless of any historical considerations

Which may have influenced the language at any previous time

Once linguists have isolated a focal point for synchronic description

The time factor becomes irrelevant

Main Focus of Study

The system of language

as it exists i.e.:

The system of inter-relationships

that bind together co-existing items

in the collective mind of the community

Diachronic Approach

Equivalent to historical:

It investigates language changes

as they have occurred from time to time

The evolution of languages

Inter-relationship of Synchronic & Diachronic

CD is synchronic axis (static)

All the facts of language co-exist at a particular time

AB is diachronic axis of successions

AB is an imaginary line moving through time

The historical path through which language has travelled & will continue travelling

CD can intersect AB at any point

because at any given time there will be a number of facts about language co-existing

X is the point on AB

where the particular point in time can be isolated

and the language can be described at that point as it exists

Synchronic Approach is Prior

Saussure make this distinction

Gives priority in linguistics to the synchronic approach

He explained this priority by analogy with the game of chess

Analogy of the Game of Chess

Chessboard constantly changes with each move

During the game at any moment a 3rd person can understand the state of game by looking at the position of pieces

Regardless what kind of moves & how many moves have been made before arriving at this stage

The game can be described without reference to the earlier moves

Analogy of the Game of Chess

Game Rules

Which are determined before the game

Continue to operate with each move

Language Rules

Similarly rules exist in language too

Analogy of the Game of Chess

Value of Pieces

Depends on their position on the chess board

Value of Linguistic Term

Derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms

Analogy of the Game of Chess

Changes in Game

To pass from one stage to the next

Only one piece needs to be moved at a time

Succession of moves can change the outcome of the game

Changes in Language

In language change effects only isolated elements

Not the whole language

These changes ultimately do result in changing the language

Conclusion

Language can & should be described synchronically

On its own terms without reference to what it has developed from or what it is likely to develop into

However, this does not mean that diachronic/historical study cannot be done

To Saussure ,though the diachronic perspective is not related to the language system

It does affect/condition the system