GEOGRAPHERS are interestedin the differences in levels of

development between placesaround the world. However, it isvery difficult to find acceptableand accurate methods ofmeasuring development. This unitlooks at how Peru’s level ofdevelopment can be measured; thechallenges facing communitiesliving in an isolated rural area ofsouthern Peru; and howsustainable development projectsare helping local people respondto these challenges.

What is Peru like?Peru is a country in SouthAmerica. It was the homeland ofthe Incas, who ruled over themountains and fertile valleys of the

Andes (Figure 1). The Incacivilisation was destroyed bySpanish conquerors in the 1520s,who then colonised Peru for morethan 300 years.

Peru is the third largest country inSouth America, after Brazil andArgentina. It has an area of1,280,000 km2 (by comparison, thearea of the UK is 245,000 km2).The landscape is divided into threeareas: the Costa, the Sierra (Figure2), and the Montaña. The Costa isa coastal desert where it rarelyrains. Peru’s main cities are locatedhere. The Sierra is a mountainousarea dominated by the Andesmountain range. The highestmountain is Mount Huascaran,which is 6,768 m above sea level.

To the east a vast, remote region oftropical rainforest called theMontaña stretches towards theAmazon Basin.

How do you measuredevelopment?Development indicators give animpression of what it is like to livein a country. Some indicators areeconomic and some are social.Gross National Product (GNP), orthe average income per person,and the number of televisions perperson, are two indicators ofeconomic development. Socialindicators include life expectancyand the number of people perdoctor. Figure 3 comparesdevelopment in Peru and the UK.

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237

by Joanne PriceCREDIT TO THE POOR:DEVELOPMENT IN PERU

GeoActiveOnline

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Figure 2: The landscape of TarataSource: ActionAid

Figure 1: Mapping Peru

ECUADOR

COLOMBIA

Equator

BRAZIL

BOLIVIA

CostaRegion

Pacific Ocean

LakeTiticaca

CuzcoSierraRegion

Lima

Iquitos

Cerro dePasco

3000 kmTarataProvince

N

SechuraDesert

Amazon River

Arequipa

CHILE

MontanaRegion

~

What do these figures reallymean?Measuring development isdifficult. In order to comparecountries, money has to beconverted into a commoncurrency, usually US dollars. WhileGNP is useful, it does not say howmuch a currency can buy in itsown country. Purchasing PowerParity (PPP$) takes into accounthow valuable a currency is in itsown country. For example, themost recent figures show that Peruhad a GNP of US$ 2,610 in 1997,but based on PPP$ had a real GNPof US$ 4,680, which is 1.8 timesgreater. This means that US$1 buys1.8 times more in Peru than in theUSA. However, even US$ 4,680 isnowhere near enough to ensure agood standard of living for mostpeople.

What do the figures hide?Most figures are average and hidethe pattern of wealth distributionamong people or between regions.In Peru there are vast differencesbetween rural and urban areas. Forexample, of the 67% of thepopulation with access to safewater, only 33% of the ruralpopulation have access, while inurban areas the figure is 84%.Similarly, average life expectancyin Peru is 68 years, but in remoterural areas it is as low as 61 years.

Inequalities can also be shownbetween men and women. Forexample, when school enrolmentand adult literacy figures arebroken down by gender, they

show that boys and men havemuch more education. In Peru as awhole, 94% of men are literate,while the figure for women is84%. In rural areas 88% of menand 63% of women can read orwrite.

In the same way, statistics do nottake account of differencesbetween rich and poor. Peru maybe seen as a ‘poor’ country, butsome of its citizens arecomparatively very rich, while a‘rich’ country like the UK hascitizens who are comparativelyvery poor. It is also very difficult tomeasure quality of life, such asfeelings of contentment, a sense ofbelonging, cultural richness,freedom of speech, the position ofwomen, freedom from racism andthe state of the local environment.

Development in Tarata, southPeruNational data do not reflect theliving conditions in the ruralprovince of Tarata, where 91% ofthe rural populationis poor. Tarata (seeFigure 1) is locatedin a mountainousregion in theextreme south ofPeru, at an altitudeof between 1,967 mand 4,324 m abovesea level.

Tarata’s culture wascrushed during theSpanish occupationof the region.Traditions were

suppressed, traditional music anddress died out, and Spanishreplaced Aymara as the mainlanguage.

In recent times people in Taratahave been organising their ownaffairs. Many communities governthemselves and community leaderscontrol resources, the mostimportant of which is land. As wellas local government there are anumber of other organisations,which the communities run, suchas irrigation committees andmothers’ clubs. The irrigation orwater committees are powerfulwithin the community, as water isa priority for every campesino(peasant farmer).

Earning a living in TarataMost people living in Tarata aresubsistence farmers – 86% offamilies farm between one and fivehectares. Campesinos growpotatoes, maize, beans, alfalfa,vetch (like a sweet-pea plant),garlic, oregano, tuna (prickly pear)and peach. These crops grow onterraced fields, which form astaircase up the mountainside (seeFigure 2). Agricultural land hasbeen terraced for centuries.Terraces can control soil erosionand water run-off and allowfarmers to grow a variety of cropsat different altitudes. At harvesttime the terraces are amulticoloured patchwork of crops.The harvested crops are thenstored in seedstores (Figure 4) andtransported to market by truck(Figure 5).

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Peru UKEconomic indicatorsGNP per person US$ 2,610 US$ 20,870PPP$ or real GNP US$ 4,680 US$ 20,730Number of TVs per 1,000 people 106 448Kg of oil used per person 837 3,992

Social indicatorsLife expectancy 68 years 77 yearsDeaths per 1,000 children under 5 56 7Number of people per doctor 870 120Access to safe water 67% Over 95%Access to sanitation 72% Over 95%Adult literacy rate Men 94% Men 99%

Women 84% Women 99%

Figure 3: Development in Peru and the UKSource: The State of the World’s Children 2000, UNICEF

Figure 4: A seed store for maize, garlic and potatoes

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Most families raise cattle. Theymay also raise sheep, goats, llamas,alpacas (like small llamas) andvarious small animals such asguinea-pigs and rabbits.Campesinos produce cheese,chuno (freeze-dried potato),charqui (dried meat) and chicha(maize liquor). To prepare chuno,the potatoes are frozen overnightand then dried on the roof. Theycan be stored for a long time andcooked in soups and stews.

Challenges facing the peopleof TarataLife in Tarata can be difficult. Oneof the main problems faced bypeople is the environmentaldegradation of land. When treesare removed, the ground is directlyheated by the sun, which dries thesoil and stops new growth. Littlemoisture is evaporated back to theatmosphere, resulting in less rain,and a change from woodland todesert may follow.

In Tarata 50% of the land has hadto be abandoned. It has beendeforested, and soil erosion has ledto lower crop yields and reducedprofits for campesinos, who cannotafford to buy new seeds.

Sustainable development inTarata‘Sustainable’ means meeting theneeds of present and futuregenerations. ActionAid is workingin partnership with local people to

improve the quality of life inTarata, and support sustainabledevelopment. A reafforestationprogramme has been set up toplant trees in Tarata – the roots oftrees bind the soil together,providing it with nutrients andreducing erosion.

Credit banksAnother problem facing localpeople is the lack of basic services.As a result ActionAid has set upcommunity credit banks to provideloans to poor people, giving them achance to improve their lives. Loanschemes are central to sustainabledevelopment, because they offerlong-term benefits to thecommunity and are run by localpeople for local people.

These credit banks lend seeds,medicines, school uniforms andbooks. They give people theopportunity to increase crop yields,to keep healthy, and to have moreeducational resources, whileallowing them to become self-reliant. In this way developmentbecomes sustainable in the longterm.

A success storySeed banks have been set up tosupply quality seed to the poorestfamilies, and to provide trainingand assistance in growing theircrops. Seed banks start with acontribution from ActionAid, afterwhich farmers apply for seeds,along with free agricultural advice.Those who receive loans mustrepay them with interest – that is,supply extra seeds the followingyear – enabling more and morefarmers to take part in the schemeand gradually become self-sufficient.

The results have been far-reaching.Much of the unused terraced landis in use again, and soil fertility andcrop yields have increased. Seedstores and new family vegetablegardens have been created, andirrigation channels have beenimproved to make better use ofavailable water. Sustainabledevelopment projects like this haveimproved people’s quality of life,as well as providing for futuregenerations.

Figure 5: Transporting garlic tomarket

Figure 6: Profiles of Irma Mullisaca Mamami and Pascual Ticona Nina

1 (a) Using Figure 1, decidewhether the following statementsare true or false:• There are three geographical

regions in Peru: the Costa, theSierra and the Montaña.

• The Andean mountains runthrough Peru from north to south.

• The Montaña region is one of thedriest areas in the world.

• Peru is a landlocked country.

• The Sechura Desert is in the northof Peru.

• The Pacific Ocean is to the west ofPeru.

• Lake Titicaca is located on theborder between Peru and Chile.

• Tarata is a remote area in theextreme south of Peru.

2 (a) Describe the location ofPeru.(b) Use an atlas or CD-ROM (egEncarta Visual Globe) to identifyeach location named in this unit.

3 (a) Using Figure 7, draw a graphshowing the climate of Peru.(b) Describe the temperature.(c) Describe the rainfalldistribution.(d) Are there any seasons?(e) What problems are farmerslikely to face in such a climate?

4 (a) In pairs, select five types ofdevelopment data from Figure 3which you think best show thelevel of development in Peru.

(b) Have you chosen moreeconomic or social indicators?Write a paragraph to explainwhy you chose these.

5 Work in small groups.Imagine you are part of a radioproduction team. Today you arerecording a 10-minuteprogramme called ‘Agriculturein Tarata’. Use the text andFigure 6. Write the script toinclude a commentary andinterviews. Describe thelocation of Tarata and giveinformation about the area.Then present your broadcast tothe class.

6 (a) Work in small groups.Imagine you are part of acommunity credit bank in Tarata.This committee has a limitedamount of seed to loan, and canonly support one more applicantbefore new seed arrives. Readthe two applications for seeds inFigure 8, and discuss which oneto support.(b) Prepare a short verbal reportsaying which application yougranted and why. Then presentthis to the class.

7 Use the internet to researchsustainable development projectsbeing carried out in different

parts of the world, eg www.actionaid.orgwww.grameen.orgwww.dfid.gov

ActionAid EducationChataway House, Leach Road,Chard, Somerset TA20 1FRTel: 01460 238000Fax: 01460 67191Email: deved@actionaid.org.ukInternet: www.actionaid.org

ActionAid exists to helpchildren, families andcommunities in some of theworld’s poorest countries toovercome poverty and securelasting improvements in thequality of their lives.

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Activities Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Rainfall (mm) 23 24 24 22 19 17 17 16 17 18 19 21

Temperature (°C) 3 3 3 3 5 5 8 8 8 3 3 3

Figure 7: Climate figures for Lima, Peru

Figure 8: Applications to the Tarata credit bank

Application 1: Woman Land area concerned: 2 hectares

My husband died a year ago, and this year our crops of beans,potatoes and maize were poor as there was only my oldest son tohelp me in the fields.

I had to sell some of our land to survive. I am in a desperate situation.I have no money for seed but I do have a plot of good, fertile soilwhich is well irrigated. At 12 my son is now old enough to help full-time in the fields and my daughter, who is 9, can take time off schoolto help as well.

With a small loan we have an opportunity to grow enough potatoesfor our needs. I am also growing vegetables, and we still have a goatand other small livestock. A loan will be my family’s chance to be self-sufficient again, and with a good crop I will be able to repay the loan.

Loan application accepted [ ] Loan application denied [ ]

Application 2: Man Land area concerned: 2 hectares

We have just got married and have built one room of our house. Weown some plots of land at different levels and we have waterallocation for most of it. One hectare is irrigated; the other has partialirrigation.

We would like to borrow potato seed from the bank to get us started.I have farmed potatoes, maize, beans and garlic on loaned land andmade enough to build the house and buy livestock.

My wife is pregnant and a loan would help us make a good start. Wecannot afford to plant all our land unless we get a loan.

Loan application accepted [ ] Loan application denied [ ]

DRIVE ANYWHERE into thecountryside and you will see a

landscape composed of different-shaped slopes, such as valleys,cliffs and hills. Each individualfeature, eg a valley, is called alandform, and any landscape iscomposed of a variety oflandforms. The physical landscapeis influenced by five mainprocesses: erosion, weathering,mass movement, deposition andtransportation. The landscape maythen have a covering of soil orloose material and vegetation. Alandscape can also influence andbe affected by human activities.

Rock type is particularlyimportant, as it is the properties ofany rock that influence theeffectiveness of weathering anderosional processes that weardown and shape a landscape.Generally, harder rocks tend to beassociated with upland areas andsteeper slopes, while softer rockstend to produce more gentlyundulating landscapes. However,much depends on the physicalhistory of an area. NorthernCanada, for example, is an area ofhard rocks yet it is relatively flat –the result of millions of years oferosion, particularly by huge icesheets during the last ice age.

Figure 1 attempts to show thedifferent forces that shape anylandscape that we see. Throughoutthis unit you will need to keep inmind the influence of thesedifferent factors.

Granite landscapes:DartmoorDartmoor is an upland area inDevon. It is the largest of severalmoorland areas, all based on

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238

by Paul WarburtonGRANITE LANDSCAPE: PHYSICALAND HUMAN INFLUENCES

GeoActiveOnline

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Figure 1: A star diagram to show factors that influence the landscape

Figure 2: Location and features of Dartmoor

. . . . . . . . . . Channel

. . . . . . . . . . ChannelN

Exmoor

P . . . . . . . . .

E . . . . . . . . .O . . . . . . . . .

DARTMOOR

M

R.

R.

R.

R.

R.

R.

Key

Over 500 m

200–500 m

Less than200 m

200 km

LANDSCAPE

Human activities

Mass movement (the effect of gravity

moving rock and debrisdownhill)

Weathering (the effect of climate on

rock and soil)

SeaRivers

Erosion

Fauna (animals, insects, etc.)

Flora (vegetation)

Ice sheets, glaciers

Wind

granite, in the south-west ofEngland (Figure 2). Dartmoor isconsiderably higher than thesurrounding land – the highestpoint, High Willhays, reaches 621metres. It is an area of ruggedscenery edged by a number ofdeeply wooded valleys coveringabout 52 km2. This region andsome of the surroundingcountryside form the DartmoorNational Park, which wasestablished in 1951.

Granite – the rockGranite is an igneous rock. Theseare rocks composed of materialsthat were once molten, and havesolidified either above (extrusiverocks) or below (intrusive rocks)the Earth’s surface. The granite inthe south-west formed frommagma that cooled slowly deepbelow the Earth’s surface underintense heat and pressure (seeFigure 6 on page 4). Once at thesurface it is exposed to differenttemperatures and pressures, and itcan then become unstable andsusceptible to erosion andweathering. Granite is composedof relatively stable minerals, so itdoes not weather or erode easily. Itis made of crystals and is verydense so is not porous. Granite is amassive rock, meaning that it hasfew lines of weakness such asjoints or bedding planes – it isconsequently a relativelyimpermeable rock.

The physical landscapeThe relief of Dartmoor is lessrugged than areas like the LakeDistrict or the upland parts ofnorth Wales. Nevertheless it is anupland area, and higher than thesurrounding land (Figure 2). Muchof Dartmoor is an upland plateauwith low hills. Outcrops of graniteform prominent tors (see below).Towards the edge of Dartmoorthere are wooded valleys that havebeen cut by rivers flowing from theupland area.

Granite landscapes are associatedwith poor drainage. A lot of watercollects in hollows in the surface,forming small pools and areas of

bog. Devon’s main rivers – theTamar, Plym, Dart, Teign and theTavy – flow from Dartmoortowards the English Channel. Themoorland vegetation consists ofgrasses, bracken and heather. Thehigher areas of moorland have fewtrees and consequently present anexposed, rather barren-lookingand windswept landscape. On thelower slopes and in the moresheltered valley there are moreextensive areas of woodland.

Much of the moorland has peatsoils. Peat is poorly decomposedorganic matter. The poor drainageand cold climate are not attractiveto bacteria and organisms thatwould normally break downorganic matter. Peat is also acidic,which further repels decomposingorganisms.

Tors are a distinctive landform inDartmoor. There is some debateabout their formation but it isthought that it has much to dowith the weathering of the graniteabove and below the surface.Figure 3 shows that the weatheringof granite is most rapid where

joints or cracks in the rock areclose together. When granite isexposed at the surface by theremoval of the overlying rock, thesmaller and loosened weatheredfragments are removed morequickly. They can roll downslope,forming a layer of fragments orisolated boulders, or they may betransported by running water. Themore massive granite is leftprotruding in the landscape,resembling a heaped pile ofboulders. The near-horizontaljoints may be the result of therelease of pressure on the graniteas it becomes exposed at thesurface. Chemical and physicalweathering (frost shattering)widens the vertical and horizontalcracks to give the tors theirdistinctive block appearance(Figure 4).

The granite landscape andhuman activitiesFarmingDevon is an important agriculturalcounty for dairy cattle and sheep.However, about 25% of thecounty is infertile moorland and

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Near-horizontal lines of weaknessas pressure near surface is reduced

ORIGINAL SURFACE

Closelyspacedjoints

Widely spacedjoints

Closelyspacedjoints

A

B

A

B

Loose boulders

FORMER SURFACEA

B

A

B

TOR

Figure 3: The formation of a granite tor

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heath, which is used for roughgrazing, and most of this is onDartmoor. Although there are afew scattered farms on Dartmoor,most are in the more shelteredareas towards the edge of themoorland.

SettlementThere are no large settlements onthe moors as the environment isexposed and inhospitable. Thearea is sparsely populated, withabout 30,000 people living withinthe boundaries of the DartmoorNational Park. Larger settlementslike Okehampton are on flatterground at the edge of Dartmoor.

TourismThe main economic activity ofDartmoor today is tourism.Millions of day-visitors andtourists are drawn each year by thescenery and attractions of the area.Some of the most popular areasare the higher land including thetors and moorland scenery,Lydford Gorge, and the valley ofthe River Dart which has theadded attraction of the Dart Valleysteam railway. Dartmoor has avariety of wildlife, and manyvisitors come to see the Dartmoorponies, a rugged breed of smallhorse which graze semi-wild onthe moors and common land.

Copper and tin were mined in thearea in the past, and today touristscan visit the old mine workings

and historical museums. Otherlocal antiquities include a druidtemple below Sittaford Tor and aneolithic village at Grimspound.The market town of Okehamptonis the main touring centre for themoor, and High Willhays and YesTor, the two highest points on themoor, lie within walking distanceto the south of the town.

QuarriesGranite is resistant to weathering,so it is an excellent building stone,though it is also harder to quarry.Granite has been quarried onDartmoor for thousands of years.It has been used to constructbuildings and walls, and also forkerbstones and tombstones. Whenit is polished, granite reveals thedifferent colours of the variouscrystals contained within it. Due tothe attractive nature of polishedgranite it is often used as a facingstone on shops and otherbuildings.

China clayWhen the granite intrusionsformed beneath the south-west ofEngland, the adjacent rocks werechanged chemically by heat andpressure. A ring of altered rock, anaureole, surrounds Dartmoor, andwithin this are areas of kaolin orchina clay. This is a very fine,white clay that is used in themaking of high-quality china(hence its name) and also in themanufacture of paper and

medicines. The main area for theextraction of china clay is on LeeMoor. The removal of overlyingsoil and rock and the method ofextraction have led to the creationof huge spoil heaps. Their whitecoloration and size make them avery distinctive feature of thelandscape. Some of the old pitscontain small lakes which attractwildlife. When extraction iscompleted the operators fill in theholes in the ground and the landcan be restored and used foragriculture.

ReservoirsThere are a few reservoirs onDartmoor that provide thedomestic water supply for nearbyurban areas, including Plymouth.Although some of the valleys makeideal sites for reservoirs, manypeople believe that they should nothave been built, because bodies ofwater of this size are not a naturalfeature of the Dartmoor landscape.

Other activitiesDuring the Napoleonic Wars, aprison was established atPrincetown for French captives; itis still used today. Princetowndeveloped nearby as a settlementand service centre for the prisonwarders, and it soon developedinto a small town. Large areas ofDartmoor are used for militarytraining, particularly by the army.

ConclusionsDartmoor provides an excellentexample of physical influences onthe landscape. It is also an exampleof how the landscape interactswith people: how their activitiesmodify the landscape and how, inturn, people are influenced by thenatural environment. Some of thelandscape-forming processes tookplace millions of years ago whenthe granite was formed andrevealed at the surface. Otherforces, like weathering and erosionby rivers, have been slow butoperating over thousands of years.Human activities have been morerecent in their influence, somereaching back a few hundredyears, others only a few years.

Figure 4: Field sketch of Hay Tor

1 In pairs, try to define thefollowing terms:(a) weathering(b) erosion(c) transportation(d) deposition(e) mass movement.

2 On Figure 1, one box hasdeliberately been left empty: canyou think what could go in thisbox?

3 Use an atlas to add thefollowing to Figure 2:(a) six rivers – lettered R(b) the main towns and cities (thefirst letter of each is given)(c) the sea areas to the north andsouth(d) the motorway number (M)(e) the names of the two counties(double lines).Also colour the relief areas (use anatlas as a guide) and complete thekey.

4 Construct a table with twocolumns, one headed ‘Physical’and the other ‘Human’. Use thistable to summarise the features ofthe Dartmoor landscape.

5 Explain why granite landscapeshave a lot of surface drainage. Useappropriate terms in your answer.

6 (a) Use Figure 5 for this activity.Mark on it the granite areas fromFigure 6. Use an atlas to locate andmark the major towns and cities(these need not be named) and themain road network.(b) Describe the relationshipbetween the granite areas, theroads and built-up areas. Try toexplain the relationship.

7 Outline the advantages anddisadvantages of Dartmoor as alocation for reservoirs to storewater.

8 Group work. Imagine that yourgroup represent the managementauthority of Dartmoor NationalPark. Your task is to set up a seven-day programme for GCSEGeography students to followwhilst staying for a week in thearea. In your programme, includea balance of things to do and see,which look at both the physicaland human landscapes.

Present your programme to therest of the class. They will act asjudges, using the mark schemebelow:• Detail max. 4 marks• Interest max. 4 marks• Originality max. 2 marks

Total 10 marks

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Activities

Figure 5: Outline map of Devon and Cornwall

N

DEVON

CORNWALL

0 20km

English Channel

Newquay

Penzance

Land'sEnd

Plymouth

Figure 6: Granite intrusions below south-west England

DEVON

CORNWALL

N

0 20km

BRAZIL is the fifth largestcountry in the world. As you

would expect, its interest togeographers is very wideranging, from studying theeffects of deforestation in theAmazon to examining theproblems caused by urbanisationin São Paulo. You will almostcertainly use some Brazilian casestudies as part of your GCSEwork. This unit focuses on a lesswell-known region of Brazil –the south-western state ofParaná. In particular we look atthe formation of the Iguaçu Falls(Figure 1) and their managementtoday, and the huge hydro-electric complex at Itaipù.

Figure 2 shows the location ofParaná State, which is in thesouth-west of Brazil, borderingParaguay. It is a largelyagricultural state and is the

leading producer of wheat, ryeand black beans in Brazil. Thestate capital, Curitiba, is wellknown for its innovativeattempts to solve its trafficproblems. Yet Paraná State ismost famous for a naturalphenomenon which Argentinaalso claims as its own – theIguaçu Falls or, in Brazil,Cataratas do Iguaçu.

The story of the Iguaçu Fallsbegan about 120 million yearsago when a huge area of lava upto 600 metres thick flowed overan area of about 90,000 km2 asSouth America was torn apartfrom Africa. This lava cooled toform a plateau of basalt reachingup to 160 metres in height. Thefalls are at the edge of theplateau, which ends in a series ofscarp slopes.

The Iguaçu Falls get their namefrom the local Guarani language– guazu means ‘big’ and I means‘water’. The Iguaçu river basincovers some 62,000 km2, with its

source 1,200 metres up in thehills near Curitiba. It flows for1,300 km over the Paranáplateau, collecting more waterfrom about 30 major tributaries,before it reaches the falls.

The waterfalls in this case haveformed where the river flowsover basalt rock raised upmillions of years ago, but timedoes not stand still and the fallsare on the move. The force ofthe water hurtling over the fallscreates a deep hollow at the baseknown as a plunge pool (seeFigure 3). Water splashing upfrom the plunge pool erodes therock at the base, a processknown as undercutting.Eventually the overhanging rockis unable to support itself and itcollapses. Some of the rockdebris swirls around in theplunge pool and acts likesandpaper, making the plungepool deeper and wider. Thisprocess is repeated over and overagain and causes the falls togradually retreat upstream. This

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239

by Naomi Peirce BRAZIL – FOCUS ON THE SOUTH WEST

GeoActiveOnline

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Figure 1: The Iguaçu Falls, Paraná

Figure 2: Paraná State

N1,000 km0

BRAZIL

BRAZIL

ParanaState

´

Manaus

Brasilia

Recife

Rio deJanerio

AMERICA

SOUTH

retreat creates a deep-sidedvalley, known as a gorge. TheIguaçu gorge is 28 km long.

There are some 275 falls in theIguaçu system, ranging between40 and 80 metres in height. Byfar the largest and most famousof these is The Devil’s Throat(Garganta del Diablo), where theIguaçu river tumbles over a 5 kmwide precipice. The roar of thefalling water can, it is said, beheard up to 20 km away. Whenthe river is in full flood the fallscan reach a peak discharge of11,000 m3 per second. Althoughthey were discovered over 400years ago, the area has only beenconsidered of nationalimportance since 1939 when theIguaçu Falls National Park wasfounded. Its internationalimportance was recognised byUNESCO in 1986 when it wasnamed a World Heritage Site.

So how has the area been used bypeople? What are the challengesof managing a World HeritageSite, and what does the futurehold for the Iguaçu Falls and itssurrounding area? The rest ofthis unit seeks to explore thesequestions.

Case StudiesIguaçu Falls – a touristattractionThe Iguaçu Falls National Park(Figure 4), on the Brazilian side,covers 185,282 ha and is one ofthe most visited sites in theworld, with over 1 milliontourists visiting it every year. The

Argentine side has its ownnational park which extends overan area of 67,500 ha. The vastmajority of both parks is coveredin subtropical Atlantic rainforest.The region is considered the lastgreat expanse of Atlanticrainforest in South America. TheNational Park is home to over2,000 plant species, over 400bird species, and a variety ofunique reptiles and insects.

Clearly, a site of this importanceand popularity needs carefulmanagement. It was for thisreason that the Braziliangovernment proposed the area asa World Heritage Site which

should ensure cooperationbetween the Brazilians andArgentinians over conservationissues. Tourists entering theNational Park are charged a fee(US$6) which goes towards themaintenance of the site. They arealso provided with informationabout how to treat the area.There is a small museum close tothe park entrance which providesthe interested visitor with moreinformation.

Once inside the park there is avariety of activities for tourists.These have a variable degree ofimpact on the environment.

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Over time,the waterfall

retreats upstream

Undercutting by waterfallcreates a plunge pool

Originalposition offalls

Waterfall Directionof flow

Figure 3: How a gorge is formed

Figure 4: Iguaçu Falls

BRAZIL

ARGENTINA

Visitors,

Centre

Visitors,

Centre

HotelInternaçional

IguaçuToFoz do Iguaçu

ToPuertoIguazu

PuertoCanoas

IslaSan

Martin

Rio Iguaçu Inferior

Garganta delDiablo

Rio IguaçuSuperior

21 21

16

15

4 3

2

1

18

201219

5

14

178

10

9

11

136

7

N

International borderFallsEdge of gorgeUnmade road and catwalkFlow of waterFalls on the Brazilian sideFalls on the Argentine side

1–4 =5–21=

Key

Series 12 Spring issue Unit 239 Brazil – Focus on the South West © 2001 Nelson Thornes GeoActive OnlineThis page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only. Page 3 of 4

• The Macuco Safari involves a jeepride through the Atlanticrainforest, followed by a climbdown to the Macuco waterfall.From there you are transported byinflatable raft at high speed alongthe Iguaçu River until you are rightunder the main falls, beforerejoining the jeeps to go back.

• Helicopter tours over the fallsleave, on average, every 7 minutes.These give the visitor unrivalledviews of the falls but cause aserious disturbance to othervisitors, as helicopters constantlybuzz overhead. There is also apossible threat from thehelicopters to some bird species,which are apparently layingthinner-shelled eggs. Thehelicopter owners have reacted tocriticism by flying at higheraltitudes in an attempt to cause lessdisturbance.

• There are a number of nature trailsthat can be followed, guided orunguided, and night-time walkingtours. Walkways have been builtout into the river to give an evenbetter view. Some of these weredamaged in floods in 1986 andhave yet to be repaired.

Itaipù and HEPAway from the natural beauty ofthe falls, 20 km upstream, thereis another, human-made featurewhich is rapidly becoming atourist attraction – the hugeItaipù hydro-electric powercomplex, which is the largest inthe world (Figure 5). This was ajoint venture between Brazil andParaguay to harness the powerof the Paraná River, and at the

height of the construction workit employed over 40,000 peoplefrom both nations.

The construction of the complexwas divided into four phases:1 In 1975, a diversion channel was

excavated.

2 Construction of the main dam.

3 Closing of the sluice gates.

4 Construction of the powerhouseand installation of the 18thgenerator unit in 1991.

The main dam is 196 metreshigh – equivalent to a buildingwith 65 floors. Its constructionused up enough concrete to pavetwo highways linking Lisbon inPortugal to Moscow in Russia.The maximum outflow of wateris 62,000 m3 per second – 35times greater than the volume ofthe Iguaçu Falls, whose poweralone would be enough tooperate 2 of the 18 turbines.(See Figure 6.)

The construction of the Itaipùdam meant blocking the ParanáRiver. This had implications forthe breeding patterns of somefish species which migrateupstream to spawn. Keen toavoid a decline in fish numbers,the Itaipù engineers set aboutsolving the problem by buildinga water-stairway followed by achannel and lagoon where thefish could lay their eggs. Thisscheme has met withconsiderable success, and fishnumbers have remained fairlyconstant.

The construction of the damcreated a 1,350 km reservoirwhich is visited by tourists andlocal people for boating,swimming and fishing. A naturereserve was also created aroundthe reservoir. An extensivereforestation programme isunder way, and over 14 millionseedlings of native specieshaving already been plantedthere. Breeding projects havealso been started for endangeredspecies.

The Itaipù dam is an example ofa large-scale, capital-intensive(over US$ 4 billion) projectwhich appears to havesuccessfully harnessed HEP witha minimal impact on theenvironment. There are,however, some long-termimplications which need to beconsidered.

Firstly, some 20,000 people weredisplaced by the building of thedam. They had to leave theirhomes and settle elsewhere,mostly in Foz do Iguaçu inBrazil, and Cuidad PresidentStroessner in Paraguay.Secondly, a city was built forconstruction workers which hasnow become a permanent part ofthe suburbs of Foz do Iguaçu.Both of these populationmovements have clearimplications for the provision ofservices and the quality of life inthe cities concerned.

*

Each of these two case studiesfrom the south-west of Brazilshows a considerable impact onthe natural environment, andboth demonstrate some strategiesfor dealing with these issues. Ifwe could look forward 50 years,which do you think will have hadthe greatest impact?

BRAZIL

ARGENTINAPARAGUAY

River Parana

Riv

er Ig

uaçu

IguaçuFalls

Itaipu Dam`

FriendshipBridge

N

ItaipuReservoir

`

Foz doIguaçu

IguaçuNational

Park

100 km

1

2 3

4 5

6

7

8

Key1234

= Intake= Reservoir= Dam= Penstock

5678

= Turbine= Generator= Power lines= Outflow river

Figure 5: Location of Itaipù and Fozdo Iguaçu

Figure 6: Inside an HEP station

1 Write a brief definition ofeach of the following terms:(a) basalt(b) plateau(c) plunge pool(d) gorge(e) HEP.

2 With the help of labelleddiagrams, explain how awaterfall is formed.

3 Read the text in Figure 7. Thisis an extract from a guidebookabout the Iguaçu Falls. Make alist of the ways in which peoplecould damage the naturalenvironment at Foz do Iguaçu.

4 Work with a partner. Devise aseries of guidelines for tourists tofollow when visiting Foz doIguaçu, to help protect theenvironment. Explain why theyshould follow each guideline.

5 Figure 8 is a diagram showinghow electricity is generated in ahydro-electric power station. Onyour own, larger copy, add thefollowing labels in the correctplaces to explain how the powerstation works:• Water is held in a large reservoir.

• Gravity causes water to fall throughthe intake into the penstock.

• Force of water turns turbines.

• Shaft from turbine connects togenerator, where electricity isproduced.

• Power lines connect to homes andindustry.

• Water is released into the riverbelow the dam.

6 (a) Draw a table with twocolumns, one headed ‘Benefits oflarge HEP projects’, the other‘Costs of large-scale HEPprojects’.With a partner, brainstorm asmany benefits and costs as youcan, using the information onItaipù and any other projects youhave studied, to help you.(b) Do the benefits outweigh thecosts, or not?

7 Find out what is meant by theterm ‘World Heritage Site’. Usethe internet to research otherWorld Heritage Sites.

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Activities

Figure 7: Extract from a guidebook

Figure 8: How hydro-electric power is created

The Macuco Safari

After about 20 minutes’ ride on thetrailer you get off and begin hikingyour way down the side of theIguaçu gorge to the Macuco Fallswhich cascade into a deep, darkplunge pool. Steps cut into the rockallow you to descend to the foot ofthe falls – but beware: they areslippery and steep. Stout walkingshoes are a must. The tour is takenat a relaxed pace and there is nopressure to rush back up thosesteps. After the falls you descend tothe banks of the river, where youtake to water in inflatable raftscapable of carrying 20 people. Theride is bumpy, but make sure youlook up at the steep sides of thegorge. As the boat comes up to theedge of the falls there is a deafeningroar from above as the boat beginsto turn, and the spray is so powerfulyou have to shut your eyes. You willget very wet. Plastic raincoats aresold at the launch site, and plasticbags are provided for cameras ifyou ask. The view of the falls isunbeatable. Once back on dry landyou are whisked up to the top of thecanyon by jeep to rejoin the trailer tothe entrance. From here a freeshuttle bus transfers you throughthe park to the top of the falls.

THE ISLANDS that make upthe country of Indonesia

spread from the Indian Ocean tothe Pacific Ocean, with Australiato the south and mainland Asia tothe north (Figure 1). Indonesia isthe third largest country in Asia,after China and India. It is alsothe seventh largest economy inAsia, and twenty-sixth in theworld, but many Indonesiansremain poor (Figure 2). Theindigenous (native) people livingin remoter regions, such as theDayaks of central Kalimantan,still have a simple lifestyle. Theyare shifting cultivators andhunters.

Indonesia’s location on the ‘Ringof Fire’ means that there arevolcanoes and frequentearthquakes (such as the majorearthquake in Sumatra in June2000). However, this locationalso has its advantages. Hot fluidsrise from the magma alongfractures in the rock, and inplaces huge mineral resourceshave been deposited, includinggold, silver, copper and tin.

Gold miningGold has been mined in Indonesiaon a small scale for over athousand years. In 1992, theKelian mine was opened byAustralia’s CRA (now Rio Tinto)in Kalimantan (Figure 3). NowIndonesia ranks seventh in theworld for gold production,producing 100 tonnes in 1997. Asin many LEDCs, largetransnational corporations(TNCs) from MEDCs such asCanada, the USA, Japan andAustralia, do most of the mining.This is because Indonesia doesnot have the technical expertiseand money needed for modernmining.

Although gold can be found aspure nuggets, it is morecommonly found as an ore – thatis, small amounts scatteredthrough the rock. Sometimes it isfound in river deposits. Thishappens when a river flows overgold ore, gradually eroding itaway. The gold can either beremoved by panning, which isvery slow, or companies divert thecourse of the river to make accessto the riverbed easier.

Other ore is found below theground. If it is quite close to thesurface, opencast methods can beused. Drilling and blasting areused to break up the rockcovering the ore, called theoverburden. This is removed byexcavators and power shovels andplaced in spoil heaps. Then thegold ore is taken from the pitsand moved by trucks or conveyorbelts to the processing area.(Figure 4).

After mining, the gold ore iscrushed in a mill. It is placed in aheap on a pad lined with plasticsheeting, and is surrounded by an

Series 12 Spring issue Unit 240 Gold Mining in Indonesia © 2001 Nelson Thornes GeoActive OnlineThis page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only. Page 1 of 4

240

by Karen HoldichGOLD MINING IN INDONESIA

GeoActiveOnline

GeoActiveOnline

Figure 1: Indonesia

Indonesia: DataFile

• Area: 7.5 times bigger than UnitedKingdom

• Made up of 17,000 islands (6,000uninhabited)

• Capital: Jakarta

• Natural vegetation: tropicalrainforest

• Climate: tropical hot humid, moremoderate in highlands

• Population: 216 million (4th largestin the world)

• Population growth rate: 1.46%(population doubled since 1960)

• Birth rate: 22.78 live births per1,000 population (40% populationunder 15 years of age)

• Infant mortality rate: 57.3 deathsper 1,000 live births

• Life expectancy: 62.92 (less than5% population 65 years or older)

• Literacy rate (male): 90%

• Literacy rate (female): 78%

• GDP: US$602 billion

• GDP per capita (person):US$2,830

• Employment by sector:Agriculture 41%Manufacturing 14%

Figure 2: Facts about IndonesiaSources: CIA World Factbook and EncyclopaediaBritannica

PAPUANEW

GUINEA

PacificOcean

South ChinaSea

Java SeaIndianOcean

N

Equator 0°

Jakarta Java

SINGAPORE

Kalimantan

Irian Jaya

PHILIPPINES

BRUNEI

AUSTRALIA

THAILAND

MALAYSIA

CAMBODIA VIETNAM

BORNEO

SulawesiSumatra

Timor

5000 km

earth wall called a bund. Thenchemicals, such as cyanide, areadded to dissolve the gold. Thegold solution is then separatedfrom the waste, known as tailings.The tailings are placed in shallowponds, where sunlight andmicrobes break down the cyanide.The liquid waste is then returned

to the river. The opencast pit canbe filled in with the solid waste,or spoil, once mining has finished.

The importance of goldmining to IndonesiaThe mining industry accounts forabout 12% of total GDP inIndonesia. In 1997 the country

earned US$4.2 billion from alltypes of mining.

The infrastructure has improvedas roads and ports have been builtto move the gold, workers andequipment. Jobs have beencreated and local people havebeen trained for roles such asassistant geologists, drillers,mechanics and field supervisors.The West Kutai mine in EastKalimantan, for example,employs 1,040 people and 500contractors, mainly from the localarea. The mining companiespartly fund a group calledIndonesia Business Links, whichhelps small local companies todevelop, and trains Indonesians inbusiness.

Most mining companies try towork closely with localcommunities. They establishprojects that will help the peopleto help themselves, and notbecome dependent upon aid(Figure 5). In September 1998

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Figure 3: Gold mines in Indonesia

Figure 4: An opencast mine

Key1 = Kelian2 = Mt Muro3 = Masupa Ria4 = MirahEquator

N

Java Sea

South ChinaSea

SABAHBRUNEI

SARAWAK

1

4

3 2

0°

3000 km

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there was an extreme drought,which led to bushfires. Somemining companies paid foremergency food relief.

Mining can have a major impactupon the environment. Today,mining companies are much moreaware of this, and are oftenlegally responsible for protectingthe environment during miningand restoring it after mining hasfinished. For example, inKalimantan:• One company is protecting the

endangered Garuh tree.

• Another company is involving localpeople in the growing of seedlingsfor land restoration.

• A third company will stay in the areafor three years after its mine closesin 2004. It will rehabilitate the areaand monitor the environment forpollution. It is considering creating atraining centre, a site forecotourism, or a freshwater fishery.

Effects of gold mining inIndonesiaAs well as the economicadvantages it has brought, goldmining has also caused a numberof problems. Although Indonesiareceives taxes and royalties fromthe TNCs, most of the profits gooutside the country.

Mining is a primary industry,producing raw materials. Selling

raw materials is not as profitableto an LEDC economy as making(secondary industry) and selling(tertiary industry) manufacturedgoods, such as jewellery. Whilstjobs are created in mining, it islikely that the best-paid jobs willgo to managers and engineersfrom MEDCs. As it is mainly menwho are employed in the mines,women may be left to look aftertheir children alone.

In areas where mining takes place,valuable agricultural land may belost and local people may loseincome, as the mining companiesdo not allow them to pan forgold. Sacred ancestral land,hunting grounds, traditionallonghouses and tribal traditionsmay be lost as indigenous peopleare forced to move. Some havecomplained of violence beingused to persuade them to acceptlow offers of compensation fortheir land and houses.

Whilst pressure is being put uponmining companies to respect theenvironment, sometimes accidentsand damage still happen. Forexample:• As well as being useful in refining

gold, cyanide releases toxic heavymetals, such as lead, from the ore.These toxins may be washed out oftailings by rain and enter the localwater supply. In 1994–95, cyanideand heavy metals polluted rivers inKalimantan, killing all the animals inthe Muro River. Villagers alsobecame ill with skin rashes andstomach cramps.

• Diverting rivers destroys the localhabitats of plants and animals.

• Landslides can occur on waste heapsafter heavy rain. For example, inMay 2000, four local employeeswere killed at Grasberg in Irian Jaya.

• Tailings may change river courses,causing flooding. For example, theAjkwa River in Irian Jaya hasflooded parts of the rainforest.

• One company is planning to build a13 km long pipeline into the IndianOcean to dump tailings on the seafloor. It is not known what effectthis will have.

• Applications have been made to

mine in protected rainforest areas,such as the Kutai National Park inEast Kalimantan.

The futureIndonesia is a typical LEDC, stillrelying heavily upon primaryindustry. If it is to develop its ownsecondary and tertiary industries,it must rely on investment fromMEDCs.

LEDCs should stand up for theirrights, but recent politicalupheavals may cause TNCs toreconsider the role they play inIndonesia’s mining. There havebeen a number of demonstrationsand expensive court cases relatingto the negative effects of miningon local people and on theenvironment. In May 2000 theKelian mine had to halt its outputbecause roadblocks were set up byprotestors. Another mine inKalimantan has had to agree toopen every Sunday in order toallow local people to pan forgold. If TNCs no longer findmining in Indonesia profitable,they may decide to leave.

The future of gold mining inIndonesia will depend upon thegovernment and the TNCsworking together to reduce thenegative impacts of mining, andto maximise the positive effects.

• Development of fish ponds

• Home vegetable gardens

• Development of agroforestry

• Introduction of paddy rice fields

• Savings and loans cooperatives

• Provision of clean water

• Introduction of livestock farming

• Training in fish farming andorganic farming

• Building schools and churches

• Educational scholarships to highereducation

• Health education, clinics andtuberculosis control

Figure 5: Examples of communityprojects

1 Research and write definitionsfor the following terms:• shifting cultivators• ‘Ring of Fire’• TNC• infrastructure• panning• agroforestry• royalties• toxins.

2 Make a large copy of Figure 6,and label your diagram to showgold mining and processing as aflow diagram. Some of the labelshave been included to help you.

3 (a) Look back at Figure 2. Listfive facts that indicate to you thatIndonesia is an LEDC (iedevelopment indicators).(b) For each of these fivedevelopment indicators, compareIndonesia with an MEDC such asthe UK. You can do this bylooking in an atlas, on a CD-ROM such as Encarta, or on awebsite such as:http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uk.html

4 Read the sections in this uniton the importance and effects ofgold mining. In pairs, discusswhether each of the advantagesand disadvantages of gold miningis social, economic orenvironmental. Then copy andcomplete Figure 7.

5 Divide into groups. Choose tobe one of the following:• a representative of an MEDC gold

mining company, or

• an official of the Indonesiangovernment, or

• an Indonesian mining engineer, or

• a member of the Dayak tribe.

Prepare a brief speech (3–5minutes), giving your views ongold mining in Indonesia, whichyou can present to the wholeclass. Include what you feel isgood about mining, what you feelis bad about it, and how youwould like to see it developing inthe future.

6 Read Figure 8. As a member ofan organisation concerned withhelping poor communities inLEDCs, write a letter to themanaging director of the MEDCmining company regardingRadwan Perayas and his family.

7 Extension exerciseIn the section on the importanceof gold mining to Indonesia, itstates that mining companies‘establish projects that will helpthe people to help themselves,and not become dependent uponaid’. Explain how the tribalpeople of Indonesia mightbecome dependent upon certaintypes of aid, and suggest thenegative effects this could haveupon their future development.

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Activities

Figure 6: Flow diagram of gold mining and processing

Advantage Disadvantage

Social

Economic

Environmental

Figure 7: Advantages anddisadvantages of gold mining inIndonesia

Figure 8: Extract from a news item

Family Thrown Out ofHome by MEDC Mining

CompanyOn the morning of 27 November1991, Radwan Perayas and hisfamily were in their home when anarmed security force burst in andordered them out.

The village in which they lived,in the interior of Kalimantan, wasone of several in the way of a largegold mine to be developed by anMEDC mining company. It had tobe demolished.

Radwan had refused to movebecause he had not receivedcompensation from the companyfor his land and house. He hadbeen promised a house with a watersupply and electricity in a newresettlement area, but it was notready. ‘Why should we move out?Give me compensation beforeordering me out of my own home,’said Radwan. The police replied byshooting into the roof and thenbegan to throw the family’sbelongings outside. Before Radwanand his family had time to gather uptheir valuables, their house wasdestroyed.

The mining company stoppedsmall-scale miners like Radwanfrom panning for gold in the river.Months later he received a smallamount of compensation, but withnowhere to live and his job gone, hehad to use the money to survive.Soon it was all gone and thePerayas family were left destituteand with little hope for the future.

1.__________broken upby__________.

2. Ore takenfrom____________________.

3.__________________crushed ina mill.

4.Crushedore put____________________.

5.__________

added to__________.

A.Overburden____________________spoilheaps.

B.Tailings putin____________________.

C.__________wastereturned toriver.

Goldsolution

D.Solid wastebrokendown by__________.

ADESERT is usually defined as.having less than 250 mm of

precipitation (rain and snowfall)during a typical year. Figure 1shows the world’s larger deserts,including the hot deserts that lie tothe north and south of theEquator, and the temperate drygrassland deserts of NorthAmerica and Asia. In deserts,daytime temperatures can be veryhigh, and large amounts of watercan be lost from the ground byevaporation and transpiration. Atnight, temperatures can fall belowfreezing, and in winter somedeserts even have snowfall.

In these extreme conditions, withvery low monthly rainfall totalsand wide variations intemperature, plants and animalshave to adapt to survive. This hasled to the development ofdistinctive desert ecosystems.

Desert ecosystemsAn ecosystem is a community ofliving things and their non-livingsurroundings which make up theenvironment in which they live.The physical (abiotic) componentsof an ecosystem, such as air, water,soil and rock, affect the livingthings but can also be affected bythem. Natural ecosystems exist ina state of balance or equilibrium.

Figure 2 shows a typical desertecosystem. The green plants suchas cacti or sage bushes trapsunlight and combine it withwater, oxygen and carbon dioxideto produce food energy in theform of carbohydrates. This isused by herbivores which eat plantmaterial, like rabbits, gerbils andmany insects. A food chaindevelops, with herbivores beingeaten by carnivores such as lizardsand snakes, and top carnivores like

foxes and wildcats eating thesmaller animals. The system iscompleted by the decomposers,such as dung beetles, which breakdown dead plant and animalmaterial and release minerals andorganic matter back into the soil.

The shortage of water and thin ornon-existent soils mean that plantsin deserts grow slowly. Desertecosystems have low productivity,and plant life in deserts typicallyproduces between 5 and 90 gramsper square metre (g/m2) per year of

organic matter, depending on howmuch water is available. (Thisfigure can be greatly increased ifirrigation water is provided.) Bycomparison, in a temperatedeciduous forest, plant life canproduce over 100 times as much –typically 800–1,200 g/m2 oforganic matter in a year.

Figure 3 is a sketch of a desertecosystem. Vegetation cover ispatchy because plants mustcompete for water, and soils areoften little more than blown sand

Series 12 Spring issue Unit 241 Desert Ecosystems © 2001 Nelson Thornes GeoActive OnlineThis page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only. Page 1 of 4

241

by John Davidson DESERT ECOSYSTEMS

GeoActiveOnline

GeoActiveOnline

Figure 1: The world’s deserts

Figure 2: How a desert ecosystem works

Equator 0°

South-westUSA and Mexico

deserts

Central Asiadeserts

E G

B

C

A

D

F

Top Carnivores (eat animals/insects)eg foxes, wildcats, owls, eagles

Carnivores (eat animals/insects)eg snakes, lizards, scorpions

Herbivores (eat plants)eg rabbits, gerbils, many types of insect

Primary Producers – plantsfix energy from the sun

eg sage bush, cactus, creosote bush

Soil – made up of:* organic matter* minerals

INPUTS* Oxygen* Sunlight* Carbon Dioxide* Water

* Dead Animals* Dead Plants

and leaves* Animal

droppings

Decomposerseg dung beetles,

fungi, bacteria

or loose rock with few nutrients.To survive, the plants that live indry desert conditions (calledxerophytes) have developed anumber of adaptations. They canstore water in their leaves or stems,and often have waxy leaves orthorns which reduce water lossthrough transpiration. Theydevelop deep roots, which are alsoused for storing water. Someplants, like the creosote bush, havea mass of tiny rootlets just belowthe surface which can gather thedew that forms at night throughcondensation.

Many plants only grow afterstorms, and produce flowers andseeds within 2–3 weeks, coveringthe desert in a carpet of blooms.These seeds may lie dormant formany years until it rains again. Insome regions, high concentrationsof salts are deposited on thesurface when water evaporates,and certain plants calledhalophytes have adapted to livehere, eg the salt bush.

The animals and insects in desertecosystems are also adapted to thevery hot, dry days, the cold nights,and the shortage of water. Manycreatures avoid the extreme heatof the sun by spending the dayunder stones or in burrows andonly coming out at night. Theseare nocturnal animals. Desertanimals save water loss by having

few sweat glands, get water justfrom their food, and produce dryfaeces and very concentratedurine. Gerbils, kangaroo rats andmany insects feed on dryvegetation and seeds, and someanimals can even digest thorns. Inthe wide spaces of deserts, thecarnivores often have highlydeveloped ways of finding andcatching their prey. For example,the fennic fox has acute hearing,and the road runner bird thatchases lizards in Arizona isexceptionally fast.

The camel is particularly welladapted to desert conditions. Itswide padded feet stop it sinkinginto loose sand, its long legs keepthe body well above the hot sand,its nostrils can close duringsandstorms, and its eyes areprotected from sand by longeyelashes and a double eyelid. Ithas a shaggy coat, which keeps itwarm at night and helps with aircirculation during the day. Thecamel’s mouth is able to chew verytough plants, and it can store over60 litres of water in its largestomach, and fat in its hump forwhen food is scarce. Theseadaptations, combined with thecamel’s ability to travel at a steady15 km per hour across desert sand,mean that it has been used bypeople as a form of transport forcenturies, thus earning itsnickname ‘the ship of the desert’.

Desert ecosystems andhuman activitiesMany desert plants are valuable topeople. Date palms grow in oasesin deserts where water is availableon or near the surface, and theyare very well adapted to the desertconditions. Date palms are used ina sustainable way (Figure 4) todayin many parts of the Middle Eastand North Africa.

However, desert ecosystems arevery fragile. The limiteddevelopment of vegetation, withlarge areas of bare ground, and thelimited variety of species and totalnumber of organisms herecompared with more productiveecosystems, mean that mostinsects, reptiles, animals and birdsdo not have much choice of thingsto eat. Food chains are simple, andthis can create problems whendesert ecosystems are endangeredby certain human activities. Manydeserts have a cryptobiotic soilcrust. This consists of a delicatemat of algae, moss, lichens andbacteria which help to hold thethin soil together. If this protectivecrust or ‘skin’ is broken, soilerosion by the wind or by

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Sandstone, cliffs, archesand canyonsSaguaro cactus

can soak up andstore thousands of

litres of water

Seeds lie in soilfor several years,

but grow after rainfall

The thorn bush hasno leaves, to

prevent water loss

Some plants store water inspecial bulbs on their roots

Sandy soil

Some plants have longroots to reach water

Cactus thornsand waxy skin

reduce water loss

Figure 3: Desert ecosystem in the south-west USA

Tough bark toreduce water lossand stop animalschewing it

Flexible trunkwhich can bendin high winds

Ribs used forbuilding

Leaves used forroofs, mats andbaskets

Wood can be usedfor building or fuel,and fibre for ropesDate palmsprovide shade

Date stones crushedand fed to animals

Thin leaves withlittle surfacearea, to reducewater loss

Sandysoil

Long, deep rootsto reachundergroundwater

Dates eatenfresh or dried

(also anexport crop)

Date palms cantolerate salty water.They are halophytes

Figure 4: Date palm adaptations

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occasional intense rainstorms canoccur. The desert surface may thentake centuries to recover.

People can also removegroundwater from under desertsby digging deep wells. Plant lifethen suffers because less water isavailable to their roots. In someareas, the scanty desert vegetationis overgrazed by domesticatedanimals, leading to soil erosion.

Case StudyThe effects of population anddevelopment on the desertsof the south-west USAMuch concern has been expressedrecently about possible damage tothe desert ecosystems of Utah andArizona in the south-west of theUSA (Figure 5). Much of this landis very sparsely inhabited atpresent, and consists of sandstonetowers, canyons and cliffs. Thedesert ecosystem includes cactusand thorn bush vegetation, with arange of bird, animal and reptilespecies such as mountain lions,bald eagles, rattlesnakes andtarantulas.

In recent years, large dams built onthe Colorado River and itstributaries have provided water fordeveloping towns and cities, andthis desert region includes two ofthe most popular National Parks inthe USA – the Grand Canyon, andZion, which attract over 7 millionvisitors a year. Much of this

tourism is concentrated in‘honeypots’ in desert areas wherethere are well-known landscapefeatures. There are now proposalsto develop up to 90% of theempty desert lands in Utah, whichsome people consider is truewilderness and should be left wild.Others consider that developmentof these lands will provide jobs andboost the local economy. There arefour main types of proposed

developments that are likely toaffect the desert ecosystem. Theseare summarised in Figure 6.

A major debate is in progress inthe USA about how far the desertecosystems can be developed, andhow much land should be left aswilderness areas for the benefit ofwildlife. In Arches National Park, aproject has been set up to find outhow many visitors the desertecosystem can take before signs ofdamage appear. The maximumnumber of visitors acceptable isknown as the carrying capacity ofthe area. Such projects may meanthat the number of visitors will berestricted in risk areas to avoiddamage to the deserts, with theseareas being managed in asustainable way. Visitors areprepared to accept restrictions onvisitor numbers if it means that theenvironment is protected but byrestricting visitor numbers,economic activities may suffer.

Figure 5: Desert areas in the south-west USA

Proposed development Description Possible effects ondesert ecosystem

Mining Reserves of coal, uranium, oiland potash are known to exist inUtah. Companies are keen todevelop new sources of mineralsto replace other sources that arerunning out, and to provide jobs.

Mining can destroy desertecosystems and affect thelandscape. Roads to mines alsomake it easier for tourists toreach remote areas.

Increased tourism Tourists provide jobs and helpthe economy by spendingmoney. They come because ofguaranteed sunshine andspectacular scenery. In Utahthere has been a major growthin activity tourism, eg off-roaddriving, hiking, mountain biking,and hang gliding.

Desert ecosystems are at riskfrom activities that affect thefragile desert crust andvegetation, such as trampling,and the impact of wheeledvehicles. Soil erosion can result.

Water supply Desert areas have been floodedin both Utah and Arizona, andmore reservoirs are planned toprovide water for towns and landuses like golf courses.Groundwater is also beingpumped from the rocks beneathdesert areas.

When desert ecosystems areflooded, plants, animals andinsects can be lost. Ifgroundwater levels drop, plantscan die through lack of water totheir roots.

Nuclear waste dumps There is a proposal to storenuclear waste in sparselypopulated desert areasin Utah.

There are concerns about whatmight happen if radioactivityfrom waste sites affected thedesert wildlife.

Figure 6: Proposed developments affecting desert ecosystems in Utah

UTAH

NEVADA

ARIZONA

N

LakePowell

LakeMead

HooverDam

Glen CanyonDam

Dam

LasVegas

StGeorge

Desertwilderness

areas

Key

SelectedNationalParks

DesertNational Parks

ZionCanyon LandsArchesGrand Canyon

23

1

4

Stateboundary

Rivers

Grand CanyonNational Park

km 1000

1

4

23

1 On a copy of Figure 1, namethe deserts A–G using namesfrom this list:Sahara, Thar, Arabian, Atacama,Namib, Australian, Gobi.

2 Study Figure 2.(a) Name three inputs into thesystem.(b) Name an example of (i) aprimary producer, (ii) aherbivore, (iii) a carnivore.(c) Explain the stages by whichthe nutrients from a dead animalcan get back into the soil.(d) Give two examples of howthe ecosystem might suffer if soilerosion meant there were fewerbushes and cacti.

3 Study the figures in Figure 7.Explain why desert ecosystemsare less productive thanecosystems in other parts of theworld.

4 Study Figure 3.(a) Give three reasons why plantscan exist and grow in such a dryenvironment.(b) What is a nocturnal animal?(c) Explain why both desertherbivores and desert carnivoresare often nocturnal.

5 Make a copy of Figure 8, thenuse the text to add your ownlabels to explain why each of thefeatures of the camel is importantto help it survive in the desert.(The label for the hump isalready done for you as anexample.)

6 Study Figure 4.(a) Describe three adaptations ofthe date palm which help it togrow in deserts.(b) The human uses of date palmsare examples of sustainabledevelopment.(i) Describe three ways in whichthe date palm is used by peoplewho live in deserts.(ii) Using examples from Figure4, explain what is meant by‘sustainable development’.

(iii) Explain how changes ingroundwater levels could affectthe sustainable use of date palms.

7 (a) Using examples fromFigure 6, describe how somepeople want to develop desertareas for activity tourism.(b) Either (i) Design a poster orinformation board to show howthe desert ecosystem may bedamaged by roads, mining andincreased tourism. Use text orannotated labels to explain howthe ecosystem may suffer.or (ii) Write a letter to the editorof a south-west USA newspaperto explain your views on thedevelopment of roads, miningand increased tourism in desertareas.You could use a copy of Figure 3as a basis for your poster/information board/letter.

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Activities

Major ecosystem Typical figure for plant productivity (production of organic matter in g/m2/yr)

Desert, 90eg south-west USA

Temperate deciduous 1,200forest, eg southern England

Tropical rainforest, eg Brazil 2,200

Figure 7: Plant productivity in selected ecosystems

Eyes have long lashesand a double eyelid

Nostrilscan close

Mouth

Wide, padded feet

Largestomach

Long legs

Shaggy coat

Hump(used to store fat for

times when food is scarce)

Figure 8: How camels are adapted to live in deserts

MOZAMBIQUE is one ofthe world’s poorest and

most indebted countries. Until1975 it was a Portuguesecolony, and when thePortuguese left, civil war brokeout, laying waste to much of thecountry. In 1992 Mozambiqueestablished a democraticgovernment and, until thefloods in early 2000, it had beendeveloping and making goodeconomic progress.

Floods in southern AfricaIn January and February 2000,there was flooding throughoutsouthern Africa (Figure 1).South Africa, for example,experienced major problems,but this was nothing comparedwith the problems that werelater to affect Mozambique.However, floodwaters in SouthAfrica contributed to the build-up of water that was later todrain through Mozambique, andalso affected the infrastructure(roads, railways, bridges, shops)in the region.

Floods in MozambiqueThe floods that devastatedMozambique were caused by along period of heavy rain. Over1,100 mm of rain fell inFebruary – in fact, more than75% of Mozambique’s normalannual rainfall fell in just threedays (Figure 2). Heavy rainpersisted for over four weeks,and the rescue operation washindered when even moretorrential rain fell, all followinga spell of dry conditions. Twotropical cyclones (Figure 3),Hurricanes Eline and Gloria,brought driving rains and strongwinds to the region, furtherincreasing the problems.

The Mozambique floodscontinued for a very long time.This was partly because the rainjust kept on falling, but it was alsodue to the fact that the riverswhich flow through Mozambique– the Limpopo, the Save and theZambezi – rise far away in SouthAfrica and Zambia, and drainthrough Botswana and Zimbabwe

(Figure 4). Even after the rain hadstopped falling in Mozambique, itcontinued to receive floodwatersfrom Zambia, Zimbabwe andBotswana. Initially these waterswere ponded up behind dams, buteventually the dams overflowedand the water was released to flowdownstream in huge volumes.

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242

by Garrett Nagle THE MOZAMBIQUE FLOODS 2000

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• More than 35 people were killed in flooding inSouth Africa during February 2000. Torrentialrains swamped parts of southern Africa and cutmajor road links in the region.

• Floods cut off the roads linking Botswana toZimbabwe and South Africa, and Mozambiqueto Swaziland.

• The main road link between Mozambique andSouth Africa was also cut, leaving traders andtourists stranded.

• In Mozambique, government officials said fourpeople died when a bus was swept away byfloods and overturned.

• In South Africa, torrential rains across theNorthern, Mpumalanga and Gauteng provincesleft a trail of death, destruction and despair, asdams overflowed, and rivers broke their banksand swept away bridges and roads.

• The cause of the floods was intense rain andthunderstorms. Most rivers were at their highestlevels in 50 years. Up to 445 mm (17.5 inches)

of rain fell in just four days in the KrugerNational Park. The Park’s Skukuza camp wascut off from the outside world for the first time inits 101-year history.

• Impoverished communities were the hardest hitby the torrential rains. In Alexandra, north ofJohannesburg, the Jukskei River burst itsbanks, and at least 120 shacks on the edge ofthe river were swept away. About 300 familieswere evacuated in low-lying areas in Kliptown,and 7 people were rescued from risingwaterways.

• The cost to repair flood-damaged bridges,roads and government buildings inMpumalanga (South Africa) was estimated atR250–500 million (£25–50 million).

• Business at the South Africa’s Kruger NationalPark was disrupted with the closure of severalcamps. Scores of tourists were evacuated fromthe Park, which is normally one of South Africa’smost lucrative hard currency earners. Most ofthe animals were able to reach high ground.

Figure 1: Flooding in southern Africa, 2000

Figure 2: Causes and effects of floods in Mozambique

MOZAMBIQUE

ZIMBABWE

BOTSWANASOUTHAFRICA

Limpopo R.

Save R. Zam

bezi

R.KaribaDam

CaboraBassa Dam

Beira

Cyclone

Eline

22 February

1 A month oftorrential rainlashes southernAfrica, causingwidespread flooding.

1000 km

N

Palmeira

MALAWI

AFRICA

Rainfall (mm)

February2000

AverageFebruary

1,163

177

Maputo

MADAGASCAR

2 Cyclone Eline strikesMozambique, swellingthe Limpopo and Saverivers. 1 million peopleare left homeless.

Between late 1998 and 2000there were several devastatingfloods in different parts of theworld (Figure 5). In Mozambiquethe floods killed hundreds ofpeople, although the true numbermay never be known. Up to 1million people were madehomeless, and the floods ruinedmuch of the country’sinfrastructure, affecting manymore people. In areas where thefloodwaters had dropped by theend of March, it was possible toplant some seeds for harvest.However, Mozambique continuedto be affected by hurricanes wellinto April. The worst-affectedareas were the low-lying, fertilevalleys, which are the best areasfor farming. In some parts thefloodwaters remained high for along time, and it was not possibleto plant any crops at all in 2000,so farmers and their families weredependent on food aid until2001.

Even when the floodwatersdropped, the hazards were notover. Pools of stagnant water areideal breeding grounds formosquitoes, which cause malaria.People drinking contaminatedwater are at risk from choleraand other diseases causingdiarrhoea and vomiting.Shortages of food affectedpeople’s nutritional state, andmalnutrition became widespread.Other hazards includedpoisonous snakes and spidersthat were washed up by theswollen rivers. Even land minesplanted during the civil war werebrought down by thefloodwaters.

The main short-term needs wereclean water, food, medicine andtents for the refugees. The long-term needs are thereconstruction of the nation’sinfrastructure, and the rebuildingof Mozambique’s fragileeconomy. The aid effort, whichwas criticised because it took solong to get started, had someimpact, but that was limited.However, because Mozambiqueis a sparsely populated country, itwas difficult to get the aid to thepeople.

Some critics have argued that theMozambique floods were‘hijacked by the media’. Theimages of people stranded intrees, and the story of one ladyactually giving birth in a treetop,were certainly dramatic. Theseimages attracted people’sattention to the disaster, andundoubtedly helped to bring inaid donations. But thedevastation of Mozambique didnot remain in the news for long.Once the powerful images thatwere on our TV screensdisappeared and media interestwaned, so too did the aid.Madagascar had similar floodsbut did not attract the sameattention. Mozambique isfortunate to be close to SouthAfrica – without its helicoptersthe death total would have beenmuch greater.

In early April, a furtherhurricane, Hurricane Hudah,killed at least 27 people and leftabout 100,000 people homelessin Madagascar. The worst-affected area here was the coastaltown of Antalaha in the north-east of the country. Just before ithit the Mozambique coast,Hudah suddenly changeddirection. It travelled along thecoast rather than inland, and soMozambique was spared furtherdisaster. Hudah was one of thefiercest hurricanes of the year.

Large parts of Mozambiqueremained under water for twomonths after the rivers first bursttheir banks. The fear was thatHudah would bring heavy rainsand that these would again fillthe rivers so that they wouldflood again. However, this feardid not materialise.

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4

5 An upper atmospherehigh-pressure area,which helps pumpaway air rising inthe storm

Humid air up toabout 5,500 m –the extra watervapour suppliesmore latentheat energy

For a hurricane to develop,there needs to be . . .

1

2 Winds comingtogether nearthe surface

Ocean water above 28°C, for theproper amount of water to

evaporate. Warm water must beabout 60 m deep because stormsstir up the ocean, bringing up cold

water from below.

Existing winds

3 Unstable air,so that itwill continueto rise

Existing winds

Existing winds

Warm water 60 m

Figure 3: Development of ahurricane

Figure 4: The Mozambique floodzone

ZIMBABWE

SOUTH AFRICA

Maputo

Chokwe

NovaMambone

Flooded areaKey

N

SWAZILAND

Beira

1500 km

MOZAMBIQUE

Limpopo R.

Save R.

Incomati R.

Chaquelan

Country Date Deaths People affected Money pledged Economic cost (US$ million) (US$ billion)

Mozambique March 2000 400 2 million 107 n.d.

Venezuela December 1999 30,000 600,000 27.8 15.0

India (Orissa) November 1999 10,000 12 million 20.8 2.5

China August 1998 3,600 200 million 131.7 30.0

Bangladesh September 1998 4,750 23 million 234.1 5.0

Figure 5: Floods around the world, 1998–2000 n.d. = no data availableSource: The Economist, 11 March 2000

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At that time, about 800,000people were still dependent onfood aid, and more than 250,000were living in tents. Cases ofmalaria rose sharply, andaccounted for 50% of hospitaladmissions.

The devastation of Mozambiquewas not total. Many factories andother export earners escaped thefloods, although many of theroads, bridges and dams werebadly affected and the process ofreconstruction following the civilwar was set back. Over 960 km ofroads were destroyed in thefloods, and 600 schools neededrepairs.

AidInternational aid donors met inApril 2000 to hear theMozambique foreign minister’splea for aid. But Mozambique hasnot managed to persuade foreigncountries to write off its nationaldebt. The fear is that some of theaid given to Mozambique will beused to repay some of its debt,rather than being used to rebuildthe country.

Unlike people in more developedcountries, residents of

Mozambique are too poor (seeFigure 6) to take out insuranceagainst flood losses. Thegovernment itself is too poor tocover the losses of the people ,and will find it very difficult torepair all the flood damage.

The Mozambique governmentappealed for US$63.5 million ofaid in order to rebuild itsinfrastructure. The UN appealedfor US$13 million of aid to helpthe 800,000 who were at risk ofdisease. This amounts to aboutUS$15 per head to cover healthcare, food, and accommodation.

After the floodIn the months following thefloods, the government started toregenerate the country’s economy.For example, although the floodsruined 10% of the country,destroyed up to 90% of irrigatedland, and washed away some200,000 cattle, Mozambiquefarmers returned to their landsand planted beans and maize inthe silt. Crops sown before thesouthern winter (May–August)produced a quick harvest. Theyear 2001 could be a bumper yearfor the farmers of Mozambique.The silt deposited by the floods is

rich in nitrates and phosphates.Moreover, the government istrying to attract some of the whitefarmers from Zimbabwe, hopingthat they will bring some of theircapital and their skills.

The government is now trying toguard against future floods.Refugees are being resettled onhigher ground. In Xai-Xai, aidagencies provided free buildingmaterials to people who helpedclean up the flood debris fromthe town.

Nevertheless, most refugees wantto go back to their own homes.Up to three-quarters of thosewho found themselves in refugeecamps have since returned towhere their homes were. Inmany cases, there is little left forthem. Some of these peoplereturn periodically to the refugeecamps to receive help, but thismakes it difficult to plan anddeliver help to all those in need.

Despite the devastation, therewas little unrest. There wasevidence of some looting, and itis reported that four people werekilled in a stampede for food.Generally, though, people werepatient and tolerant in the face ofdisaster – which is perhapssurprising in a country that wasat war with itself between 1975and 1992.

What can never be quantified isthe huge psychological traumaand distress that these floodshave brought to the people ofsouthern Africa. Now that thefloods have finally drained awaycompletely, and the mediadeparted, the people here willhave to get on with their lives,and rebuild their countries. It is atall order to ask, even of adeveloped country. InMozambique, where the averageannual income is US$80 (about£50) a year, such rebuilding isalmost beyond comprehension.

UK Mozambique

Population (millions) 58.1 18.0

Population density 238/km2 20/km2

Population growth rate 0.1%/year 2.6%/year

Population aged < 15 years 19.3% 25.0%

Population aged > 65 years 15.8% 4.0%

Male : female ratio 96 : 100 85 : 100 (effect of the civil

war and labour migration to

South Africa)

Human development index (HDI) 93 36

Life expectancy

Male 74.5 years 44 years

Female 79.8 years 46 years

Literacy 99% 58% male/23% female

Fertility rate 1.7 6.1

Urban population 89% 35%

Crude birth rate/1,000 12 44

Crude death rate/1,000 11 18

Infant mortality rate/1,000 6 123

Employment structure

Agriculture 2% 83%

Industry 27% 8%

Services 71% 9%

GNP $19,600 $80

Figure 6: The UK and Mozambique compared

1 On a copy of Figure 7, labelthe countries of southern Africa,and the main rivers that flowthrough Mozambique. Use anatlas to help you.

2 On Figure 8, mark thefollowing places:• Maputo • Palmeira• Beira • Save River• Chokwe • Limpopo River• Nova Mambone • Zambezi River.

3 Using an atlas or otherreference material, find out theapproximate length ofMozambique from north tosouth, and its width from east towest. How does this comparewith the size of the UK? Whatare the implications of this forthe provision of aid?

4 Study Figure 2. Suggest whyMozambique is affected byhurricanes.

5 Why do you think peoplecontinue to live in areas that areprone to flooding?

6 Comment on the data shownin Figure 5. What has been theimpact of major floods in recentyears?

7 Suggest why the flooding inMozambique attracted theworld’s attention, but that inneighbouring Madagascar didnot.

8 (a) What were the immediate(short-term) problems caused bythe floods in Mozambique?(b) What were the long-termproblems?

9 What can Western countriesdo to help Mozambique?

10 Design a poster asking forpeople to donate money to helpvictims of the Mozambique flooddisaster.

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Activities

2000 km

N

Figure 7: Southern Africa

2000 km

N

Figure 8: Mozambique

WORLD POPULATION hasdoubled since 1955, and

today stands at 6 billion – it isexpected to reach about 10 billionby 2150. At this point, UNpredictions suggest, it will levelout. Despite the populationincrease of the last 40 years, foodproduced per head has also goneup. Those who live with chronichunger in parts of the developingworld do so not because the worldcannot produce enough food, butsimply because they are poor.There are enough world foodsupplies, but opinions differ onwhether we can grow enough tomeet the needs of futurepopulation growth.

Not only will the number ofpeople increase; improved averagestandard of living in the worldmeans that diets are changing, andthis places greater pressure onfarmers. For example, meat was,until recently, something of aluxury in most Asian people’sdiets. In China now, meatconsumption is rising by 10% peryear. Other forms of animalprotein, eggs and milk, are alsoincreasing as people can afford abetter diet. Current Asianconsumption of animal protein is

about one-quarter of that in thedeveloped world, and demandseems set to continue rising.

The Worldwatch Institute warnsof an impending food crisis in theworld caused by populationgrowth and the demand foranimal protein from Asia’semerging economies.Biotechnologists, on the otherhand, are confident that newtechnologies will be able toproduce enough food for 10billion people.

Already farming is highly intensivein those parts of the world whereit is possible. Investment is neededand often not available in LEDCs,though environments there areoften fragile and would sufferfrom intensification of farming.Many people argue that currentagricultural methods already have

a huge impact on the environment(see Figure 1), so furtherconcentration can only make thisworse.

‘The challenge for agriculture is toproduce enough food to meet futuredemand, without damagingenvironment or health.’

‘The Future of Farming: What price the food we eat?’,Understanding Global Issues 97/7, Buxton Press Ltd

Modern methodsYou may have learned in yourGCSE course about systems ofcrop rotation, and these are usedon smaller farms. But today manycrops are grown on a large scale ina system of monoculture – that is,where one crop is produced yearafter year from the same land.This means the same nutrients areconsistently taken from the soil,and replaced by heavy doses ofchemical fertiliser. Monoculture

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243

by Alison Rae MODERN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES ANDTHEIR IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

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D E C I S I O N - M A K I N GE X E R C I S ED E C I S I O N - M A K I N GE X E R C I S E

Figure 1: Modern farming methods

Figure 2: The impact on the environment of modern farming methods

INTENSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE

Slurry spreading causes odour, which adverselyaffects those living in the

neighbourhood, and any tourism potential

More livestock onless land area, soimpact is greater

Contamination of waterresources by effluent runofffrom the storage of animal

manure and silage

Depletion of oxygen instreams, rivers and lakes

leads to eutrophication andgrowth of toxic algae

Damage aquaticecosystems

Pollutes humandrinking water

Overgrazing

Soil erosionCompaction of

land from heavymachinery

Soilerosion

Autumn sowing leaves topsoilbare all winter – wind and raincause erosion at a rate fasterthan the soil can be naturally

replenished

Increase in use offertilisers and

agrochemicals(herbicides and

pesticides) leads topollution of theenvironment

Insufficiently regulated useof herbicides and pesticidesdamages wildlife – plants,

insects, animals

Contamination ofwater resources

by fertilisersleached from

crop and pastureland

Larger fieldsmean reduction

in naturalhabitats, egwoodlands,hedgerows

Serious reduction in wildlifenumbers, especially insect

on which birds feed,and therefore also birds –

sparrows in particular havedeclined in number

encourages pests because so manyof the same plants are growntogether, requiring higher doses ofpesticide. This is just one of anumber of environmentalproblems caused by modernfarming methods (see Figure 2).

Farming used to be in the hands ofindividual farmers and theirfamilies. But today, in the MEDCs,this is becoming increasinglyuncommon. Many farms havebeen amalgamated into largerunits. They are owned bycompanies, and run by managers,who may be responsible forseveral farms. In the EuropeanUnion, CAP tends to favour suchfarms. They collect much of theirincome from subsidies, and thisseems to be at the expense of thesmall family farms.Large food companies do not buy

from small farmers. They prefer todeal with big producers whoguarantee large amounts ofproduce of even quality atcompetitive prices. Supermarketsplace tight restrictions on theirfarmers in terms of quality andprice. This encourages highchemical use, and concentrationon a limited range of crops.Biodiversity (a wide range) of foodplants has been much reduced overthe last 50 years.

Many small farms in the UK arenow struggling, in particular hilland dairy farms. Hill farmers aregoing out of business so fast thatthere are concerns the uplandareas will suffer. It is these farmerswho undertake so muchmaintenance of the landscape thatwe take for granted. In autumn1999 and into 2000, sheep fetchedsuch low prices that farmers couldnot afford to keep them. In theWest Country some were actuallygiven away to an animal rescuecentre. Dairy herds are declining innumber, and if this continues wecould find ourselves importingfresh milk from France!

Organic farmingOrganic farming operates withoutfactory-made chemicals of anysort. That means no artificialfertilisers are used, no pesticides,herbicides, or yield-enhancing

drugs for animals. It is really areturn to less intensive traditionalfarming, and is similar to themethods that were used before the‘agricultural revolution’ at the endof the Second World War. Thesemethods are kinder to theenvironment, because fewer toxinsget into the soil or water supplies,and because fossil fuels are notused up. (These are the rawmaterials for many chemicalfertilisers.)

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1 FERTILISERSTraditional Before the AgriculturalRevolution of the late 18thcentury and the 19th century, allfertilisers were organic, and mostcame from the farm itself.Recycling was very important.Manure and stubble wereploughed into the ground. Theonly fertilisers from off the farmwere seaweed, shelly sand, guano(bird droppings) and minedpotash. These provided nutrientswhile also maintaining soil texture.

Modern Chemical fertiliser usegrows every year – from 14million tonnes in 1950 to morethan 120 million tonnes in 1995.Much is wasted. It gets washed offthe land before plants can use it. Itfinds its way into water suppliesand contaminates them (Figure 3).World average application perhectare is 100 kg/year, but thishides the great differencesbetween MEDCs and LEDCs. TheNetherlands, for example, uses600 kg/ha/year, France, Germanyand the UK 300 kg/ha/year. Insome LEDCs, like India, fertiliseruse is now growing fast, andenvironmental problems look setto increase rapidly there.

2 AGROCHEMICALSEarly chemical sprays weresometimes dangerous, causingrespiratory damage to people andkilling wildlife. DDT persisted inthe soil and was concentrated intoxic doses in animals and peoplevia the food chain.

Modern sprays are moresophisticated, designed to target aparticular insect or weed. Theyaim to be biodegradable andharmless to humans. Neverthelessconcern remains. Even in MEDCs,with their strict regulations ondosage, accidents and pollutionoccur. Use in LEDCs is lesscarefully controlled, so risks ofenvironmental damage arepotentially greater. The currentincrease in the use of pesticides(worth $30 billion a year) ismainly in the LEDCs.

How nitrates get intoour water

Areas given permission toexceed EU nitrate levels

Water table

River

Runoff containingnitrates fromfertilisers

Seepage fromsurface towater table cantake from2 to 40 years

Water treatment plant:£155 million worth ofionising plant is beinginstalled to purifywater contaminatedwith nitrates

Contaminatedwater drawnup fromaquifer viaboreholes

N

Greater London

Gloucester

Lincoln

NorwichShrewsbury

2000 km

Figure 3: Pollution from artificial fertilisers

Source: I. Bowler (1996) Update: Agricultural Change in Developed Countries, Cambridge University Press

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There are about 1,000 organicfarmers in the UK, and around10,000 in Europe. The number ofsuch farmers is growing all thetime, but they still only occupy lessthan 1% of all farmland. Peoplepractising organic methods usuallydo so because they are committedto a clean environment and topreservation of wildlife habitats(Figure 4 lists organic farmingtechniques). But for this system tothrive, people must want to buythe products. All UK supermarketsstock organic produce now. Pricesremain too high for most people,but consumption grewsignificantly during the 1990s, andin 1999 in particular.

The negative side of organicfarming is that yields are lowercompared with crops/livestockproduced by modern methods(though only by 10–20%). This ismainly due to greater losses topests and diseases, and to lowersoil fertility. On the other hand,prices for organic produce remainhigher, so total profit per unit areacan be greater (see Figure 6 onpage 4). This is partly becauseorganic crops are ‘special’, and if

the majority of produce becameorganic they would no longer beso special.

Some types of farming do noteasily lend themselves to organicmethods. For example, sheep pickup parasites, but these are difficultto control without using chemicalpesticides.

GM cropsGenetic modification of crops andanimals can be viewed as a naturaldevelopment of traditional andmodern breeding techniques, likethose used in the GreenRevolution. There are manybenefits: plants may be better ableto resist pests and diseases, andcontain more nutrients.

Most research so far has beendone on crops and livestock inMEDCs. Little has been done ontropical crops, although attemptshave been made to producesynthetic substitutes for importantThird World export crops likecocoa, coffee and vanilla. Thiscould have serious results for theeconomies of producing countries.Research is dominated by large

companies: the US companyMonsanto has been in the newsmost, but UK companies like ICIand Unilever are also involved.These companies want to patenttheir discoveries, so that only theycan supply seeds. A farmer will notbe allowed by law to keep any ofhis harvest back as seed for thefollowing year. However, farmersin LEDCs almost always do this, asit is the cheapest way for them tofarm.

The risks of GM plants to theenvironment are not fullyunderstood. This is why they areso controversial. New plants thatare resistant to herbicides or insectattack could become weeds, orthey could cross-pollinate withwild plants to create new weeds.Plants with built-in toxins to deterpests could also poison bees, birdsand even mammals.

1 On-farm waste recycling of manure andcrop residues. This is seen to be more inharmony with natural ecosystems than theuse of chemical fertilisers and the burningof straw.

2 Non-manufactured, naturally occurringmineral fertilisers (eg limestone) areallowed, but only where nutrients arereleased through weathering or the activityof soil organisms.

3 Weeds are controlled by:

• mulching (when a layer of organicmaterial, eg straw, is applied to the soilsurface to reduce evaporation and stopweed growth)

• crop rotation

• cultivation rather than spraying

• timed planting to allow the weed seedsto germinate first and emerge before thecrop.

4 Pests and diseases are prevented by:

• using less nitrogen, thus allowing plantsto become sturdier and less succulent topests

• rotating crops to reduce the chance of apest surviving from one year to the next

• encouraging predators, eg spiders, birds

• using natural biocides like pyrethrumand derris

• using resistant crop varieties.

5 Animal welfare is given a high priority.

6 The use of green manuring andundersown legumes which fix nitrogen inthe soil. Some farmers aim for green coverall year round.

7 Crop rotations, such as:

• a four-year grass/clover ley, then barley,oats, beans, oats

• a four-year ley, then wheat, barley andundersown clover, ley, wheat, oats

• beans/peas, then wheat, oats, beans,wheat, rye

8 Inter-cropping, or the mixing of rows ofdifferent crops in the same field. Thisreduces the risk of pests spreading fromone plant to another in the same crop, andmakes better use of sunlight.

Figure 4: The techniques of organic farmingSource:M. Raw and P. Atkins (1995) Agriculture and Food, Collins Educational, p.36

1 In groups, or as a whole class,discuss your reactions to theenvironmental problems caused bymodern farming methods.

2 Figure 5 shows some of thelandscape changes that have beencaused by modern farmingmethods between 1940 and the1980s.(a) List as many changes as youcan, referring both to the sketchesand to the land use maps.(b) Suggest any further changes tothe environment that may haveoccurred since the 1980s.

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Activities

Figure 5: Environmental change in the countrysideSource: Adapted from I. Bowler (1996) Update: Agricultural Change in Developed Countries, Cambridge

Organic system Conventional systemWinter wheat (£/ha) Winter wheat (£/ha)

Output: Output:Yield 2 tonnes @ £518.90 1037.80 Yield 3 tonnes @ £313.80 941.50

Inputs: Inputs:Seed 69.20 Seed 59.30Minerals 44.50 Compound 59.00Seaweed, sulphur 24.70 Nitrogen 40.80Manures 37.10 Herbicide 34.60Organic nitrogen fertiliser 74.10 Slug pellets, aphicides 24.70Extras 24.70 Fungicides 24.70Total variable costs 274.30 Total variable costs 258.80Net profit/ha 763.50 Net profit/ha 682.70

Figure 6: Comparison of costs and profits for growing wheat by organic andmodern methodsSource: ‘Organic Farmers and Growers Ltd 1992’, quoted in M. Raw and P. Atkins (1995) Agriculture and Food,Collins Educational, p.37

Decision-making Exercises

3 Using Figure 6, compare thecosts and profits for an organicsystem of farming and aconventional system. For example,look at the yields per hectare, thecosts of production, the sellingprices and the profits. If you were afarmer, which system would youadopt? Give reasons to back upyour decision.This question could be consideredindividually, in groups, or as aclass debate.

4 Farming in the MEDCs can goin three possible directions:(a) stay with modern methods(b) go back to organic methods(c) increase the use of GM crops.This unit provides you withinformation on all of these. • List the advantages and

disadvantages of each. In pairs,decide which you think is thebest way forward. Be clearabout the reasons for yourdecision. At this point keepyour decision secret. Beprepared to justify why yourejected the other twomethods.

• Now get together in groups ofthree pairs. Each pair shouldargue for one of (a) to (c), evenif that is not the one theydecided upon. (Your teacherwill help direct you.) Doing

this will help your powers ofargument.

• At the end of the discussion, thegroup must decide on the bestcourse of action. Perhaps youwill stay with your originaldecision, or maybe you willhave been swayed by the pointsof other group members.

5 Individually, make clearrecommendations for the future,bearing in mind the need tobalance agricultural productivityand environmental concern.

KeyField boundaryRiverTreeArablePastureWoodlandScrub

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Series 12 Spring issue Units 237–243 Teacher’s Notes © 2001 Nelson Thornes GeoActive OnlineThis page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only. Page 1 of 4

This unit has been designed as suitable case study material for worlddevelopment modules of GCSE syllabuses. It investigates howdevelopment is measured; the challenges facing people living in arural area of southern Peru; and the way in which sustainabledevelopment projects are responding to these challenges.The unit is based on Credit to the poor: sustainable development inPeru, an activity pack for Key Stages 3 and 4, from ActionAid’saward-winning development education department.

Suggested answers to activities1 (a) True; true; false; false; true; true; false; true.2 (a) Peru is located in South America on the coast of the PacificOcean. It is bordered by Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Braziland Bolivia to the east, and Chile to the south.3 (a) Draw one graph (rainfall in bar graph form and temperature inline graph form).(b) Include the lowest and highest temperatures, and the temperaturerange.(c) Include the lowest and highest rainfall, the rainfall total and anypatterns.(d) There are no great variations. Summer is from May toSeptember, when the temperatures are the highest and rainfall thelowest.(e) Temperatures are low all year round, which is not ideal for fastvegetation growth.4 Encourage pupils to consider the difficulties in measuringdevelopment, eg average figures hide how wealth is distributedbetween regions.5 This forms background information on Tarata, useful for thebeginning of a case study.6 Pupils must justify their choice of application, eg ‘We rejectedapplication 2 because the couple did not have children to support’.Discuss issues that arise, eg the difficulty in choosing one application,or child labour.

Where to find more informationActionAid Education provides a wide range of award-winningmaterials and services for primary and secondary schools, includingphotopacks, slidepacks, stories, videos and CD-ROMs. ActionAidalso runs a visiting teacher service. For further details about resourcesor school visits, contact:The Education Resources Officer, ActionAid, Chataway House,Leach Road, Chard, Somerset TA20 1FR Tel: 01460 238000 Fax:01460 671 191 Email: deved@actionaid.org.uk Website:www.actionaid.orgDepartment for International Development, 94 Victoria Street,London SW1E 5JL Tel: 020 7873 9090.The Development Education Association, 3rd Floor, Cowper Street,London EC2A 4AP Tel: 020 7490 8108.Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ Tel: 01865 311311.

Joanne Price is a Development Education Writer at ActionAid.

This unit is designed primarily as a case study for sections of theGCSE syllabus that deal with rock types and related landscapes. Itexamines the properties of granite as a rock, and how physical andhuman factors have influenced granite landscapes, with specificreference to Dartmoor. At Key Stage 3 it could provide some ideas inrelation to the way the extraction of natural resources have an impacton the environment.

Suggested answers to activities1 (a) Weathering: the in situ (in one place) breakdown of rock byphysical, chemical and biological processes.(b) Erosion: the wearing down of rock by natural agents – rivers, thesea, moving ice and the wind. Erosion is different from weathering inthat it involves the transportation of material, which is used as an agentto erode rock.(c) Transportation: the moving of weathered or eroded material bynatural agents – wind, rivers, moving ice or the sea.(d) Deposition: the dropping of weathered or eroded material in thelandscape by, for example, rivers or the sea.(e) Mass movement: the movement of rock, debris and soil downslopeby force of gravity, eg rockfall, scree slopes, mudflows, slumping.2 Time.3 Pupil activity.4

5 Granite landscapes have a lot of surface drainage – rivers, pools,areas of bog – because the rock is impermeable. Granite is a crystallinerock and is non-porous. Also, being an igneous rock, it does not havebedding planes and it has few joints and cracks, so is not very pervious.Pupils should understand that all rocks will transmit some water.6 (a) Pupil activity.(b) The completed map should show that all the major built-up areasare around the edge of the granite moorland areas, includingDartmoor, and towards the coast. The major roads also largely avoidthe moorland areas. In explaining these patterns, pupils should refer tothe roads connecting the settlements and the relative lack of settlementon the moors. They should also give reasons for the lack of settlementon the granite areas, including the lack of good-quality farmland,difficulties of building on steeper slopes, and the bleak and windsweptnature of the landscape.7 The valleys are suitable for building dams and the impermeablenature of the rock makes the geology of the area ideal for reservoirs.However, large lakes are not a natural feature of Dartmoor. Manylocal people, tourists, conservationists and the Park authorities do not,therefore, feel that they are an appropriate addition to the landscape.Creating reservoirs inevitably involves loss of vegetation anddisturbance to wildlife.8 Pupil activity.

Where to find more informationThere are a number of useful web sites on the internet. Enter thekeyword Dartmoor.The English China Clay Company (ECC International), John KeayHouse, St Austell, Cornwall PL25 4DJ Tel: 01726 74482 Fax: (01726) 623019.

Paul Warburton is Head of Geography at Manchester High Schoolfor Girls.

This unit aims to provide an alternative from the usual case studiesof waterfalls and large-scale dam projects. The case studies can beused independently, or together as a more coherent regional study.

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237 Credit to the Poor: SustainableDevelopment in Peru

238 Granite Landscape: Physical andHuman Influences

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Lot of surface drainage – rivers, bogs Lack of agricultural use – except some Moorland rough grazing, some scattered farmsOpen, windswept landscape – few trees China clay extractionSteep-sided valleys and wooded areas at Army training areasedge of moors Tourism – footpaths, picnic areas and car Tors at the summits of some hills parks, country park

Some settlements – small villages, isolated farms; towns at the edge of the moors

238 Brazil – Focus on the South West

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Suggested answers to activities1 (a) Basalt – a dark igneous rock which is the most common type ofvolcanic rock.(b) Plateau – a wide area of high, flat land.(c) Plunge pool – a deep hollow at the foot of a waterfall, formed byerosion.(d) Gorge – a steep-sided valley created as a waterfall retreats.(e) HEP – hydro-electric power: energy created by the power of water.2 Diagrams should show the main features of a waterfall to include:plunge pool, undercutting, direction of retreat, hard rock collapsing,soft rock worn away, eroded material enlarging plunge pool.3 Possible ways in which people can damage the environment at Fozdo Iguaçu include:• soil erosion caused by wheels of vehicles and people walking• fuel from river launches entering the river• plastic bags etc dropped overboard• litter at picnic and photograph sites• noise, particularly from helicopters, disturbing wildlife• air pollution from the exhaust fumes of motor vehicles.4 The basis for this activity should focus on producing a series ofshort, easy-to-remember instructions for tourists, together with a moredetailed explanation for each guideline. Simple examples couldinclude: Place all litter in a bin to avoid causing injury to animals. Amore complex answer might attempt to tackle the problems caused bynoise from helicopters, by advising tourists of the damage they do.Higher-level answers may also give advice on keeping to footpaths toavoid causing soil erosion.5 Pupil activity.6 (a) Benefits of large-scale HEP projects• Prestigious.• Provide large quantities of cheap electricity.• Can encourage international cooperation.• Provide jobs in construction and running of plant.• Can better manage the flow of some rivers that are liable to

flooding.• Reservoirs also provide a resource for leisure and recreation.Costs of large-scale HEP projects• They are hugely expensive.• Often people are displaced by the construction of the reservoir.• Reservoirs often begin to silt up within a relatively short time.• Can divert money from small-scale development schemes.• In hot areas, water in reservoirs can evaporate quickly.(b) This is a value judgement, but the answer should include evidenceto support the judgement made.7 World Heritage Sites are places, natural features, environments,monuments or sites of interest that are protected by UNESCO andnational governments to preserve them for future generations. Thereare currently 630 sites world-wide. The Foz do Iguaçu is recognised bythe World Heritage Committee as being a site ‘at risk’ due largely tothe illegal opening by local people of a road running through the park.Website address for researching other World Heritage sites:http://www.unesco.org/whc/pages/home/pages/homepage.htm

Where to find more informationGood information on the formation of waterfalls is available in TheWider World by David Waugh, published by Nelson.Details on the workings of an HEP power plant and data on its use,together with information on Itaipù, are available at the US GeologicalSurvey’s website at:http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.htmlThis is an excellent website with lots of activities and links.Information on tourist activities at Foz do Iguaçu can be found in TheBrazil Handbook by Ben Box, published by Footprints (ISBN 0-900751-84-3).

This unit is dedicated to the memory of Pat Winter – a truly exceptionalteacher.

Naomi Peirce is Head of Humanities at Sir Frederic Osborn School,Welwyn Garden City. She has travelled widely in South America andhas contributed to guidebooks on Brazil, Argentina and Chile.

Gold mining in Indonesia provides a case study of the impact of theextraction of raw materials on an LEDC, which is required in anumber of GCSE syllabuses, for example OCR syllabus A, unit 4. It isalso relevant in looking at development issues and considering the roleof TNCs, which are mentioned in most syllabuses.

Suggested answers to activities1 Shifting cultivators: they clear an area of forest by cutting andburning (slash and burn), plant crops for 3–5 years, then move onwhen the soil loses its fertility.‘Ring of Fire’: a zone around the edge of the Pacific Ocean, wheremany crustal plates meet, leading to volcanic activity and earthquakes.TNC or transnational corporation: also called multinationalcompany. They usually have their headquarters in MEDCs, butoperate in many countries.Infrastructure: the basic services provided in an area, such as roads,water, sewerage, electricity and gas.Panning: the washing of gravel or sand in a metal pan, to separategold or other valuable minerals.Agroforestry: crops grown within the rainforest layers withoutdestroying them.Royalties: a percentage (usually small) of the profits from the sale ofan item.Toxins: poisons, which can make people and animals ill or even, insufficient quantities, kill them.2 1 Overburden broken up by drilling and blasting2 Ore removed by excavators and power shovels3 Ore crushed in a mill4 Crushed ore put in a heap on a plastic sheet surrounded by a bund5 Cyanide or mercury addedA Broken overburden placed in spoil heapsB Tailings put in shallow ponds. Sun and microbes break downcyanideC Liquid waste returned to riverD Solid waste dumped in sea or used to fill in opencast pit whenmining finished3 Any of the following development indicators differentiate wellbetween an LEDC and an MEDC.

4 See Figure A on next page.5 Pupil activity, based on activity 4.6 Letters will doubtless make an impassioned plea to stop this type ofincident happening again, but the better ones will also offer solutionsfor the future along the lines of the community projects listed inFigure 5.7 Ideas to be covered:Good aid versus bad aid, ie ‘Give a man a fish and you feed him for aday; give a man a fishing net and you feed him and his family for life.’‘Trade not aid’, ie MEDCs helping LEDCs to develop their ownsurplus food capacity and industries, rather than LEDCs becomingdependent upon free handouts.

Where to find more informationCIA World 1999 Factbook Indonesia atwww.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.htmlPopulation Concern’s CD-ROM ‘Population and DevelopmentDatabase’.Sources of information on mining:Rio Tinto plc (Tel: 020 7930 2399 for publications list) or connectto www.riotinto.uk/ok.htmlwww.minerals.nsw.gov.au/mapspubs/minfacts.htm

240 Gold Mining in Indonesia

Development indicator Indonesia United KingdomPopulation growth rate 1.46% 0.24%Birth rate 22.8 births/1,000 population 11.9 births/1,000 populationInfant mortality rate 57.3 deaths/1,000 live births 5.8 deaths/1,000 live birthsLife expectancy 62.92 years 77.37 yearsLiteracy rate (female) 78% 99%GDP US$ 602 billion US$ 1.252 trillionGDP per capita US$ 2,830 US$ 21,200Employment in agriculture 41% 1.1%

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Source of information on environmental impacts of mining:Community Aid Abroad atwww.caa.org.au/campaigns/mining/index.html

Karen Holdich is Head of Humanities at St Mary’s School, Ascot.She has worked as an LEA inspector for geography, and co-authoredan A/S level geography text.

In the Geography Curriculum at Key Stage 3, a study of desertsprovides an example of an ecosystem, and can also be used toteach ideas of sustainable development. At GCSE, the desertecosystem of the south-west USA can be used as an example of anatural ecosystem and problems of management, when teachingabout an MEDC. Recent research has shown how fragile theecosystem is in many deserts, and how long such ecosystems taketo recover from damage.

Suggested answers to activities1 A = Sahara, B = Arabian, C = Thar, D = Australian, E =Atacama, F = Gobi, G = Namib.2 (a) Oxygen, sunlight, carbon dioxide, water.(b) (i) sage bush, cactus, or creosote bush (ii) rabbit, gerbil orinsect (iii) snake, lizard, fox, wildcat, owl or eagle.(c) Animal is eaten, nutrients are released in droppings, brokendown by dung beetles and returned to the soil.d) Fewer bushes mean less food for herbivores and less shelter, sofewer animals. Fewer nutrients being cycled and returned to thesoil, and less solar energy being converted into food.3 Desert ecosystems receive high solar energy, but the shortage ofwater and the lack of developed soils mean that only a few plantscan use this energy, and they often grow slowly due to lack ofwater. As a result, productivity is low.4 (a) Deep roots to get to water, waxy leaves or thorns to preventwater loss. Thick roots or bulbs to store water, short life-cycle.(b) Nocturnal animals come out to feed at night.(c) Herbivores are nocturnal to avoid heat of sun and water loss.Carnivores are nocturnal because that is when their prey are outand so easier to catch.5 Shaggy coat keeps it warm at night and helps air circulation;long eyelashes and double eyelid prevent damage by blown sand;nostrils can close to prevent sand blocking nose; mouth is designedto chew tough leaves and thorns; wide, padded feet stop it sinkinginto sand and help prevent damage from hot sand; long legs keepit well above hot sand; large stomach stores water.6 (a) Long roots to reach water, can use salt water, trunk can sway

in storms, thin leaves to reduce water loss.(b) (i) Dates are a food source and export crop, leaves used forroofs , mats and baskets, wood for building or fuel.(ii) Human uses based on living tree and its products. If a datepalm dies, or is cut down, another is planted.(iii) A drop in groundwater due to overpumping would mean datepalms might die through lack of water to their roots.7 (a) People want to develop desert areas to provide jobs (mining,tourism), sources of money (eg profit from hotels, and touristfacilities) and for resources needed elsewhere (eg water).(b) Pupil activity.

Where to find more informationA. Goudie, The Human Impact, Blackwell, provides manyexamples of human effects on desert areas.Introductions to the features of desert ecosystems are provided inmost standard A-level textbooks. The following articles in theGeography Review give information about developments in thesouth-west USA:D. Flint, ‘Development vs. environment in southern Utah’, Volume10, 5 May 1997J. Dove, ‘Visitor pressure on the Grand Canyon’, Volume 12, 3January 1999

John Davidson is Head of Geography at Exeter School, Devon.

In 1999, natural disasters killed about 100,000 people – thehighest total since 1991 when a single cyclone killed about140,000 people in Bangladesh. Floods account for about half ofthe deaths due to natural hazards in any year. Not all thoseaffected by floods will be killed. In the 1998 floods in China, therewere about 3,000 deaths but the lives of over 300 million peoplewere affected.Flooding and flood damage is likely to increase in the future, forseveral reasons. More and more people are living in vulnerablelocations, such as river valleys and coastal lowlands. The peoplewho are most at risk are normally the very poor. In addition toliving in vulnerable environments, they are more likely to live insubstandard accommodation. The floods that affected Honduras(Hurricane Mitch) in 1998, and Venezuela in 1999, took a muchgreater toll on the poor than on the rich.Global warming is also increasing the flood threat. Sea levels arerising, tides are getting higher, and increased atmospheric energy iscausing more frequent and more intense storms. According to theUnited Nations, up to half the population in LEDCs will be subjectto floods and storms over the first 30 years of the 21st century.

Suggested answers to activities1&2 Pupil activities.3 Mozambique is about 2,000 km from north to south, and nearly1,000 km from east to west. This makes it much larger than theUK (about 700 km by 400 km), so the provision of aid there isvery difficult.4 Hurricanes require warm tropical oceans to develop, usually onthe eastern side of a continent. As Mozambique is in a tropicalarea, and on the eastern side of Africa, it is subject to hurricanes.These are especially common in the autumn and winter (Januaryto May).5 Areas are low-lying, fertile and offer many advantages. As thepopulation continues to grow, more people will want to live inareas from which they can make a living. In developing countriessuch growth is very rapid.6 Some of the floods were huge. Many people were killed, andthe cost of these floods is immense. All the floods mentioned are inLEDCs, so there may be some relationship between level ofdevelopment, population growth, and the state of preparation inthe event of such disasters.7 The dramatic pictures of people perched on rooftops andtreetops dominated our TV screens for about 10 days. In addition,Mozambique is close to South Africa and it is possible for South

241 Desert Ecosystems

242 The Mozambique Floods 2000

Advantage Disadvantage

Social Community projects eg agroforestry, Sacred ancestral land, hunting savings and loans cooperatives, schools, grounds, longhouses, tribal clinics and churches. traditions may be lost.Emergency aid. Indigenous people forced to move,

violence, low compensation.Women may be left to look after children alone.

Economic 12% GDP. Most mining companies are TNCs.US$4.2 billion earnings. Only small % of profit kept.Infrastructure. Best-paid jobs to foreigners.Employment. Mining is a primary industry, not as Indonesia Business Links. valuable to economy.

Agricultural land may be lost.Local people can no longer pan for gold.

Environmental Protection of endangered species. Mining applications in protected Land re-vegetated with local plant rainforests.species. Cyanide poisons water, fish,

people.Rivers diverted, rainforest flooded.Landslides on waste heaps.Tailings dumped in sea.

Figure A: Advantages and disadvantages of gold mining in Indonesia

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African helicopters to fly to Mozambique and back. Neither ofthese factors was true for Madagascar.8 (a) Short-term problems: the need for clean water, food,accommodation and medicines.(b) Long-term problems:the rebuilding of the country’sinfrastructure (roads, bridges, electricity, etc.); redeveloping itsagriculture; dealing with the psychological trauma of people whohave lost their homes and members of their family; producinggoods for export; need to pay off the country’s debts.9 Western countries could write-off the debt that Mozambiqueowes, and could continue to send money, equipment, skilledpersonnel, medicines, and so on.10 Pupil activity.

Where to find more informationUseful websites:Disasters Emergency Committee: http://www.candric.com/appealMozambique floods appeal: http://www.reliefweb.intUN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs:www.un.org/ha/For resources on Africa try: www.inti-crisis-group.org/

Garrett Nagle is Head of Geography at St Edward’s School,Oxford. He is an examiner and moderator at GCSE and A Level,and has written a number of books, including AdvancedGeography (OUP), Geography Homework Pack (Heinemann) andThinking Geography (Hodder).

Agriculture is a commonly studied topic on most GCSE syllabuses,but it is important to keep up to date. This unit considers currentissues such as the possible expansion of organic farming to counterenvironmental pollution and the development in GM crops.

Suggested answers to activities1 Pupil activity.2 The aim is to encourage pupils of all abilities to evaluateinformation and decide on a course of action. Both individual (orpair) decision-making and group discussion are involved.The questions based on Figure 5 act as an introduction to lookingat environmental change.(a) In the 1980s there are: fewer trees, smaller trees, fewer reedsand water plants, fencing rather than hedging, loss of fieldboundaries, change in river course, more arable at the expense ofpasture, increase in scrub.(b) There are no right or wrong answers here, but suggestions thatprocesses listed in (a) are going further would be appropriate.

For the main part of the Decision-making Exercises the lists eachindividual or pair make should include the standard pros and consof each farming method, eg(a) advantage – high production; disadvantage – polluted water.(b) advantage – low pollution; disadvantage – lower yields.(c) advantage – fewer chemicals needed; disadvantage – dealingwith unknown effects on the environment.3 This is the first decision-making exercise.Close reference needs to be made to the statistics in Figure 6, egcompare the yield/ha (2 tonnes in the organic system, 3 tonnes inthe conventional one), but prices received are £518.90 comparedwith £313.80 per tonne. Having considered the costs involved(slightly more for organic: £274.30 /ha over £258.80 /ha), aconclusion must be reached regarding profitability.4&5 A logical follow-up from this DME could be a whole classdiscussion applying the same three farming possibilities to theLEDCs.Alternatives could be to discuss small and large scales. Forexample: Which method would each pupil choose for anindividual farm in the UK, or an LEDC; then global consequencescould be tackled.

Where to find more informationMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food:HMSO, Agriculture in the UK (updated annually)HMSO, Farm Incomes in the UK (updated annually)The National Farmers Union produces various booklets onnational and local issues (use the phone book to find your localoffice).M. Raw and P. Atkins (1995) Agriculture and Food, Collins(Chapter 6 is especially useful).

Series Editor: Chris IngateIllustrations by Anne Wilson and Angela Lumley

© 2001 Nelson Thornes LtdDelta Place, 27 Bath RoadCheltenham GL53 7TH

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243 Modern Agricultural Practices andtheir Impact on the Environment