gender database for agriculture policies in pacific island countries
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
1/73
Gender Database forAgriculture and
Resource ManagementPolicies in PacificIsland Countries
RAP Publication: 1999/7
By Heather Booth
Demography Programme
Research School of Social Sciences
Australian National University, Canberra
FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific
39 Phra Atit Road
Bangkok 10200, Thailand
ISBN: 974-86644-2-2
Editorial support:
Dr. Revathi Balakrishnan, Regional Rural
Sociologist and
Women in Development Officer
Ms. Marlynne E. Hopper, Consultant
For copies write to:
Regional Rural Sociologist and Women in
Development Officer
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific
39 Phra Atit Road
Bangkok 10200, Thailand
The designations and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression ofny opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or
oncerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author alone and do not imply any opinion
whatsoever on the part of FAO.
Table of Contents
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
2/73
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Summary
Tables
Abbreviations
1. Introduction
2. Policies Relating to Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Natural Resource Management
and Rural Enterprise Development
2.1 Fiji
2.1.1 Agriculture
2.1.2 Fisheries
2.1.3 Forestry
2.1.4 Natural Resource Management
2.1.5 Rural Development
2.2 Vanuatu
2.2.1 Agriculture
2.2.2 Fisheries
2.2.3 Forestry
2.2.4 Natural Resource Management
2.2.5 Rural Development
2.3 Samoa
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
3/73
2.3.1 Agriculture
2.3.2 Fisheries
2.3.3 Forestry
2.3.4 Natural Resource Management
2.3.5 Rural Development
3. The Impact of Policies on Household Livelihood and Food Security
3.1 Fiji
3.2 Vanuatu
3.3 Samoa
4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs to Address Policy
4.1 Data Availability and Unavailability
5. Capacity Building in Gender-Disaggregated Database Development
Bibliography
Annex 1: Statistical Sources and Planned Activities
Annex 2: Persons Consulted
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
4/73
Foreword
Women in development activities in the Pacific Region should bebuilt on solid foundations of good data and area specific
information on gender roles in local production. Policies andprogrammes in such sectors as agriculture, ecological resourcemanagement and rural production should reflect the realities ofcountry specific gender roles in these sectors. Though in recentyears the development agenda has addressed gender concerns,we still have not achieved the goals set by various UNconferences on women since 1985. In Pacific Island countries, a
major barrier to full integration is a lack of current information onthe status of women in agriculture, natural resource managementand rural enterprises. FAO, as the lead technical organization inthe UN system, has a special interest in developing appropriatedatabases on women's participation in agriculture and associatedsectors that determine household food security. In reflection ofsuch commitment, the FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific has produced this document on "Gender Database
Development for Agriculture and Resource Management Policiesin Pacific Island Countries."
The document presents an overview of the policies related toagriculture, fisheries, forestry, natural resource management andrural enterprise development, and examines the current status ofgender integration in these policies. The focus of the analysis ison the current integration and potential for these policies withgender considerations to achieve sustained household foodsecurity in the selected Pacific Island countries. Drawing fromsuch a review, the document provides detailed guidelines on datarequirements relating to gender dimensions in agriculture, naturalresource management and rural development in Pacific Islandcountries. We hope this document will be of value to theMinistries and other interested groups who aim to improve the
integration of women in development and country specific gender-disaggregated databases among Pacific Region countries.
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
5/73
Prem NathAssistant Director Generaland Regional Representativefor Asia and the PacificBangkok, ThailandJanuary 1999
http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
6/73
Acknowledgements
This document is an outcome of various missions undertaken byHeather Booth, a demographer and social statistician with
extensive experience in the Pacific Island region. The report wasprepared under a consultancy agreement with the Women inDevelopment Programme of the FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific. Visits were made in April-May 1997 to the threePacific Island countries covered in the report, namely Fiji,Vanuatu and Samoa, in order to collect information and interviewkey people. A list of the individuals consulted appears as part of
the report. Each one of them is gratefully acknowledged for theirassistance which enabled FAO/RAP to prepare this report. Dr.Vili A. Fuavao, FAO Sub-Regional Representative for the PacificIslands, is sincerely thanked for his support to this mission.
The report provides an analysis of the current status of genderand women's concerns in policies concerning natural resourcemanagement, agriculture and rural enterprise development in
relation to food security. It also addresses data needs in order toaddress the gender aspects of these policies. Although thereport is developed based on field visits to three island countriesin the Pacific Region, we hope that the database framework thatforms part of the document will provide guidelines for gendersensitive database development for other island countries in theregion.
Women in Development ServiceSustainable Development Department Group (RAPS)FAO Regional Office for Asia and the PacificBangkok, ThailandJanuary 1999
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
7/73
Summary
Women in Pacific Island countries play an important role inagricultural and natural resource management and in
contributing to food and livelihood security. Yet, programmes andpolicies related to agriculture, fisheries, forestry, natural resourcemanagement and rural enterprises do not always take women'sroles sufficiently into account given the scarcity of relevantgender-differentiated and sex-segregated information. In order tobetter address food security issues, it is therefore necessary tounderstand the status of women as compared to men and to
strengthen women's roles in agriculture and natural resourcemanagement. This requires the availability of relevantinformation.
This report examines existing policies in the areas of agriculture,natural resource management, fisheries, forestry and ruralenterprises in three Pacific Island countries, namely Fiji, Vanuatuand Samoa. The focus is on their relevance to women and their
impact on food and livelihood security as a means to analyse thecurrent status of gender integration in these policies. On thebasis of this review and analysis of existing policies, the reportidentifies relevant sex-disaggregated data needs at both thenational and community level, as well as appropriate sourcesand data availability. Strategies for capacity building in theidentification, collection and tabulation of sex-disaggregated data
are subsequently discussed as a means of enhancing databasedevelopment in agriculture, natural resource management andrural enterprise development.
While acknowledging the importance and complementarity ofqualitative data, such as detailed studies of gender roles orgender sensitive case studies of farming systems, the focus ofthe report is on the quantitative data required to understand the
roles of women in agriculture, rural development and foodsecurity. Sex-disaggregated data are a crucial prerequisite to theformulation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
8/73
programmes aimed at enhancing the role of women inagriculture, natural resource management and ruraldevelopment. However statistical data of this nature are notreadily available in Pacific Island countries. In this context, thereport identifies data needs as well as appropriate data sourcesfor the three countries in the study. Data needs are grouped into
seven broad areas: i) economic activities; ii) access to means ofproduction; iii) time use and productivity; iv) decision making; v)income and expenditure; vi) food security; and vii) education andtraining. Within each area, a range of data requirements at thecommunity and/or national level are defined, data availability orunavailability is discussed, and sources or proposed sources areidentified.
The report is cognisant of the importance of databasedevelopment as a means to strengthen policy formulation andplanning in the areas of agriculture, natural resourcemanagement, forestry, fisheries and rural enterprisedevelopment. It discusses how database development involvesdefining data needs, collecting and tabulating required data andorganizing data such that they are available to users. In addition,
it recognises the need to foster effective communicationchannels between data users and data producers.
On the basis of the analysis of existing policies related toagriculture and natural resource management in Fiji, Vanuatuand Samoa, the report reiterates the absolute necessity ofaccording full attention to gender-disaggregated and sex-
segregated information in database development. In this context,four strategies for capacity building in gender-disaggregateddatabase development are identified and discussed. Firstly, theneed to increase gender awareness among both users andproducers of databases in order to enhance recognition anddefinition of data needs, and to improve communicationsbetween them. The second strategy recommends capacitybuilding in gender-disaggregated database development for
users in order to increase their statistical awareness given thetendency for users concerned with women in developmentissues to be unfamiliar with data collection. The third strategy
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
9/73
focuses on the need to increase skills in farming systemsdatabase development, not currently well developed in thePacific Region, given their appropriateness for gatheringcommunity level information. For instance, in many cases muchof the data required at the community level could be bestobtained through research and extension activities carried out
within communities. Finally, the fourth strategy advocates theneed to enhance skills in computer-based data compilation,through training in database management and software use,given the great benefits and potential of electronic technologiesfor database development.
The report illustrates the value and potential of gender-
disaggregated database development as a tool for the effectiveformulation and monitoring of agriculture and natural resourcepolicies. Although the focus of this report is on three PacificIsland countries, Fiji, Vanuatu and Samoa, it neverthelessprovides a guide to strengthen database development in othercountries in the region.
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
10/73
Tables
Table 1: Daily per Capita Food Availability in Kilocalories as aPercentage of Requirements (1990-92)
Table 2: Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions inAgriculture, Natural Resource Management and RuralDevelopment in the Pacific
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
11/73
Abbreviations
ADBAsian Development Bank
AusAIDAustralian Agency for International Development
DP3 Third National Development Plan (1992-1996),Vanuatu
EEZExclusive Economic Zone
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations
GATTGeneral Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
GDPGross Domestic Product
ILOInternational Labour Organization
ISCO-88 International Standard Classification ofOccupations 1988
ISICInternational Standard Industrial Classification
MAFFM Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery andMeteorology, Samoa
MAFFMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests, Fiji
MWAMinistry for Women's Affairs, Samoa
NANot available
NGONon-governmental Organization
RAPFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
SPCSouth Pacific Commission
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
12/73
SPREPSouth Pacific Regional Environment Programme
UNDPUnited Nations Development Programme
UNFPAUnited Nations Population Fund
UNICEFUnited Nations International Childrens Fund
UNIFEMUnited Nations Development Fund for Women
VRDTCA Vanuatu Rural Development and TrainingCentres' Association
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
13/73
1. Introduction
Pacific Island economies are based primarily on agriculture andrelated activities. For many years, the traditional subsistence
economy has coexisted with cash cropping of coconut andintroduced crops. This ensured a continuation of self-sufficiencyin food and traditional materials whilst at the same time providingcash for essential expenses. Until relatively recently, theagricultural sector received considerable public support andprotectionist policies served to ensure food security.
The globalisation of world trade and, in particular, the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) are however producingsignificant changes in world commodity markets withrepercussions for agriculture in the Pacific. Under the Agreementon Agriculture of the Uruguay Round, policies must have minimaldistortionary effects on trade or production. Pacific Islandeconomies have had to adapt to this new environment. Theresponse has generally been a greater emphasis on the
expansion of the private sector with exports as the key toeconomic growth.
Under this new approach to economic development, foodproduction and food security are in danger of receiving lessattention than they deserve. Since women contributeconsiderably to food production, especially in Melanesia,
women's roles are in similar danger. This only adds to the lowstatus that women in general and women's role in agriculturealready suffer. The issue of women's role in agriculture (andconcomitant role in natural resource management) is thus closelylinked to the issue of food security. Indeed, to some extent, it hasbeen possible to de-emphasise the importance of foodproduction and food security simply because these are women'sconcerns.
In order to address food security issues therefore, it is necessaryto address and strengthen women's role in agriculture and
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
14/73
natural resource management. This requires the availability ofinformation. In this context, this report seeks to make relevantdata available for three Pacific Island countries, namely Fiji,
Vanuatu and Samoa1. An important part of the report focuses ondata requirements to inform and strengthen policy andprogramme planning in agriculture and natural resource
management with respect to women's roles in food productionand food security. Additionally, the report includes a discussionof data needs to address policy in rural enterprise developmentgiven its close links to agriculture.
The improved availability of sex-disaggregated data on humanresources in agriculture, natural resource management and rural
enterprise development will also permit monitoring of thechanges in women's and men's roles which will undoubtedlycome about as a result of the policies being put in place.
A first requirement for determining data needs to address policyis to examine that policy. The report therefore examines currentpolicies, including strategies and plans of action, in the areas ofagriculture (including fishing and forestry) and natural resource
management as well as rural enterprise development. The focusis on those areas that are relevant to women and on the impactof policies on food security and livelihood concerns. The reportthen identifies relevant sex-disaggregated data needs at thenational and community level, as well as appropriate sourcesand data availability. Strategies for capacity building in theidentification, collection and tabulation of sex-disaggregated data
are then discussed as a means to enhance databasedevelopment in human resources with regard to agriculture,natural resource management and rural enterprise development.
This report forms part of activities carried out under the globalFAO Plan of Action for Women in Development 1996-2001. Thepurposes of this plan are threefold. Firstly, to ensure an evolvingand dynamic understanding of the situation of rural women
including their contributions to, and constraints in, agriculture,forestry, fisheries and rural development. Secondly, to establishstrategies and instruments with reachable targets to address
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
15/73
gender concerns in technical areas. Thirdly, to thereby enhancethe benefits that rural women derive from their contributions tosustainable agriculture, forestry, fisheries and rural development,as well as strengthen their capacities to contribute to nationaldevelopment in each of these sectors.
1 Visits were made to these countries in April-May 1997.
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
16/73
2. Policies Relating to Agriculture,Fisheries, Forestry, Natural ResourceManagement and Rural Enterprise
Development
This section discusses current policies related to agriculture,fisheries, forestry, natural resource management and rural
enterprise development. In order to place these policies incontext, some brief background information is also presented.
2.1 Fiji
Policies relating to economic and social development in Fiji were
formulated in the early 1990s (Government of the Republic of Fiji,1993) and remain current after review in 1995 (Fiji Ministry of
Finance and Economic Planning, 1995). The overall aims areaccelerated economic growth through private sector initiatives
with an emphasis on exports. The private sector, operating in theopen market, is recognised as providing the essential drivingforce of the economy, employment, rising real incomes and
revenue.
Women have been entering the labour force in increasing
numbers in line with the rapid expansion of the manufacturingsector, in particular, the garment export industry. In addition, an
increasing number of women are self-employed in income-generating activities such as farming, market-gardening, fishingand reef-gleaning, craft production, retail outlets and food
vending. Many of these women are self-made, having receivedno capital or training assistance. Policies are intended to involve
women as equal partners in development, to train women toimprove their employment opportunities, to strengthen
information on gender and co-ordination of activities, and toexamine legislation with respect to gender (Government of Fiji,1993). Gender issues in agriculture have recently been
addressed by the UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP Mainstreaming
http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
17/73
Project2. Gender sensitisation training has been carried out andgender is now incorporated into mainstream policies and
activities.
2.1.1 Agriculture
In the early 1990s in Fiji, agriculture contributed about a fifth of
GDP and almost half of total employment (women's informalsector employment is under reported). Sugar is the majoragricultural export crop, accounting for some 40 percent of total
exports in the early 1990s and employing almost exclusivelymen. Copra is also important. More recently introduced crops
have included ginger, cocoa and rice. Dalo, duruka and yaqona
are also exported. Beef, dairy, poultry and pork production meetmost of the needs of the local market.
The 1993 Policy3 (Government of Fiji, 1993) aimed to guide the
agricultural sector towards a more competitive and marketoriented approach to production, and to use this approach inadapting to market changes. Such market changes include:
deregulation; export promotion; improved productivity and cost
effectiveness; private sector investment; reorientation towardsfinancial performance and price effectiveness; and quality andprivatisation. The Government continues to provide essentialsupport services, such as extension, research, marketing,
planning, regulatory and infrastructure development, and toenforce measures for sustainability.
Under the current refocusing, this policy continues to pursue acorporate thrust, promoting increased co-operation with the
private sector and export growth. A Corporate Plan (1997-2000)has been submitted to the Government for approval. Export-led
policy aims to provide income-generating opportunities and, atthe same time, improve food accessibility and affordabilitythrough consistency and quality of supply. It promotes traditional
crops and seeks to identify niche markets (in USA, Canada, New
Zealand, Australia and Japan) for crops such as fresh mango,pawpaw, taro and traditional vegetables. The European market isan important market for processed fruit puree. The emphasis on
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
18/73
an expanded export market is expected to generate a surplus for
the domestic market. The surplus for the domestic market isintended to absorb lower quality produce and provide economic
viability. Most of the produce exported is grown by smallholderswith 1-10 acres of land. There is a mix of smallholdings andlarger mechanised farms, always with mixed cropping.
Constraints to agricultural development include: inadequate
extension services; land tenure; water resources; insufficientappropriate technologies; irregularity of supply; undevelopedlocal and export markets; and a lack of many of the facilities
essential for efficient production including infrastructure, capital,cold-storage and freezing capacity (for marine produce), fuel
supplies for fishing boats, marketing facilities, quality control, andadequate air freight capacity (Fiji Ministry of Finance andEconomic Planning, 1995).
2.1.2 Fisheries
Although the fisheries sector contributes only 1.6 percent ofGDP, it has important potential. Subsistence fisheries are
important in themselves and as a source of income. Beche-de-mer are processed and dried. Trochus shells are collected for the
pearl button industry. Women are involved in subsistencefisheries related to gathering from the reef. Women are alsosuccessfully involved in freshwater mussel fisheries. A fish
cannery employs rural women.
The 1993 Policy aims to: expand tuna and deep-sea fisheries;improve efficiency and quality in small-scale commercialfisheries; assist rural fishermen in the transition from subsistence
to small-scale commercial fishing; develop aquaculture (e.g. giantclam, seaweed, prawn and crab); improve quality and added
value of exports; regulate for optimum utilisation andsustainability; and improve business management and fishhandling and processing. At present, however, there is no
strategy for inshore fisheries and no assessment of stock levels.
2.1.3 Forestry
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
19/73
The forestry sector contributed 1.9 percent of GDP in 1994(AusAID, 1995). Forestry provides rural income through
plantation ownership and timber processing. Forest exports arean important component of total exports. Women are involved in
community forestry. In response to a request from women, the
Forestry Department began to promote the identification andawareness of traditional medicinal plants. A non-governmental
organization (NGO), Wainimate, also promotes traditionalmedicinal plants.
The 1993 Policy aims to: encourage private sector involvement;ensure landowner participation; strengthen training; prepare a
forest inventory; promote the 1990 logging code; promote
conservation, protection, rehabilitation and reserves; andencourage forest development so as to generate employmentand export income.
2.1.4 Natural Resource Management
The 1993 Policy seeks to ensure sustainable development
through protection of the environment against activities thatthreaten long-term productive potential. This includes sustainableuse of renewable resources, integrating environmentalmanagement in planning and development, strengthening
institutional capacity for sound environmental management,environmental impact studies for new projects, and prioritising
environmental expenditure according to its contribution to socio-economic development. Conservation and protection measures
are to include community education. In addition, the activeparticipation of rural people is to be encouraged in precautionaryenvironment conservation and management measures.
2.1.5 Rural Development
Some two-thirds of Fiji's population is rural (Government of Fiji,
1986 Census). In line with national development policies, theprivate sector is seen as the key to rural development throughemployment creation and the retention of young people in ruralareas. The main areas identified for development are agriculture
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
20/73
(including timber) and tourism. Policies and strategies for rural
development are intended to: improve the effectiveness of localadministration; promote private investment; provide supporting
infrastructure for private commercial development; maintaineffective social services, particularly health, education and basicneed services; develop appropriate transport systems; and
encourage people's participation, particularly through NGOs(Government of Fiji, 1993). The 1995 review of policy (Fiji
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995) furtheremphasised small-scale agriculture and tourism as the keystrategic sectors for development.
While tourism is an important component of development, the
rural population has not benefited as much as possible as aresult of inadequately developed linkages to the rural economy.Proposed initiatives thus aim to strengthen these linkages
through the development of handicrafts, ecotourism and small-scale agriculture. Women's role in handicraft production has been
recognised in the proposed initiative to develop programmes forwomen's clubs to produce craft work for sale in tourist outlets (FijiMinistry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995). Other
constraints to the development of tourism include: a lack ofGovernment commitment, and a consequent lack of funding;
insufficient training facilities; inadequate hotel room and airlinecapacity; high costs; and land tenure (Fiji Ministry of Finance andEconomic Planning, 1995).
Human resource constraints also exist in that the market
economy cuts across traditional indigenous modes of production.Training in business is therefore seen as an essential part of thedevelopment of the rural private sector. Since the majority of the
rural population is of Fijian ethnicity, this training hasconcentrated on the enhancement of indigenous Fijians'participation in business. The recent review of policy in this area
(Fiji Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995) identifiedthree levels for business development: i) corporate; ii) small-
medium enterprise; and iii) income generation. At the small-medium enterprise level, the review noted that progress hadbeen extremely slow. However, most Fijians are involved at the
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
21/73
income generation level. The review also noted that the policy of
deregulation runs contrary to the enhancement of indigenousFijians' participation in business since their infant businesses
cannot compete with well established larger businesses. Supportthrough advisory and training services is therefore required, andvarious protectionist measures and tax incentives have also been
proposed (Fiji Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995).
2.2 Vanuatu
In Vanuatu, agriculture, forestry and fisheries accounted for 23percent of GDP in 1995, with 10 percent coming from
subsistence agriculture and 13 percent from commercial farms
and plantations (FAO, 1997). Agriculture, forestry and fisheriesaccounted for 65 percent of exports in 1995 (ibid.). Livestockproduction makes a significant contribution to GDP and beefproduction is well established with exports to Japan and other
Pacific Island countries. Despite vast reserves, fisheriesproduction is small. Forestry accounted for some 4 percent of
GDP in 1995, this being reduced from early 1990 levels due toconcerns about conservation (ibid.).
The population of Vanuatu is overwhelmingly rural; 82 percent ofthe population was classified as rural by the 1989 census
(SPC/UNDP, 1991). Rural households are characterised by asemi-subsistence lifestyle. Traditionally women have beenresponsible for food cropping and marketing while men are
involved mainly in cash crop production. Men also assist with the
heavier land-clearing work for food production. On average,women spend 18 percent of their time on food production andmarketing and a further 5 percent of their time on cash cropping(Agricultural Census, 1983-84 quoted in UNICEF/Government of
Vanuatu, 1991). Yet very little agricultural extension assistance isavailable for women.
Until very recently, development policy in Vanuatu was
formulated in five-yearly development plans, the most recent ofwhich is the Third National Development Plan 1992-1996(Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office, 1992). A
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
22/73
shorter planning timeframe of three years has now been adopted,
and policies for 1997-1999 are currently being incorporated into aComprehensive Reform Programme with the assistance of the
Asian Development Bank.
Traditionally women's involvement in planning and decision
making has been minimal. Even today, many national andcommunity issues are still addressed only by men. These include
issues such as land use and community water supplies which areof vital concern to women given their role in agriculture and foodproduction.
The overall development goal for women is the realisation of their
full potential as equal partners and beneficiaries in developmentprocesses and the promotion of their full and equal participationin local, national and international affairs. Relevant areas of
emphasis include: incorporation of women's issues inmainstream development; recognition of the importance of the
empowerment of women as a cornerstone to sustainabledevelopment; and recognition of the strategic role of women asagents and beneficiaries of development and in the alleviation of
poverty (Vanuatu Department of Women's Affairs, 1995).
2.2.1 Agriculture
Smallholder producers in Vanuatu accounted for approximately
80 percent of agricultural production in 1994 (Government ofVanuatu, 1994). The main subsistence crops grown are sweet
potato, yams, taro, bananas and manioc. The main cash cropsare copra and cocoa, together with coffee, kava, pumpkin,pepper, vanilla, groundnut and potato.
Emphasis in the past on cash crops, coupled with a lack of
foresight, has resulted in a shortage of traditional materials. Atthe same time, growth in the tourism industry has increaseddemand for traditional materials including palms for thatched
roofing, pandanus for handicrafts, bananas and pawpaw. Yetnone of these are planted in sufficient quantities. Although
sandalwood was sold for a high price in previous decades, it has
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
23/73
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
24/73
of user-pays systems for inspections. Competition in copra and
cocoa marketing is also being introduced.
In the livestock sector, beef plays an important role with moreand more land being converted from forest to grazing.Government policy seeks to encourage low-cost, high-quality
beef production for both local and export markets, throughmeasures such as the encouragement of competition in
processing, the privatisation of public shares in abattoirs, and theregularisation of industry fees.
Given the low status of women in Vanuatu's culture, women'srole in agriculture is not recognised in many policies, including
delivery of extension services. In this context, farming systemshave not been improved. Indeed, they are not seen to be in needof improvement. For example, no assistance has been given to
women in terms of appropriate technology (such as hoes forweeding). Additionally, women often walk for an hour, carrying
everything by hand, to reach their gardens despite the obvious
inefficiencies. Extension officers are mostly male4 and tend toaddress the chief and/or mostly male farmers who do not
generally pass on knowledge to women. Until recently, extensionservices addressed the needs of cash crop producers, and the
more recent emphasis on food production has met withresistance to change. Moreover, efforts to provide extensionservices to women through the employment of 6 female
extension officers has met with resistance from women farmerswho could not understand the issues being raised and were
unwilling to accept advice from young women. More recently,however, women farmers have come to recognise their problemsand to seek help from extension services on issues such as
limited land availability, soil fertility, diversification of vegetables,etc. Assistance is also provided to women in the areas of food
preparation, food preservation and nutrition.
Agriculture and fishing is one of the "critical areas of concern"
identified in the Women's National Plan of Action (VanuatuDepartment of Women's Affairs, 1995). The strategic objective in
this area is "to recognise, promote and support women's
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
25/73
participation in agriculture and fishing, both paid and unpaid
activities - recognising women's role in food security". The ActionPlan calls for: the collection of data on women's activities,
including intrahousehold studies on the working of the family unit;appropriate agricultural support systems, extension and trainingfor women; and recognition in agricultural planning systems of
the wide range of agricultural activities necessary for family foodsecurity (including nutrition), cash cropping and the production of
handicrafts.
2.2.2 Fisheries
Fisheries remain a relatively underdeveloped sector of the
Vanuatu economy even though marine resources are vast. Areport on the needs and role of women in fisheries in Vanuatu iscurrently under preparation (FAO). Government policy aims to
encourage and guide the private sector to exploit marineresources in a sustainable way. Strategies address management,
fish licensing, etc. and do not refer explicitly to reef orsubsistence fishing activities. Women are involved in theharvesting of reef produce for subsistence and cash. Income is
also obtained from the sale of shells and shell jewellery.
2.2.3 Forestry
Government policy relating to forestry is concerned withplantations for logging, including local supply plantations. It aimsto create a secure environment for forest utilisation, harvesting
and re-establishment with the intention of attracting landownerand private investment. Forest harvest licensing is to be limited to
sustainable levels.
Reforestation remains an outstanding issue. Pressures for land
impede both natural regeneration and plantation redevelopment.These pressures are the result of increased needs for grazing
and planting of cash crops and, in a few areas, the result of
population growth. Subsistence agriculture also results in thedestruction of primary and secondary forest. On one island at
least (Pentecost), substantial areas of forest have been cleared
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
26/73
for cash crops (such as kava which requires 5-7 years before
harvesting). One of the consequences of forest clearing is thedrying up of water supplies during drier weather. The task of
carrying water from alternative sources falls largely on women. Asecond consequence is the lack of firewood, and women nowhave to walk substantial distances to gather firewood.
2.2.4 Natural Resource Management
Although Vanuatu's natural resource management policy is
contained in the National Conservation Strategy (Government ofVanuatu, 1993), comprehensive environmental legislation has yetto be put in place. The majority of land and sea resources are
under customary control. The rights and duties of custom ownersare enshrined in Vanuatu's constitution. The constitution statesthat "every person has a fundamental duty to himself and his
descendants and to others to protect Vanuatu and to safeguardthe national wealth, resource and environment in the interests of
the present and of future generations". The role of Government isthus to educate communities in sustainable land and marine usepractices. Several communities have taken steps to make their
land protected areas whilst others are developing ecotourism andenvironmentally friendly income-generation programmes.
The environment is another of the "critical areas of concern"identified in the Women's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu
Department of Women's Affairs, 1995). This Plan of Action callsfor: recognition of, and an increase in, women's participation in
environmental management and development; increasedawareness of, and action in, defence of the environment; and theformulation of policies to address the question of the
environmental effects of military-related and mining activities.
2.2.5 Rural Development
The main themes of rural development policies concern
increased economic self-reliance, improvement in the quality ofrural and urban life, and more equitable development between
regions and provinces. Sustainability is emphasised, based on
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
27/73
community participation and a sense of ownership, together with
environmental and gender sensitisation and their integration inmainstream development.
The principal aim of the private sector development strategy is toimprove investment, and thereby increase efficiency and
productivity. The development of the private sector is, however,seen as retaining its customary communal character rather than
encouraging individualism. The customary system and itssubsistence mode of production is important in ensuring food andlivelihood security. One policy objective is to expand on-farm and
non-farm earning opportunities through the development of theagricultural and agro-industrial sector.
Small-scale food processing is being encouraged by theDepartment of Primary Industries through its research and
demonstration Food Processing Centre. At present only rootcrops are being processed (into biscuits, chips and powder) but
plans are underway to extend coverage to fruits, etc. Other ruralindustries under consideration include: i) processing of pumpkininto powder for export as an alternative to exporting fresh
pumpkin5; ii) yam powder production for export; and iii) fishcanning as an alternative to fresh fish exports which involve
significant handling problems.
A recent initiative is to find employment for people within their
own communities. For example, unemployed urban women arebeing encouraged to procure handicraft materials from their
home communities for weaving in their urban homes. Urbandwellers are encouraged to grow food on whatever land theyhave available. In rural areas, families are being encouraged to
employ local unemployed persons for a few hours.
The National Plan of Action for Women identifies poverty as a"critical area of concern" for women. According to this document,as the traditional and cultural means of generating income
disintegrate, women have come to bear the brunt of the burden interms of managing food security, child-rearing, family health and
household management. At the same time, customary
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
28/73
mechanisms of support are rapidly losing their effectiveness
given the changing social and economic conditions. The strategicobjective is thus to recognise the increasing incidence of poverty
in the country, particularly as it relates to female-headedhouseholds, and to promote means to address the root causes ofthis growing problem. In particular, the action plan calls for
programmes to: help reduce the burden of women's multipleroles; promote equitable employment for both women and men;
provide opportunities for women and men to actively pursueincome-generating activities in their own communities; researchand assess the poverty level and develop appropriate indicators.
The Vanuatu Rural Development and Training Centres'
Association (VRDTCA) is an NGO providing skills training totrainees, and training of trainers courses. The aim is to enhancethe provision of appropriate vocational education and skills
training for young men and women and their communities without(gender) discrimination. Areas covered include small business
management, environment and health, and a curriculum onagriculture is currently being developed. The participation ofwomen is not high and efforts are being made to encourage more
women to take advantage of the training on offer and to becomeinvolved in management committees. This includes formulation of
a gender policy which aims to provide equal access to all trainingfacilities, scholarships, materials, information and instructionsfrom male and female trainers, as well as gender-unbiased
management structures.
2.3 SamoaThe Samoan economy is predominantly agricultural with morethan 70 percent of the economically active population employed
in agriculture, fisheries and forestry (1991 Census). Recent yearshave been characterised by low productivity, low growth, balance
of payments deficits, distortional policies and a dominant publicsector, together with a heavy reliance on remittances and foreign
aid. In 1995 agricultural exports accounted for 92 percent of allexport earnings, though the sector's contribution to GDP fell from45 percent in 1990 to 37 percent in 1995. In 1996-97, only 6
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
29/73
percent of public investment went to the agriculture sector.
The main thrust of the current economic policy is a continuation
of the commitment during 1991-95 to promote the private sectoras the engine of economic growth (Government of Samoa,1996). This includes creation of a less regulated economic
environment, continuing reform of the fiscal system (which willincreasingly incorporate incentives to investment without the
need for discretionary intervention); the sale of shares in state-owned enterprises (primarily to citizens), and determined effortsto make land more easily available for productive use. The
productivity of land, labour and capital is to be increased whilstdiversifying agriculture and rural economic activity. The public
sector is to withdraw from many of its current services. Efforts topromote manufacturing are to concentrate on export-orientedactivities.
2.3.1 Agriculture
The main staple food crops in Samoa are giant taro (ta'amu),yam, coconut, banana and breadfruit. Taro was a staple and
export crop until taro leaf blight devastated the crop in 1993/4.Recent production has also been affected by drought and
cyclones. Beef, pork, chicken and eggs are also produced. Small-scale production of fruit and vegetables includes lau pele (a leafyvegetable), chinese and head cabbage, cucumber, tomatoes,
pumpkins, beans, eggplant, sweetcorn, green pepper, andpeanuts. Sweet potato is also grown but is not popular amongst
Samoans. Most village households also keep livestock, includingpigs, chickens, cattle, horses and goats.
Plantation cropping of coconut and cocoa exists side by side withsubsistence agriculture, and the two are often intercropped.
Commercial agricultural production (mainly coconut, cocoa andtaro) amounted to 14 percent of GDP in 1994, though thecontribution of taro had already declined. Land previously used
for commercial taro production is now increasingly used for cattle.
At present, there is no comprehensive agricultural policy in
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
30/73
Samoa. There are however various task forces including those
for extension, research, marketing and farming systems(including women in agriculture). It is recognised that improved
productivity in the traditional sector depends on effectiveextension and research services. Research and extensionservices are therefore to focus on improved farming systems and
planting materials with an emphasis on mixed cropping, thepromotion of new tree crops, cyclone resistance, and potential for
processing and export. The distribution of seeds is a particulararea in need of improvement. Livestock improvement will berestricted to cattle. Since the commercial farmer is seen as the
chief source of dynamism, farmers are to be trained in marketingand business.
The public sector role is being restricted to credit and land. Costsof agricultural materials and services will increasingly be
recovered from users and agricultural subsidies and othersupport measures are to be phased out within a few years.
Similarly, Government will withdraw from marketing (Governmentof Samoa, 1996).
Women's involvement in agriculture has been viewed largelyfrom the home economics perspective rather than the producer
perspective. When the Ministry of Women's Affairs (MWA) wasestablished in 1990, the home economics section of the Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery and Meteorology (MAFFM) was
transferred to the MWA. Women are generally involved in homegarden production, whilst men cultivate land further afield. The
MWA promotes the production of (mainly) introduced vegetablesand nutrition retaining cooking methods. A major constraint hasbeen the supply of seeds. Women grow traditional subsistence
crops and, as heads of households, benefit from extensionservices. Women also grow pandanus and mulberry for
handicrafts, an important part of Samoan culture and incomegeneration, but extension services do not usually extend to thisarea. Women's groups are now becoming interested in dairy
farming as a means to improve nutrition especially amongchildren. Women's Committees, one of three traditional groups in
the community (the others being the mataior chiefs and the
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
31/73
aumagaor untitled men), are also involved in agricultural
development.
The draft Policy for Women in Agriculture, developed as part ofthe farming systems policy, aims to establish policy guidelines to
promote women's involvement in agriculture at all levels.
Objectives for women in agriculture address extension services,training and public awareness. In extension, the aim is to improve
women's involvement in agriculture through more frequentcontact and a greater focus on women's agricultural activities and
their importance in agricultural development. In particular,strategies cover the need for: an increased number of women inMAFFM especially among extension workers; gender training of
extension workers; village nomination of women to liaise withextension workers; women's committees to assist extension
workers; increased visits by extension workers to women; andgender sensitive extension material. In the area of training,improved management ability is to be achieved through
increased awareness of the factors contributing to successfulfarming. Strategies include training for motivators of women's
groups, establishment of resource centres for women in
agriculture, planning village workshops on agriculture for women,preparation of training materials featuring successful women
producers, and monitoring and evaluation of women in agricultureprojects. In terms of raising public awareness, the objectives aim
to improve public acceptance of women in agriculture assuccessful farmers, and to improve recognition of women andtheir significant contribution to national development. This is to be
achieved through a community awareness programme focusingon women in agriculture.
2.3.2 Fisheries
Fisheries contribute only 2 percent to GDP with three-quarters ofthe total catch for subsistence consumption (Government of
Samoa, 1996). Although the subsistence fish catch has been in
decline for many years, it is still four times as large as thecommercial catch. Fish provides an important source of high-quality protein for local consumption. Women are involved in the
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
32/73
collection of seafood from the reef and in selling fisheries
produce in the market. Inshore fisheries resources are decliningdue to over-exploitation, the use of destructive fishing methods
such as dynamite, environmental disturbances and silting of thelagoon.
A 1996 Mission Statement aims to ensure sustainable andoptimum use of fisheries resources and to develop alternatives to
inshore resources that have been seriously depleted. A newapproach based on working with villages has been adoptedwhereby if an initial meeting with village matai(chief) is positive,
MAFFM staff undertake a fact-finding exercise in the village andassist villagers to put together a management plan based on their
own ideas and solutions to problems. Out of 45 villages, 21 haveso far developed their own management plan and 14 have
established marine reserves in their area to allow the reef torecover. Women are involved in this exercise as one of the threetraditional groups with whom fisheries extension workers consult.
Out of a total of 16 fisheries extension workers in 1997, only 4 or
5 were women6.
Commercial fishing is mainly for tuna and deepwater bottomfish.Fresh tuna is exported, providing some employment in ruralareas for both women and men. Offshore tuna is the onlyfisheries resource available for expansion. However, Samoa's
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is not large enough to generatefish licensing fees from distant-water fishing nations. Commercial
farming of mussels, oysters, giant clams and prawns is also to be
expanded (Government of Samoa, 1996).
2.3.3 Forestry
Forest reserves have been depleted to meet both subsistenceand market agricultural production, since land use has not beenintensified through increased capital or labour inputs. Forest
resources were also degraded by cyclones in the early 1990s
when 92 percent of plantation forestry was damaged. Althoughreplanting had recovered more than 50 percent of the area underplantation by 1997, it does not yet provide wood for the domestic
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
33/73
market, thus threatening indigenous forest resources. Only a
portion of the indigenous forest area is merchantable and, atcurrent deforestation rates of 3.5 percent per annum,
merchantable forest is expected to disappear by 2005.
Forestry policy is guided by five fundamental principles (Samoa
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1994). Theseare: i) optimal and sustainable use through maintenance of
ecological and economic forest value and sustainability; ii) forestprotection through the safeguarding of plant and animal diversity,protection from fire, erosion and damage to water catchment
areas, and maintenance of sacred/historical sites; iii) provision ofbasic human needs including traditional forest products such as
food, water, fuel, medicines, building and cultural materials; iv)recognition of individual and collective responsibilities throughincreased appreciation of forests and the recognition of various
interests in their control and management; and v) recognition ofthe role of forests in economic development including
reforestation for domestic use, export and recreation.
Policy objectives (Samoa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries, 1994) aim to restore sustainable forest use. In the areaof conservation, plans are to document and protect biodiversity,
expand ecological reserves, ensure good forest management,and develop conservation programmes to protect threatenedecosystems and species. Water catchment areas are also to be
better protected, and the clearance of forests for agriculture is tobe discouraged. Indigenous forest utilisation is intended to be
sustainable, necessitating the preservation of 5,000 ha ofindigenous merchantable forest with 10,000 ha logged fordecorative and customary purposes at a sustainable rate. Efforts
to encourage community forestry conservation, reforestation andwatershed management include increased royalties, community
education, the promotion of multipurpose trees as cash crops,and tree planting on marginal land. Plantations and the timberindustry are to be fully privatised with reduced capacity. Forest
education will also seek to promote appreciation of the value offorests in biodiversity and human welfare and the
interrelationship between development and conservation. Areas
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
34/73
for recreation and tourism are to be identified and appropriate
levels of protection ensured. These objectives also devoteattention to improving documentation, research capacity and
organizational structure.
2.3.4 Natural Resource Management
Landlessness does not exist in Samoa because of customary
rights. Land is held by the extended family and all members haverights, though distribution is not necessarily equitable. More than
80 percent of land is held under customary tenure. While onaverage households control 15.4 acres, a quarter of allhouseholds control less than 5 acres which is considered the
minimum for livelihood security. Government land is now beingsubdivided and leased and a new land use policy is underformulation.
Sustainability is threatened by a number of factors including the
increasing use of herbicides and pesticides, and deforestation ofupland areas for agricultural purposes. The area of land undercultivation has increased as a result of population pressure and
cash cropping, but intensification has not taken place.
Women play an important and recognised role in environmentalmanagement. Traditionally environmental sanitation andprotection measures have been part of women's roles. However,
it is only recently that recognition has been given to theenvironmental impact of development projects and the
Government now requires environmental (and social) impactassessments for all projects.
2.3.5 Rural Development
The heart of the Samoan economy is in the villages. More than70 percent of rural households are engaged to some extent inagriculture, with two-thirds producing only or mainly for
subsistence consumption (FAO, 1997). Thus the overalldevelopment strategy is to strengthen the involvement of the
private sector in rural development. The strategy's central feature
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
35/73
is the improvement of rural living standards, achieved through an
increase in the productivity of land and labour, and thediversification of rural economic activities. Both employment
creation and the expansion of livelihood options in rural areas aregiven importance. The equitable distribution of economic benefitsthrough the traditional communal system is emphasised rather
than the pursuit of individual profit (Government of Samoa,1996).
Efforts to make land more easily available pertain only toGovernment land which comprised some 11 percent of the total
in 1996. Since 1997, Government land can be subdivided on a49-year lease. Leases are put to tender, with the highest bidder
securing the lease. Rents are reviewed after five years. Thissystem clearly discriminates against the poor, and consequentlyagainst women. The land is nevertheless divided into both large
and small parcels, also catering for smaller farmers.
Diversification of the village economy is to include theencouragement of handicrafts (through the Development Bankand the Small Business Enterprise Centre) as well as small-scale
food-processing and tourism, especially in conjunction withenvironmental protection. These areas are intended to benefit
women. The Ministry of Women's Affairs is promoting economiccapacity building through training in activities such as sewing,flower arranging, vegetable gardening, cooking and small
business development. The National Food and Nutrition Policyfor Samoa includes the encouragement of small local
entrepreneurs in food processing industries. This policy also callsfor income-generation activities in rural areas. The present policyapplies the same business fee to informal traders and large
formal businesses alike, and there is no policy framework topromote, support or regulate small traders. Similarly, there are no
policy measures in place to ensure that small-scale credit isavailable to the informal sector, though a micro-credit schemehas been initiated by the Ministry of Women's Affairs.
Traditionally, faaSamoa7 has ensured an equitable distribution of
wealth and acted as a safeguard for women's rights within
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
36/73
Samoan society. FaaSamoameant that all members of the
extended family would have access to shelter and adequatefood. Yet indications today suggest that customary mechanisms
are now operating less effectively than in the past. Poverty,particularly amongst women, has been identified as an emerging
concern (Samoa Ministry of Women's Affairs, 1995). Social
impact assessments, now a requirement for all projects, may helpto address this.
Rural development policies also seek to: improve education;
address health issues arising from diet and lifestyle (includingtobacco consumption); address the high natural increase of thepopulation (2.4 percent per annum); increase the supply of
electricity to meet demand; improve water supplies with theintroduction of meters and charging; and improve sea and road
transport (responsibility for plantation roads will pass to villages).
2 This project entitled "Incorporation of Women in Mainstream Development Planning"was funded by UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP. It began in July 1990, initially for 2.5 years. Theproject aimed to increase the participation of women in all aspects of developmentthrough their incorporation in mainstream planning.3 The 1993 policy mentioned in this section deals with all types of policy (agriculture,forestry, fisheries, social, economic, etc.) and was produced by the Central PlanningOffice of the Government of Fiji.4 29 out of 35 extension workers were male in 1997 (personal communication with Mr.James Wasi).5 Fresh pumpkin is currently exported to Japan, though more than half of the pumpkincrop produced fails to meet the strict size and shape requirements.6 Personal communication with Mr. Ueta Faasili, 1997.7 The term faaSamoaencompasses Samoan customs and traditions. FaaSamoawasfounded on subsistence agriculture based on descent group tenure and land ownership.This system made basic resources available to all so that economic individualism wasimpossible. Egalitarianism was balanced by hierarchy, based on age and rank (Meleisea,
1987).
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
37/73
3. The Impact of Policies on HouseholdLivelihood and Food Security
Food security has not traditionally been regarded as an area ofconcern in Pacific Island populations. In normal times food isplentiful and it is only in times of crisis, such as in the monthsfollowing a cyclone, that measures have to be taken to ensurethat food is available to those in need. Whilst this paper is notconcerned with such times of crisis, it is noted that a populationthat is food secure in normal times will be better able to copewith food insecurity during crisis periods.
National food balance data for Fiji and Papua New Guinea showthat the availability of food exceeds national requirements(defined as desirable energy intake needed for work and leisureand calculated on reference weights for the population) by aconsiderable margin (see Table 1). Since food availability inother Pacific Islands (with the possible exception of Solomon
Islands) is commensurate with Fiji and Papua New Guinea, it canbe surmised that food requirements are also more thanadequately met in other Pacific Island populations.
Table 1: Daily per Capita Food Availability in Kilocalories as
a Percentage of Requirements (1990-92)8
Country Food
Availability
Food
Requirement
Percent
Availability
Cook Islands - - -
Fiji 2769 2170 127.6
Papua New Guinea 2347 2066 113.6
Solomon Islands 1988 - -
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
38/73
Tonga 2642 - -
Vanuatu 2463 - -
Samoa 2548 - -
Whilst food security might be achieved at the national level,accessibility to food differs between households (and indeedbetween individuals within households), such that householdfood security is not universal. Policies in agriculture, fisheries,forestry, natural resource management and rural developmentclearly have an impact on livelihood and food security. Thenature of this impact is considered below for the three countriesstudied.
3.1 Fiji
In Fiji, food security has been a long-term concern. Despite this,a recent study on poverty (Government of Fiji and UNDP, 1997)
found that 33 percent of the population were living in relativepoverty and 10 percent of households could not afford a basicdiet. One reason for this is the past concentration on cash cropsin the rural economy, with the result that there has been anoverall reduction in the quantity and quality of food cropsproduced for household consumption. Available cash is spent onimported cereals, canned foods and vegetables. Other
indications of an inequitable distribution of food are seen in thedeteriorating national health situation with respect to non-communicable diseases.
At the World Food Summit in November 1996, the Fijian Ministerof Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests indicated that Fiji remainscommitted to providing an environment conducive to attainingfood security for all its citizens. During the 1980s, the aim was to
achieve food security through protective policies, though this didnot prevent the decline in household food production. Morerecently, the approach to food security has been changed to
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
39/73
encompass an export-led agricultural policy in line with theoverall emphasis on an export-led economy. The development ofagricultural exports is seen as providing income-generatingactivities whilst at the same time improving food security. Inparticular, food accessibility and affordability is to be improvedthrough consistency and quality of supply, which export-oriented
production is intended to foster. In addition, an expanded exportmarket is expected to generate a surplus for the domesticmarket, which in turn is necessary to absorb lower-qualityproduce and provide economic viability. Since most exportedproduce is grown by smallholders with 1-10 acres of land, thispolicy will benefit most producers. At the same time, thepresence of larger farms producing for the same market, but with
improved efficiency through mechanisation, ensures supply andhence keeps prices down. Prices are also kept down by largerplantings, now possible due to the existence of a larger localmarket and an expanding export market.
Whilst this export-led approach to food security has manypositive aspects, reservations have been expressed. Theapproach does not cater for very small farmers with less than
one acre, many of whom are the rural poor and women. Whilstthe rural poor may benefit from cheaper food prices, they willalso suffer in that their own produce will not generate muchincome especially as gluts are likely to occur on the local marketdue to the larger scale of production for export. In addition,agricultural services will be less and less suitable for their needs.
Despite ministerial statements, food security does not enjoyexplicit policy status and resources are not allocated to foodsecurity per se. Policies that have some relevance for foodsecurity are those in agriculture and in health. However theformer do not address the links to food security, either explicitlyor implicitly, and the latter are concerned with curative measuresrather than prevention of nutrition related diseases such asdiabetes.
The National Food and Nutrition Committee advises theGovernment on matters relating to food and nutrition. The draft
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
40/73
Fiji Plan of Action for Nutrition (Fiji National Food and NutritionCommittee, 1996) promotes food security through, amongstothers, improved availability and accessibility, increasedproduction and consumption of local foods and increasedacreage of agricultural land devoted to food crops. It alsopromotes family food production through backyard food gardens,
community-based food production and food-processingenterprises, diversification of farming practices to strengthenhome food production, and household food processing andpreservation. The lack of resources allocated to food security isevident in the fact that the backyard gardening activities are tobe implemented through women's organizations, whilst theremaining activities are to be implemented by the Department of
Agriculture.
Improvements in food security are occurring as a result ofmarketing developments. The emergence of urban squattersettlements, housing poor rural to urban migrants, has resulted insome squatters developing `middleperson' roles, in which theybuy basic foodstuffs from rural farmers to sell in stalls in squatterareas. Since squatter settlements are found in various locations
in Suva, this has improved food distribution and alleviatedfarmers of the need to go to, and spend time selling at, thecentral Suva market. This development also provides livelihoodsecurity for the squatters concerned and increases theproductivity of farmers. Further marketing developments includepackaging to reduce the time that women spend selling theirproduce at the market and to reduce food spoilage. Packaging
also provides employment for women and increases farmerproductivity.
3.2 Vanuatu
Food security has featured relatively prominently in Vanuatu'srecent development policies. One of the two key objectives of theThird National Development Plan 1992-1996 (DP3) is to expandthe agricultural and natural resources sector in a sustainablemanner so as to provide domestic employment, incomegeneration opportunities, domestic food security and export
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
41/73
revenue. In particular, DP3 focused on the development ofsubsistence farming and gardening, with special emphasis onenhancing women's agricultural activities and welfare,diversifying cash crops particularly coconut, and improvingmarket development for exports. However, food security andwomen's role in agriculture feature less prominently in the new
Comprehensive Reform Programme for Agriculture whichemphasises increased smallholder commercialisation, agro-industries and small-scale export enterprises, and import-substitution industries, particularly food-processing.
Given the pivotal role of women in agricultural production,policies to address food security must address women's
agricultural role. This was recognised in DP3, but in practice wasfound to be difficult to implement because of the low status ofwomen and the existence of cultural norms. Development in thisarea is slow and will be a major constraint to the implementationof policies aimed at improving agricultural production. Thus, theWomen's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu Department ofWomen's Affairs, 1995) calls for the recognition, promotion andsupport of women's participation in agriculture and fishing, both
paid and unpaid activities, in recognition of women's role in foodsecurity.
The Women's National Plan of Action also identifies povertyarising from a breakdown of effective traditional and customarysupport systems as an area of concern. The increasing burden ofwomen's multiple roles are compounded in areas where water
and firewood now have to be carried longer distances due toenvironmental degradation. A consequence is that women haveless time for agriculture resulting in decreased productivity,increased poverty and diminished food security.
Vanuatu's National Food and Nutrition Policy was approved in1986. Its overall objective is to ensure the nutritional well-beingof the total population and increased self-sufficiency in food. To
achieve this, three priority objectives were identified: i) to preventand reduce the prevalence of under-nutrition in vulnerablegroups; ii) to prevent an increase in the prevalence of nutrition
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
42/73
related non-communicable diseases; and iii) to improve foodsecurity. The more recent Plan of Action for Food and Nutritionfor 1997-2001 (Government of Vanuatu, 1996), formulatedfollowing the International Conference on Nutrition in 1992,expands these objectives to include increased food self-sufficiency and reduced dependence on imported foods and
beverages, particularly those that induce nutrition relateddisorders.
The Plan of Action for Food and Nutrition includes a NationalHousehold Food Security Development Plan, developed jointlyby the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture and theNational Food and Nutrition Committee. Project activities under
this plan await resources for implementation. Priority is to begiven in the first instance to urban areas, where home foodproduction is to be promoted and extension services (includingtechnical assistance and inputs) provided. This plan also calls forthe institution of agricultural policies that promote foodproduction, and the review of tariffs imposed on imported foods,which play a crucial role in ensuring household food securityamong urban dwellers. The need for income-generating activities
and a minimum wage policy is also recognised. Strategies forrural areas include production of less land demanding cashcrops, intercropping, and maximisation of available land that hasalready been cleared. Some training in horticulture is alreadybeing provided in urban areas by an NGO.
3.3 Samoa
At the national level, food security is not an issue of concern inSamoa. However, relative poverty and food insecurity exist at thehousehold and intrahousehold levels. Youth and someeconomically disadvantaged households in urban and peri-urbanareas are at particular risk. Malnutrition is a significant healthproblem. In adults this takes the form of over-nutrition withobesity, hypertension and diabetes, whereas in children it takesthe form of micro-nutrient deficiencies and protein-energy under-nutrition, especially in infants. Iron deficiency anaemia alsooccurs in children and in pregnant and lactating women. The
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
43/73
promotion of home gardens and nutrition education should helpto overcome malnutrition problems, especially since part of theproblem appears to stem from a lack of nutritional knowledge.
In Samoa there is increasing dependence on imported food, thevalue of which now exceeds the value of all exports. This trend is
likely to continue under the current economic strategy. Indeedone of the most likely outcomes of this strategy, according toexpert consensus, is an "increased monetisation of theagriculture sector and increased dependency on cheap importedfoods" (Government of Samoa, 1996:14). The fact that mostpeople cannot afford the `cheap' foods currently importedindicates that food security will further deteriorate. Furthermore,
cheap imported foods include foods such as mutton flaps andturkey tails which are nutritionally inferior to local sources ofprotein.
The National Food and Nutrition Policy (Samoa National Foodand Nutrition Council, 1995) includes, as one of four overallobjectives, the achievement of environmentally sound andsocially sustainable development to contribute to improved
nutrition and health. Amongst the specific objectives is areduction in the reliance on imported food through increasedproduction of local foods, especially foods of high nutritionalvalue, and the improvement of national and household foodsecurity. Home gardening is also promoted. MAFFM alsopromotes the production and consumption of local foods in co-operation with the National Food and Nutrition Council.
By the year 2010, the Government aims to: eliminate moderateand severe protein-energy malnutrition; stabilise and/or reduce tobelow 1991 levels the incidence of diabetes, hypertension,obesity and heart disease; reduce by 20 percent present infant,child and maternal mortality rates; reduce the incidence ofnutritional anaemia among 1-5 year olds and pregnant andlactating women; and increase breast-feeding of infants.
8 Source: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Selected Indicators of Food andAgriculture Development in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1983-1993. Bangkok, 1994.
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
44/73
http://-/?-http://-/?- -
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
45/73
4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs toAddress Policy
The availability of reliable sex-disaggregated data is an importantprerequisite for the formulation, monitoring and evaluation ofpolicies and programmes aimed at enhancing the role of women inagriculture, natural resource management and rural development.In that women play a pivotal role in livelihood and food security,sex-disaggregated data are needed to evaluate these securities.The FAO Plan of Action for Women in Development 1996-2001(FAO, 1995) points to the need for statistical data on the role of
women in agriculture and rural development. The establishment ofa global database on women in agriculture and rural developmentwas proposed in 1988 (FAO, 1988).
In the Pacific, like the developing world in general, sex-disaggregated data on human resources in agriculture and ruraldevelopment are not readily available (FAO, 1993). There is thus aneed to specify data needs and appropriate sources. Table 2
identifies data needs and sources for the Pacific Island countriesincluded in this study. These data needs are those required tomonitor and evaluate the policies, strategies and plans detailedabove, particularly in relation to gender roles in agriculture andrural development and to food security. These data are groupedinto seven broad areas, namely economic activity, access to themeans of production, time use and productivity, decision making,
income and expenditure, food security, and education and training.Within each broad area, a range of data requirements are defined(column 2) and these are grouped into subject areas (column 1).The level (column 3) at which the data are required may benational or community (or both). The source, or the proposedsource in the case of data items that are not generally available, isalso provided (column 4) as is an indication of the status of theitem in terms of general data availability (column 5). The table is
not exhaustive in the range of data items required, but serves toprovide a list of appropriate and feasible data for the specifiedpurpose.
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
46/73
For example, policies to improve the delivery of extensionservices, especially to women, are informed by data providing thefrequency of contact with extension workers and the type ofservice received by women and men involved in agriculture,whether large or small-scale. Such data could be7 obtained fromrecords of extension activities made at the time of service delivery
and incorporated into a farming systems database. However this isnot currently done in most countries.
In addition to the statistical data included in Table 2, other types ofdata are required to understand the changing roles of women inagriculture, rural development and food security. For example,detailed gender sensitive case studies of the farming systemscurrently practised are required to provide an adequateunderstanding of those systems for policy formulation andevaluation. A detailed study of gender roles would complement thedata obtained from time-use studies. A detailed examination ofsuch qualitative data needs is beyond the scope of this report.
Table 2 Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions inAgriculture, Natural Resource Management and Rural
Development in the Pacific
Subject Data Item LevelSource/ProposedSource
Status
Economic Activity in Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry and RuralEnterprises
Overall
employment
persons economicallyactive in agriculture
(industry) by sex byemployment status
N CPC or LFS or
HIESA
persons economicallyactive in agriculture
(occupation) by sex byemployment status
N CPC or LFS or
HIESA
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
47/73
persons economically
active in agriculture(occupation) by sex by
educational level
N C PC or LFS A
Market-oriented
employment
persons economically
active in market-oriented agriculture
(occupation) by sex byemployment status
N CPC or LFS: codes611-613 of ISCO-
88 at 4-digit level
A/t
persons economically
active in market-oriented fisheries
(occupation) by sex byemployment status
N CPC/LFS: codes6151 and 6152 of
ISCO-88
A/t
persons economically
active in market-oriented forestry
(occupation) by sex byemployment status
N CPC/LFS: codes6141 and 6142 of
ISCO-88
A/t
Subsistence
activity
persons economicallyactive in subsistence
agriculture and fishing(occupation) by sex by
employment status
N CPC/LFS: code 62
of ISCO-88A/t
Farm holders
and labour
holders by sex byhousehold members
working on holding bysex by age
N AC A/t
holders by sex by
household membersworking on holding by
sex by hours worked
N AC A/t
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
48/73
holders by sex byhousehold members
working on holding bysex by method of
payment (cash/kind)
N AC A/t
holders by sex byhousehold membersworking on holding by
sex by whether mainor secondary activity
N AC A/t
holders by sex by
hired labour on holding
by sex bypermanent/occasionalstatus
N AC A/t
Ruralentrepreneurs
rural entrepreneurs
by sex by type ofenterprise
N ES or HIES A/t
Ruralhouseholds
rural households withown activity in
agriculture, fishing,forestry or handicrafts
by main source ofincome (e.g. crop or
activity)
N HIES A
Access to Means of Production
Land holders by sex bymarital status by size
of holding by tenure
N AC A/t
holders by sex by
legal status by size ofholding by tenure N AC A/t
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
49/73
horticulturalists bysex by size of land
controlled
N C FSDB NA
Credit
holders/
horticulturalists by sex
by amount of creditduring specified period
N C FSDB NA
rural loans bypurpose by sex of
borrower
N C AR A/t
Agriculturalinputs
holders by sex byuse of high yield
seeds, fertilisers,pesticides and
herbicides
N CAC: appropriatelist of inputs
A/t
horticulturalists by
sex by use of highyield seeds, fertilisers,
pesticides andherbicides
N C FSDB NA
Agricultural
technology
holders by sex by
use of introducedtechnology
N C
AC: appropriate
list of tools andmachinery
A/t
horticulturalists bysex by use ofintroduced technology
N C FSDB NA
Extension
services
holders/horticulturalistsby sex by frequency of
contact with extension
workers
N C FSDB NA
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
50/73
extension workers bysex by type of service
N C FSDB A
holders/horticulturalists
receiving extension
services by sex bytype of service
N C FSDB NA
Transport
holders/horticulturalists
by sex by adequacy oftransport for marketing
N C FSDB NA
Time-use and Productivity
Gender-
division oflabour
rural adult populationby sex by time spent
on specified domesticand productive
activities
N C TUS NA
rural child/youthpopulation by sex by
time spent onspecified domestic and
productive activities
N C TUS NA
Productivity
productivity of labour
by sex by type ofactivity
N C FSDB NA
Decision making
Individual
persons with cash
income by sex bydegree of control over
income
N HIES or SS NA
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
51/73
horticulturalists by
sex by degree ofcontrol over decisions
relating to cultivationof plot
N C FSDB NA
Household
households with cashincome by members'
degree of control overhousehold income by
sex of head/members
N C HIES or SS NA
households bymembers' degree of
control over householddecisions by sex of
head/members
N CHIES or FSDB orSS NA
Community
membership andoffice-bearers of
agricultural/ruralorganizations by sex
N C AR or FSDB A
involvement incommunity projects by
sex
N C AR or FSDB A/t
National Members ofParliament by sex
N AR A
employees in
relevant governmentpositions by sex
N AR A/t
Food Security
Nutritionalstatus
anthropometric and
other relevantmeasurements by sex
N NNS A
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
52/73
prevalence ofdiabetes by sex by
age
N A
prevalence ofhypertension by sex
by age
N AR or HS A
prevalence ofanaemia by sex by
age
N AR or HS A/t
prevalence ofanaemia in pregnant
and lactating women
N AR or NNS or HS A
prevalence of protein-
energy malnutritionN AR or NNS or HS A
Food average foodconsumption per
capita by type of food
N HIES A
consumption calorie and proteinintake per capita by
sex by age
N DS NA
prevalence of breast-feeding in infants
N NNS or HS A
Economic monthly prices ofmajor food items
N C CPI A
factors monthly supply of
major food itemsN C HIES/FSDB A
Income and Expenditure
-
8/9/2019 Gender Database for Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries
53/73
Householdincome
rural householdheads by sex byhousehold income by
household size
N HIES A/t
distribution of rural
household income bycontribution ofhousehold members
by sex by adult/child
N HIES A/t
distribution of ruralhou