global land working paper outlook€¦ · global land outlook working paper prepared by: sandra...

GLOBALLAND OUTLOOK WORKING PAPER

Prepared by:

Sandra Piesik, Ph.D.

June 2019

RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICSPOLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

DISCLAIMERThe designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by UNCCD in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the authors or contributors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNCCD.

UNCCD | Global Land Outlook Working Paper | RURAL-URBAN DYNAMICS 2

CONTENTS

Executive Summary 3 Rural – Urban Dynamics and Multilateral Agreements 4 1. The Five Capitals as a Holistic Conceptual Framework for 5 the Policy on Rural – Urban Dynamics

A. Natural Capital – Capitalising on Existential 7 Co-benefitsforCities B. HumanCapital–HumanBeingsattheCentreof 10 Sustainable Development C. SocialCapital–Governance,LandandPolicy 15 Regulations

D. ManufacturedCapital–SustainableResource 18 Management and the Circular Economy E. FinancialCapital–EnablingEnvironmentsforthe 24 Green Economy Transition 2. Conclusion 26

3. Figures Credits 26

4. References 27

5. Bibliography 31

6. Appendix 1. Thematic Questions for a High-Level Political Forum Meeting 33

DISCLAIMER

ThesepolicyrecommendationsareintendedtoreaffirmTheCharteroftheUnitedNations,andtheconceptofsocialinclusionasdefinedintheUNCCD,UNFCCCandCBDConventions,aswellastheParisAgreementandtheAgenda2030forSustainableDevelopment.

Thesubjectofholisticapproachesforruralandurbandynamicshasbeenattheforefrontofinternationaldialoguesforalmostthreedecades.Changestoourplanetresultingfromclimatechange,andotheranthropogenic pressures caused by demographic shifts,globalisation,migrations,andthefast-paceddevelopmentoftechnology,callforrenewedattentionto the issue.

TheUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD)aimstocombatdesertifica-tionanddroughtbymeansof:theLandDegradationNeutrality(LDN)Framework;theengagementoftheinternationalcommunityindealingwiththeimpactsofurbanisation;andmorerecentawarenessofthebenefitsbehindthecirculareconomy.Theseefforts,combinedwithapressingneedtomakebetteruseofthescarceresourcesavailabletous,offeranopportunitytoprovidearangeofimplementablerecommendations and actions on the ground.

Thisdocumentaimstoidentifysharedchallengesfacedbybothruralandurbanareas,anddocumentstheco-benefitsthatmayarisefromjointinitiativestoaddress these challenges. Issues and recommendations are structured around natural, human, social, manufacturedandfinancialcapitals.

In the Natural Capital chapter, existential co-dependencyofruralareasforcitieshasbeenidentifiedasakeytopic,togetherwithpopulationdependencyonagricultureandfoodsecurity.Opportunitiesandrecommendationsareframedaroundpossibleutilisationofexistingframeworks,suchasLandDegradationNeutrality(LDN),theUnitedNations Decade on Ecosystems Restoration, and the UNCCDConventionrecommendationsonpreventionandrehabilitationofland.Thesecouldallbeuseful,especiallywhenfocussingonlandusefortheregenerationofperi-urbanareas.Considerationsarealsogivenfortheuseoflandasacarbonsink,especiallyinthecontextofcities,whichareresponsiblefor70percentofglobalgreenhousegasemissions. Natural and cultural heritage is intrinsically related,andcasesfromthepastoffervalidillustrationsoftheequilibriumbetweenruralurbandynamicsweonce had.

The chapter on Human Capital places people at the centreofsustainabledevelopmentandpositionspovertyalleviation,demographicshifts,globalisation,minoritygroups,equalityandmigrationassharedchallenges experienced by people in rural and urban areas. Opportunities and recommendations are sought inlinksbetweenskillsdevelopment,education,capacitybuildingandurbanisationitselfthatinsomeplacesoftheworldisaidingpovertyalleviation.


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The chapter on Social Capitaladdressesissuesofgovernanceandinsufficientlandregulations,withanattempttoidentifychallengesbothforconstantlygrowingcitiesandruralareas.Recommendationstouchupon:Landtenureregulations;planning;theroleofdecentralisation;proposalsforspecialeconomiczonesinperi-urbanareasastestinggrounds;andschemesforincrementallandsupply.

The Manufactured Capital chapter explores pressures inthebuiltenvironmentsectorderivingfromalackofaffordablehousingandinformalsettlements,interalia.ItseekstousetheLDNFrameworkasapossiblesolution to alleviate persistent and unresolved prob-lemsoftheover800millionpeoplelivingininformalsettlements adjacent to rural areas. Opportunities are alsosoughtinimprovedconnectivity,theroleofin-termediarytowns,secondaryroadsandICTnetworks.However,oneofthebiggestchancesforimprovementinlivelihoodsandtheprovisionofnewjobsisinthesustainablemanagementofnaturalresources,andcirculareconomyopportunities.“Zerowastetolandfill”strategiesbothforcitiesaswellasruralareasmayprovefundamentalfortheemergenceofanewgreeneconomy.Digitalisationfordevelopmentandtechnologydevelopmentandtransferarethecornerstonesofcontemporaryindustrialisationandcanaidregulatoryprocessesformappingexpandingcities,aswellasdegradedland.

The chapter on Financial Capital acknowledgesthatimplementationoftheaboverecommendationsrequiresfinancialcapitalandinvestment.Thereareavarietyofclimatefinancesolutionsavailableanditishopedthat,togetherwiththeassistanceofnationalgovernmentsandsustainablemicro-finance,atransition to a more balanced rural – urban relationship could be achieved.

Acallforjointactionconcludesthispaper,encourag-ing all stakeholders to take action on the ground in an attempttoholisticallyenhancethedynamicsbetweenruralandurbanlinkages.TheinfluenceoftheUNCCDcanstimulateabroaderengagementofthepartiestothe Convention, given that land degradation impacts rural and urban habitats, and there are socio, economic andenvironmentalopportunitiestobefoundinthetransboundarymanagementofnaturalresourcesthrough a circular economy.

ThetopicofRural–UrbanDynamicsinmultilateralagreementshasbeenaddressedsince1992withtheRio Declaration on Environment and Development, TheEarthSummitandAgenda21.Agenda21recommended at that time addressing the full range of issues facing urban-rural settlements.Subsequentmultilateralmeetingsincludingthe2012Rio+20OutcomeDocumentoftheUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopment“TheFutureWeWant”alsoreferredtoimprovementsinurban–rurallivingconditions.povertyalleviation,demographicshifts,globalisation,minoritygroups,equalityandmigrationas shared challenges experienced by people in rural and urban areas. Opportunities and recommendations aresoughtinlinksbetweenskillsdevelopment,education,capacitybuildingandurbanisationitselfthatinsomeplacesoftheworldisaidingpovertyalleviation.

2015:Agenda2030,of2015,specifically refers, in target 11.A, to support positive economic, social and environmental links urban, peri-urban and rural areas.Intarget15.6,itaims,By 2030, to combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.

The Paris Agreement builds upon the commitments ofallthreeRioConventionsandreaffirmsthecallfora holistic approach to sustainable development and combatingclimatechange.UN-HABITAThasbeenaddressing the urban – rural linkages topic since 1977,andtheNewUrbanAgendareiteratesacallforagreaterintegrationbetweenurbanandruralareasaswell.RecentdocumentspublishedbyUN-HABITATaimedtofocusonurbanandrurallinkages.Theseare:“ImplementingtheNewUrbanAgendabyStrengtheningUrban–RuralLinkages.LeaveNoOneAndNoSpaceBehind”(2017),and“Urban–RuralLinkages:GuidingPrinciples–FrameworkforActiontoAdvancedTerritorialDevelopment”(2019).

Other organisations have also provided important documents, such as the World Resources Institute Ross CentreWorkingPaper,“TowardsAMoreEqualCity-UpwardandOutwardGrowth:ManagingUrbanExpansionforMoreEquitableCitiesintheGlobalSouth”byMahendra,AandSeto,K,publishedin2019.Thisiscomprisedofareviewof499cities,andtheirupwardandoutwardgrowth,using


RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICS IN MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS AND IN INTERNATIONAL DIALOGUES

satelliteremotesensing,andofferingthemostrecentandrelevantreflectionsonoutwardurbanexpansion.

The International Labour Organisation’s “The World EmploymentandSocialOutlook2018:GreeningwithJobs”remainsthemostcomprehensivereviewofemployment opportunities in the green economy transition.TheUNCCD2017“GlobalLandOutlook”,FirstEdition,andOrr,B.JandCowe,A.Letal.(2017)–“TheScientificConceptualFrameworkforLandDegradationNeutrality.AReportoftheScience-PolicyInterface”,aswellastheUNCCDGenderActionPlan(GAP),adoptedatCOP13in2017,areunequivocalreferencesonlandandlanddegradation today aiming at ensuring inclusive developmentforthebenefitforall.

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POLICY FOR RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICS HEADLINES

The interlinkages, co-dependencies and integrated natureofruralandurbanareascallsforaholisticapproach. Only in this manner can balanced development,thegrowthofcities,reducingtheimpacton productive land, and sustainable agriculture be addressed.InlinewithTransformingOurWorld:the2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmentof2015andheadlinesofPeople,Planet,Prosperity,PeaceandPartnership,thesocalled“FivePs”,TheUNCCD’sProposedPolicyforRural–UrbanDynamicsisframedaroundtheintegratedandadaptedconceptof“FiveCapitals”:Natural,Human,Social,ManufacturedandFinancial.

Natural Capital – Capitalising on Existential Co-benefits for Cities

Urbanareasdependonhealthyecosystemsandecosystemsservices,productiveland,foodproduction,agricultureandnaturalresourcestosustainthelivesoftheir citizens.

Human Capital – Human Beings at the Centre of Sustainable Development

Demographicshiftsandglobalisationareputtingpressure on expanding cities. Climate change impacts, whicharemanifestedthroughdesertificationanddroughts,causelanddegradation,whichinturnreduces land productivity. Migration, minorities inequalityandpovertyareatthecentreofconcernsinperi-urbanareasandattheforefrontoftheoutwardgrowthofcities.Healthandwell-being,developmentofskillsandjobs,livelihoodstrategiesforpeopleandcommunities, including education and capacity buildingareparamountfortheprosperityofbothrural areas and cities.

Social Capital – Governance, Land and Policy Regulations

Governance and policies at the national and local levels need to regulate and protect land tenure to ensureprosperousgrowth.Theexpansionofcitiesmust be regulated so that it does not encroach on productive land areas. National and local policies, includingplanninglawsanddecentralisation,need


1. THE FIVE CAPITALS AS A HOLISTIC CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE POLICY ON RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICS

toactasenablersforjointeffortstoensuresociallyinclusivesustainabledevelopment.Theconceptof“Buildtogether,Benefittogether”localactionsneedtobecome the rule in urban, peri-urban and rural areas.

Manufactured Capital – Sustainable Resource Management and the Circular Economy

Strategiesforalternativelivelihoodscanbefoundthrough Sustainable Resource Management and the CircularEconomy,addressingissuesofbiologicalandmunicipalwaste,whilstprotectingagainstenviron-mentaldegradation,ensuringjusttransitiontowardsgreenjobsandcreatingnewindustries.Transport,infrastructure,sustainableenergyprovisions,technol-ogytransfer,digitalisationfordevelopment,researchandinnovationcanplayavitalroleinfindinglocalsolutionsandfosterregionalcollaborationthroughtransboundarynaturalresourcemanagement(UNCCD).

Financial Capital – Enabling Environments for the Green Economy Transition

Agreeneconomyisabenefitforall.Financingajusttransition to green jobs and creating enabling environmentsforsustainablegrowthinperi-urbanareas, including incentives and investment in agriculture,areimportantfactorsforthesuccessfulexpansionofcitiesincoexistencewithprosperousrural areas.

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Natural Capital

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• Skills and jobs

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• Education and capacity buildi ng


• Business and trade

• Policies and regulations

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High-Level Segment ‘Rural and Urban communities – failing or flourishing together’9 September 2019

The Global Land Outlook Working Paper by Sandra Piesik PhD

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification COP14 2-13 September 2019, New Delhi, India

Figure 1: Rural–UrbanDynamicsPolicyRecommendationsSummary.

Natural Capital

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• Skills and jobs

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• Education and capacity buildi ng


• Business and trade

• Policies and regulations

• Governance and Institutions

• Industries, goods and services

• Transport and energy

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High-Level Segment ‘Rural and Urban communities – failing or flourishing together’9 September 2019

The Global Land Outlook Working Paper by Sandra Piesik PhD

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification COP14 2-13 September 2019, New Delhi, India

Urban areas depend on healthy ecosystems and ecosystem services, productive land, food production, agriculture and natural resources to sustain the lives of their citizens.

Sub–themes:• Ecosystemsandecosystemservices• Water,airandfoodsecurity• LandUse• NaturalResources*

*Sub-headingsforallfivecapitalsincludecurrentfinancialmechanisms,themesforreductionofemissions, and increased resilience.

A1. CO-DEPENDENCIES IN THE NATURAL CAPITAL BETWEEN RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICS.

The health of the cities depends on the health of the rural areas. E.F. Sumacher

a. Cities’ existential dependencies on rural areas

Water,cleanair,foodandshelterarefundamentaltosustainingthelifeofeveryperson.Despiterecentadvancementsintechnologyandtheriseofman-madeinternet-basedecosystems,peopleandcitizens,ofurbanandruralareas,willcontinuetodependonlandservicesfortheprovisionofwater,cleanairandfood.

Climatechangeisanurgentthreataffectingbothruralareasandcities.Thisthreat,combinedwithanthropogenic pressures , such as globalisation and therapidurbanisationofecosystems,bringsanadditionalsetofpressurestobearonthelocaldynamicsbetweenruralareasandcities.Tradeandcontinents.However,thistrendisunsustainableforregional resilience in countries experiencing serious droughtand/ordesertification,particularlyinAfrica.Forthisreason,localandregionallinksbetweenruralareas and cities need to be strengthened and supported.

b. Food security and population dependencies on agriculture

Demographicshiftsareimpactingfoodproduction.Today,55percentoftheworld’spopulationlivesinurban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to68percentby2050.45%oftheworld’spopulationlivesinruralareas,projectionsshowthaturbanisation,combinedwiththeoverallgrowthoftheworld’spopulation,couldaddanother2.5billionpeople


A. NATURAL CAPITAL – CAPITALISING ON EXISTENTIAL CO-BENEFITS FOR CITIES

tourbanareasby2050.Theglobalruralpopulationisnowcloseto3.4billionandisexpectedtoriseslightlyandthendeclineto3.1billionby2050.

Despite the global trend in rural–urban migrations, agriculture, productive land and healthy ecosystems willcontinuetoplayanimportantroleinfoodsecurityinbothurbanandruralareas.AfricaandAsiawerehometonearly90percentoftheworld’sruralpopulationin2018.

Indiahasthelargestruralpopulation(893million),followedbyChina(578million).Urbanisationasatrendhasbroughtachangeindietaryrequirements,whichinturnisimpactingagriculturalproductivity.

Agriculture has become a major contributor to environmentaldegradationthrough:increasedgreenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation, desertification,freshwaterscarcity,biodiversityloss,pestresistanceandwaterpollution(FAO,2011).Mostlyasaresultofintensivefarming,aboutathirdoftheworld’ssoilhasalreadybeendegradedand,ifcurrentratescontinue,alloftheworld’stopsoilcouldbedegradedin60years(FAO,2015a).Theseenvironmental challenges contribute to environmental degradation at both global and local levels.

Soilerosionlowersourabilitytogrowcrops.Italsoreleasescarbontrappedinthesoilwhichheatstheatmosphere. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy PlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES)estimatesthatsoildegradationaffectsnearlyhalfoftheworld’speople,atleast3.2billion.

c. Water scarcity

Halfofallcitieswithpopulationsgreaterthan100,000arecurrentlylocatedinwater-scarcebasins,withfreshwatersourcesrunningdryasmorewaterisextractedthanrefilled.Asaresult,anestimated150millionpeoplecurrentlyliveincitieswithacutewatershortages.Drivenbypopulationgrowthandagrowingconsumerclass,by2030waterdemandwillincreaseby40percentandby2050,globaldemandforfoodandenergywillincreaseby50percent.

These extreme pressures on land and natural capitalareconnectedtoourcapacitytofeedtheglobalpopulation.TheFoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)estimatesthatthereare867millionchronicallyundernourishedpeopleintheworldtoday.Seventypercentoftheworld’sfoodinsecureliveinruralareas,and60percentoftheworld’spopulationrelyonagriculturefortheirlivelihoods.

Takingthesefiguresintoaccount,uncontrolledurbanexpansiononarablelandmustbemetwithgreaterregulations and governance so as to support the productiveandagriculturalcapacityofruralareas.

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A2. A POSSIBLE WAY FORWARD

InlinewiththeUNCCDConventionrecommendationsonavoidanceofduplicationofeffort,thefollowingareexistingframeworkswhichcouldbeadapted,whereapplicable,toenhancerural–urbanrelationshipsparticularlyinperi-urbanareas:

a. Sustainable land management to prevent productive land loss – a paradigm shift via the scientific conceptual framework for Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)

TheUNCCDLDNframeworkoffersanopportunityforlandrestorationinthecontextofsoilerosion,uncontrolledurbanisationandtheimplementationofSustainableDevelopmentGoal15.3:By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.

This is an approach that counterbalances the expected lossofproductivelandwiththerecoveryofalreadydegradedareas.Itencouragestherestorationofdegradedlandinthesamephysicallocationwherenewdegradationisexpectedtooccur.Iftakenliterallyinthecontextofruralandurbandynamics,peri-urbanareaswouldbenefitgreatlyfromtherestorationofdegradedland.


Only3percentoftheplanet’ssurfaceissuitableforarableproductionand75billiontonnesoffertilesoilarelosttolanddegradationeveryyear.Citieswillhavetripledinsizebetween2000and2030,andareontracktoreach80percentgrowthinthenext18years.Theneedforsmart,dense,andsustainablegrowthisparamount,otherwise,thecurrentstateofunmanagedgrowthinlandareawillnotonlycreatemoreinequality,butaddtoeconomicandenvironmental risks.

b. United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) The Resolution adopted by the General Assembly in March2019ontheUNDecadeonEcosystemRestorationoffersanotheropportunitytostrengthenrural–urbandynamicsinthecontextofecosystems.TheResolutionreaffirmstheNewUrbanAgenda,adoptedattheUnitedNationsConferenceonHousingandSustainableUrbanDevelopment(HabitatIII)(…)and its vision for cities and human settlements that protect, conserve, restore and promote their ecosystems, water, natural habitats and biodiversity, minimise their environmental impact and effect a change to sustainable consumption and production patterns. Memberstatesareencouragedtofosterthepoliticalwill,themobilisationofresources,capacity-building,scientificresearchandcooperationandmomentumforecosystem restoration at the global, regional, national and local levels, as appropriate. 36

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Figure 2: Outwardgrowthpatternsfrom2000-2014,illuminatetherapidrateofglobalurbanisation.WorldResourcesInstitute

TheConventiononBiologicalDiversitydefinesan‘ecosystem’asadynamiccomplexofplant,animaland micro-organism communities and their non-living environmentinteractingasafunctionalunit.Aconceptualframeworkofjoiningman-madeecosystemsofcitieswithterrestrialecosystemsincludingruralareascouldfurtherenhanceaholisticrestorationofecosystems.

c. Prevention, rehabilitation and reclamation of land in peri-urban areas

TheUNCCDConventionrecommendationsoncombattingdesertificationincludeactivitieswhicharepartoftheintegrateddevelopmentoflandinarid,semi-aridanddrysub-humidareasforsustainabledevelopmentandareaimedat:

(i) prevention and/or reduction of land degradation;(ii) rehabilitation of partly degraded land; and(iii) reclamation of desertified land;

These recommendations could be extended as appropriate to activities in peri-urban areas, as demonstratedinFig4.Rehabilitationofpartlydegradedlandoutsideandwithinterritorialareasofcitiescanbeachievedthroughafforestationand/orrevegetation. Public parks and urban agriculture, contributing20percenttotheworld’sfoodproduction,couldbringmutualco-benefitsforpeople–includingthecreationofurbanmicro-climatesandimprovementstoair-quality.TheWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO)estimatesthat4.2milliondeathseveryyearoccurasaresultofexposuretoambient(outdoor)airpollution,andthat91percentoftheworld’spopulationlivesinplaceswhereairpollutionexceeds WHO guideline limits.


c. Land and forests as carbon sinks

Citiesoccupyonly2percentofterrestrialecosystems,yetconsumeovertwo-thirdsoftheworld’senergyandaccountformorethan70percentofglobalCO2

emissions. Three times more carbon is stored in the soil than in the atmosphere. Land degradation and desertificationcauseadeclineinthemanyessentialservices provided by ecosystems, including provision offoodandfibre,carbonsequestration,regulationofwatersupply,conservationof(agro)biodiversityandcultural heritage.

38Figure 3: UNCCD(2017)GlobalLandOutlook,GlobalLandProductivityDynamics(1999-2013)

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Figure 4: UNCCD(1994)AvisualinterpretationofArticle1inthecontextofrural–urbandynamicsonprevention,rehabilitationandreclamationofland.(Redrawn)42

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REHABILITATE

RECLAIM

PREVENT

Urban areas (city)

Peri-urban areas

Rural areas

TheUNCCD’sLDNframeworkrecommendsprogressreportsonindicatorsandassociatedmetricsforlandcover, land cover change, land productivity and carbon stocksthatarealsobeingconsideredforthemonitoringofSDG15.3.Thesedemonstratetheimportant role that natural capital has in its capacity toabsorbcarboninthesoil,oceansorforestsandtoabsorbCO2emissionsproducedbyconstantlyexpanding cities.

d. Natural and cultural heritage

There is also a cultural and historical dimension to the relationshipbetweencities,landandtheirecosystems.

TheUNESCO’sConventionConcerningtheProtectionoftheWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritagenotesthatcultural heritage and natural heritage are increasingly threatenedwithdestruction,notonlybytraditionalcausesofdecay,butalsobychangingsocialandeconomicconditionswhichaggravatethesituationwithevenmoreformidablephenomenaofdamageordestruction.TheConventionalsoacknowledgesthecombinedworksofnatureandmanandtheiroutstandinguniversalvalue.SomeofUNESCO’sWorldHeritageSitesdemonstrateplacesofoutstandingnatural beauty and human habitat coexisting in harmony.

The FAO’s Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(GIAHS)programme,recognisesoutstandinglandscapesofaestheticbeautythatcombineagricultural biodiversity, resilient ecosystems and valuableculturalheritage.Thefiftytwositesselectedacrosstheworld,offercompellingexamplesofhowremarkablelandscapesthatstemfromingenioussystemsandtechnologiesoflandandwatermanagement, are home to sustainable agricultural systemsthatcontributetofoodandlivelihoodsecurity.Theuniqueagro-biodiversityisenhancedbytraditionalknowledgeandtechnologies,thenaturalenvironmentcoexistsinsymbiosiswithman-maderuraltownsandvillages.Theseexamplesoffercompellingstudiesforpossibleadaptationmechanismsinperi-urbanareassufferingfromuncontrolled urbanisation.


B. HUMAN CAPITAL – HUMAN BEINGS AT THE CENTRE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Demographic shifts and globalisation are putting pressure on expanding cities. Climate change impacts, which are manifested through desertification and droughts, cause land degradation, which in turn reduces land productivity. Migration and poverty are at the centre of concerns in peri-urban areas and at the forefront of the outward growth of cities. Health and well-being, development of skills and jobs, livelihood strategies for people and communities, including education and capacity building, are paramount for the prosperity of rural areas and cities.

Sub–themes:• Healthandwell-being.• Skillsandjobs.• Livelihoodsofpeopleandcommunities.• Educationandcapacitybuilding.

Human beings are at the centre of Sustainable Development Agenda.

Principle1ofTheRioDeclarationonEnvironmentandDevelopment,1992.

a. Human beings are at the centre of concerns

TheUNCCDConventionaffirmsinitsPreamblethathumanbeingsinaffectedorthreatenedareasareatthecentreofconcernstocombatdesertificationandmitigatetheeffectsofdrought.

Thispolicyaimsatgreatersynergiesbetweenruralandurbanareasandthehealthandwell-beingofallcitizensinhabitingcitiesandruralareas,whilstalsoensuring environmental sustainability.

b. Rural – urban dynamics and poverty alleviation

AccordingtotheWorldBank:in2015,736millionpeoplelivedonlessthanUSD1.90aday,downfrom1.85billionin1990.Globally,extremepovertycontinuestobeoverwhelminglyrural:anestimated79percentofthoseexperiencingpovertyliveinruralareas.UN-HABITATestimatesthatalmost1billionpeoplecurrentlyliveinslums.By2030,UN-Habitatestimates3billionpeoplewillneedaccesstoadequateandaffordablehousing.

Today,25percentoftheurbanpopulationliveinslums, characterised by poverty, population density, contaminatedenvironmentsandalackofformallandtenure,whichlimitsaccesstowaterandsanitation,energy,solidwastemanagementandmobility.

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Some2.1billionpeoplelacksafedrinkingwaterintheirhomesanddoublethatnumberdonothavesafesanitation.Upto132millionpeopleincitieshavenoelectricity,andmanyspendupto30percentoftheirincome on transport.

TheUNDP2018GlobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI)combinesthreedimensionsofpovertyinthecontextofheath,educationandstandardofliving.TheMPIidentifies,inadditiontonutritionandchildmortality,yearsofschoolingandschoolattendance,andbasicissuessuchasaccesstocookingfuel,sanitation,drinkingwater,electricity,housingandassets.Whilstacknowledgingthatagreaterpercentageofthepoorliveinruralareas,thepercentageoftheurbanpoorisalarminganditisincreasingwiththegrowthofcities.Peri-urbanareasareoftenhometoinformalsettlementsanditisinsuchareas that rural migration merges into urban poor.

Sustainabletransformationsinperi-urbanareascouldbecomethecatalystforpovertyalleviationandatestinggroundfortheimplementationofSustainableDevelopmentGoalNo1.


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Thedriversofdemographicchangearethethreefundamentalfactorsinchangingpopulationsizeandagestructure–mortality,fertility,andmigrationacrossandwithincountries,whichinturnarecloselytiedtodevelopment progress.

Thesedevelopmentalchangesaffectthegrowthofcities,andconsequentlyalsoaffectrural-urbandynam-ics.ThisregardsthehighpercentageofyouthinAfrica’spopulation,aswellastheroleofwomenwhenitcomestopressingdevelopmentalchanges.TheAfricancon-tinentisundergoingprofounddemographicchanges,characterisedbydecliningfertilityandchildmortalityratescoupledwithrapidpopulationgrowth.About41percentofthepeopleontheAfricancontinentarebelow15yearsofage,whileanother19percentareyoungpeoplebetween15and24yearsofage.

MeetingthesocialaspirationsofAfricanyouthwillbeoneofthekeyissuesrelatedtoretainingpeopleinruralareaswithaqualityofjobsthatmeetstheirpersonalself-esteemneeds.

d. Globalisation and migration

i. Migration in the context of demographic changes and globalisation

International migration is a complex phenomenonthattouchesonamultiplicityofeconomic,socialandsecurityaspectsaffectingourdailylivesinanincreasinglyinterconnectedworld.Migrationisatermthatencompassesawidevarietyofmovementsandsituationsinvolvingpeopleofallwalksoflifeandbackgrounds.Morethaneverbefore,migrationtouchesallstatesandpeopleinaneraofdeepeningglobalisation.Migrationisintertwinedwithgeopolitics,trade and cultural exchange, and provides opportunitiesforstates,businessesandcommunitiestobenefitenormously.Migrationhashelpedimprovepeople’s lives in both origin and destination countries andhasofferedopportunitiesformillionsofpeopleworldwidetoforgesafeandmeaningfullivesabroad.Not all migration occurs in positive circumstances however.Wehaveinrecentyearsseenanincreaseinmigrationanddisplacementoccurringduetoconflict,persecution, environmental degradation and change, andaprofoundlackofhumansecurityandopportunity.TheUnitedNationsInternationalOrganisationforMigration,basedonUNDESAstatistics,estimatesthatin2015over243millionpeoplewereinternationalmigrants,approximately3.3percentoftheglobalpopulation.UNHCRGlobalTrendsreportfinds65.3millionpeople,oronepersonin113,weredisplacedfromtheirhomesbyconflictandpersecutionin2015.Amongstthemwererefugees,forcedtofleehisorhercountrybecauseofpersecution,warorviolenceincontrarytovoluntarymigrationandpeoplewhochoosetomigratemainlytoimprove their livelihoods.

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Figure 5: UNDP2018GlobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI).2018MPIestimates,byregion(millions).(Redrawn)60

c. Demographic shifts

Globaldemographictrendsareataturningpoint:populationgrowthisslowingmarkedly,andafterincreasingforfivedecades,theproportionofpeopleaged15to64,thetypicalworkingagepopulation,isnowstartingtofall.Theriseinthenumberofdependentsperpersonofworkingageisdrivenmainlybyanincreaseintheelderlyasapercentageofthepopulation. Beneath these global dynamics lie major differencesindemographiccharacteristicsandtrendsat the country level. Some countries continue to experiencehighlevelsoffertilityandpopulationgrowth,whileinothersfertilityrateshavefallenbelowreplacement levels, and rapid ageing and gradual population contractions are expected in the coming decades. 61

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ii. Rural to urban migration

The World Bank links rapid urbanisation to demographicchangeinthecontextofdevelopmentalchallenges.Internalmigrationandtheriseoflargeurban agglomerations in developing countries are essentialpartsofthestoryofdemographicchange.Higherpopulationgrowthinruralareastendstotranslate into rural-urban migration. Studies suggest thatabouthalfoftheurbanisationgrowthintheworldresultsfrominternalrural-to-urbanmigrationandareareclassifications(UN2008).Peoplemovingtocitiesare attracted by the various job opportunities, higher wages,themanylocalamenitiessuchasculturalandrecreationalofferings,andtheavailabilityofpublicutilitiesandtransportationfacilities.About90percentoftheurbangrowthinthenext15yearswillbeconcentratedinAsiaandSub-SaharanAfrica.Alreadyhometomostoftheworld’sslumpopulation,thesetworegionsareexpectedtoseeasignificantincreasein those numbers.

iii. Climate change migration

In addition to rural – city migration the attractive powerofcities,theFAOidentifiedclimatechangeasanothercauseofrural-urbanmigrationwhichintensifiesothersocio-economicmigrationdrivers,suchasruralpovertyandfoodinsecurity.Theshortandlong-termeffectsofclimatechangehavesignificantimpactsonagriculturalproductivity,rurallivelihoodsand,indirectly,migrationflows.Migrationinthecontextofclimatechangehasmultiplecauses.Thecombinationofclimate-relatedriskswithsocio-economicdriversincreasesthevulnerabilityofagriculture,leadstolossoflivelihoodsandtherebytriggers migration.

Between2008and2015,anaverageof26.4millionpeopleweredisplacedannuallybynatural-hazard-induced and climate-related disasters – atrendwhichisrising.

iv. Migration and impact on urbanisation

UN-HABITATpositionsmigrationatthecoreofurbanisation,andinlinewithTheGlobalCompactforMigrationandtheNewUrbanAgenda,itisworkingwithcitiesonsharedresponsibilitiesandunityofpurposeinthehopeofmakingmigrationworkforall.EntrypointsidentifiedbyUN-HABITATintacklingcausesofmigrationare:reducingimpactsofclimatechange(includingcoastalareas;butalsodrought,floodingandothernaturalhazards);reducingconflictoverland,water,othernaturalresources;povertyreductionandfixingdevelopmentgaps;spatialinequalityincludingbasicservices;socialservices;financialandadministrativeservices;employmentopportunities.


Migration,likepoverty,affectsruralandurbanareasinthecontextofpeople’swell–beingandhumancapital;bothintersectinperi-urbanareasonthearrivalofpeople to cities. Rural to urban migration, combined withchangestopopulationdynamics,bringsagrowingdemandfornewjobsandtheprovisionofbasic services.

B2. A POSSIBLE WAY FORWARD

a. Links between jobs and environment

According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO)fromjobsperspective,environmentalsustainabilityiscritical.Infact,theincreasingfrequencyandintensityofnaturaldisastersassociatedwithhumanactivityhavealreadyloweredproductivity.

Currently,1.2billionjobsrelydirectlyontheeffectivemanagementandsustainabilityofahealthyenvironment,inparticularjobsinfarming,fishingandforestryaredependentonnaturalprocesses,suchasairandwaterpurification,soilrenewalandfertilisation,pollination,pestcontrol,themoderationofextremetemperatures,andprotectionagainststorms,floodsandstrongwinds.

Environmental degradation threatens these ecosystem servicesandthejobsthatdependonthem.Theeffectsofenvironmentaldegradationontheworldofworkareparticularlyacuteforthemostvulnerableworkers.Workersfromlower-incomecountriesandSmallIslandDevelopingStates,ruralworkers,peopleinpoverty,indigenous and tribal peoples and other disadvantagedgroupsareaffectedthemostbytheimpactofclimatechange.Thetransitiontoagreeneconomyisnotonlyurgentforthesakeoftheplanet,butisalsocompatiblewithneededimprovementsindecentwork.

Thequestistoevaluatewhether,withinlocalconditionsandcircumstances,newgreenjobscanbecreatedwithlocalresources(including,butnotlimitedto,naturalresources)andlocalhumancapital.Itisaquestforadaptationprocessesinrevivingtraditionaltechnologiesincombinationwithnewapproachestotechnology, aiding developmental changes and transboundary approaches to development through sharedknowledge.

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b. Urbanisation and eradication of poverty

Urbanisationcanplayakeyroleineradicatingruralpoverty.ResearchinIndiafoundthatanincreaseof200,000intheurbanpopulationresultedinadecreaseof1.3to2.6percentinruralpoverty.Overall,theseurban-rurallinkageswerebehindareductionof13to25percentinruralpovertyinIndiabetween1983and1999.Insomeinstances,urban-rurallinkageshavetransformativeimplicationsforglobalpovertyreduction.However,thebenefitsofurbanisationshould not be limited to large cities but made available tosmallandmediumtowns.Theadequateprovisionofinfrastructureandopportunitiesinsmallandmediumcities can promote rural urbanisation and contribute to achieving a more balanced population distribution.

c. Skills, education and capacity building for a new economic transition

TheUNCCDConvention,inArticle19,oncapacitybuilding,educationandpublicawareness,recommendsinnovativewaysofpromotingalternativelivelihoods,includingtraininginnewskillstoallsocialgroups.

i. Skills and green economy, particularly in Africa

TheILOacknowledgesthatskillsdevelopmentprogrammesforenterprisesandworkersfacilitatethetransition to a green economy, though they are yet to be mainstreamed in policy discussions. Skills development programmes are crucial to the achievementofajusttransition.Somecountrieshaveestablishedplatformstoanticipateskills-needs,andtheprovisionoftrainingingeneral,buttheyarenotallusedtodiscusstheskillsimplicationsofthegreentransition.Theactiveparticipationofsocialpartnersisusefulinidentifyingskills-gaps,implementingtrainingprovisions, emphasising that higher skills translate into higherpay,andrecognisingtheskillsacquiredonthejob.However,socialpartnersarenotalwaysinvolvedintherelevantdiscussions;thisisespeciallythecasewithworkers.Greaterawarenessofenvironmentalissues, and their mainstreaming in skills policy discussions,arerequiredtoensureadequateidentificationofskills-needsandimplementationoftrainingprogrammesinresponsetolabourmarket needs.

TheUNCCDrecommendationsof1992onthesupportandimplementationofactionprogrammeswithparticipatoryactionatthelocalcommunitylevelare still very much relevant in the provision and assessmentsofskills-developmentatthecommunity level.


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ii. Sectorial approaches to skills-development and different levels of skills

Sectorial approaches to skills-development, and the broadeningofskillssectorsbeyondagricultureandforestryforruralareas,andbeyondmanufacturingforurbanareas,toalltwenty-twoindustrialsectorsrecognisedbytheUnitedNations(whereapplicable),canbringdiversifiedcross-sectorialskillsandeconomicsolutionswithco-benefitsforruralandurbanareas.Some sectors, such as the electricity and energy sector, transportationandstorageorwatersupplysectors,couldactasenablersnotonlyforpovertyalleviationbutalsoforsustainableeconomicgrowthforruralandurban areas.

Newskillscouldbealsodiversifiedatvariouslevelsofcomplexityanddependentonarangeofjobsfrombasic skills, intermediate technology skills connected to manuallabour,andwhereappropriate‘high-tech’skillsthatarebecomingapparentwiththeriseoftheFourthIndustrial Revolution.

iii. Skills-development for the youth

TheAfricanUnionYouthDivisiondefinesskills-developmentthoughtheAfricanUnion’svisionforAgenda2063andconsidersitamechanismforeliminatingyouthunemployment.Agenda2063setsout aspirations to “catalyse an education and skills revolution and actively promote science, technology, researchandinnovation,tobuildknowledge,humanresources,capabilitiesandskillsfortheAfricancentury”.Skills-developmentisfocusedonVocationalEducationandTraining(TVET)throughscaled-upinvestments,theestablishmentofapoolofhigh-qualitytechnicalTVETandcentresacrossAfrica.Thisincludes,greaterlinkswithindustryandalignmenttolabourmarkets,withaviewtoimprovetheskillsprofile,employabilityandentrepreneurshipofyouthandwomenespecially,thereby closing the skills gap across the continent. ImplementationofskillsiscomplementedbythewiderglobalframeworkofSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs),particularlygoal4whichaimsatensuringinclusiveandequitablequalityeducationandthepromotionoflifelonglearningopportunitiesforallby2030.

SDG4,target4.4,aimsto:“substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship.”

iv. Skills, jobs and education for women

Genderequalitymattersnotonlyinitsownrightbutalsoasaninstrumentfordevelopment.Thereisvastpotentialforgrowth,povertyreduction,andsharedprosperityviaimprovedgenderequalityinthelabourmarket,whichcaninturnhavelargeimpactsonproductivity. Social norms and legal restrictions that

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largelyshapetheagencyofwomenandgirlsarekeyfactorsunderlyinggender-baseddifferencesinaccessto opportunity. For instance, traditional roles and associatedtime-usepatternsconstrainwomen’seconomicopportunities:housework,childrearing,andelderlycareareoftenconsideredprimarilywomen’sresponsibility.Arangeofspecificmeasurescould help address prevailing gender gaps in economicopportunitythroughoutthelifecycle.Improvingwomen’sfinancialaccessbymakingiteasiertoopenaccountsandobtainlinesofcreditwouldalsobenefitgrowth.

Genderdifferencesinsocialandeconomicrolesandresponsibilitiesexacerbatethevulnerabilityofwomen,whohaveloweraccessthanmentoresourcestoadaptto climate change, including land, credit, agricultural inputs, decision-making bodies, technology, social insuranceandtraining.Forthemajorityofwomenworkingintheinformaleconomyandinsmallenterprises,itisparticularlydifficulttorecoverfromtheeffectsofenvironmentaldisasters(ILO,2009;IPCC,2014b).


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Recognisingtheroleofwomenincombattingdesertificationanddrought,theUNCCDpublishedthe Gender Action Plan. The Convention recognises theimportanceofwomenintheimplementationoftheConvention,andidentifiescriticalareasfortheirengagement:(i)awareness-raising,andparticipationinthedesignandimplementationofprogrammes;(ii)decision-makingprocessesthatmenandwomenadoptatthelocallevelinthegovernanceofdevelop-ment,implementationandreviewofregionalandnationalactionprogrammes(RegionalActionPro-grammes(RAPs)andNationalAdaptationPlans(NAPs);and(iii)capacity-building,educationandpublicawareness,particularlyatthelocallevelthroughthesupportoflocalorganisations.

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Figure 6: TheInternationalStandardIndustrialClassificationofAllEconomicActivities(ISIC)of2008,isaUnitedNationsindustry classificationsystem.Industrialsectorsareimportantreferencesforadiversejobsandskillscreationinurban,peri-urban and rural areas.

2008 The International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC)

C. ManufacturingD. Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning

E. Water supply, waste managementF. Construction

G. Wholesale and retail trade; repais H. Transportation and storage

I. Accommodation and food service activitiesJ. Information and communication

K. Financial and insurance activitiesL. Real estate activities

M. Professional, scientific activitiesN. Administrative and support services

O. Public administration and defenceP. Education

Q. Human health and social work activitiesR. Arts, entertainment and recreation

S. Other service activitiesT. Activities of households as employers

U. Activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies

A. Agriculture, forestry and fishingB. Mining and quarrying

Governance and policies at the national and local levels need to regulate and protect land tenure to ensure prosperous growth. The expansion of cities must be regulated so that it does not encroach on productive land areas. National and local policies, including planning law and decentralisation, need to act as enablers for joint efforts to ensure sustainable development and “build together, benefit together”local actions in urban, peri-urban and rural areas

Sub–themes:• Governanceandinstitutions.• Policiesandregulations.• Businessandtrade.• Microandsocial–enterprises.

C1. CO-DEPENDENCIES IN THE HUMAN CAPITAL BETWEEN RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICS.

a. Governance and insufficient land regulations

Growingcities,particularlyinAsiaandSub-SaharanAfrica,willcontinuetoexperiencepopulationgrowthanddemandfornewland.Unregulatedoutwardgrowthofcitiesposesachallengetotheircapacitytogrowsustainablyandfromtheperspectiveofruralareas,unregulatedgrowthconsumesarableland.Thisinitselfishavingimplicationsonruralecosystemsand people’s livelihoods.

Theissueofgovernancehastwodimensions.Onerelatestothecapacityofcitiestoregulatelandintheexpandedareaswithprivatelandowners,andatthe same time their capacity to constantly readjust to growingcitymunicipalboundaries.Ontheotherhand,land use in rural areas needs to be regulated too, sothatcitiesdogrownotonarableland,butondesignated degraded soil.

i. Rural governance

TheUNCCDLandDegradationNeutralityFramework(LDN)recognisesthatlandisfixedinquantityandthat there is competition to control its resources, whichincludescompetitionderivingfromrapidurbanisation.Whilstacknowledgingthecriticalexistentialco-dependencyofcitiesonlandecologythat is critical, particularly in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humidareas–theLDNSciencePolicyInterface(SPI)arguesthattheproductivepotentialoflandmustbe increased in order to deliver the goods and servicesrequiredbyagrowingandincreasingly


C. SOCIAL CAPITAL – GOVERNANCE, LAND AND POLICY REGULATIONS

affluentpopulation,includingincreasedpercapitademandforhigh-qualitynutritiousfood.LDNSPIemphasisesthekeyroleofnationalgovernmentsintheimplementationofitsrecommendations.

ii. Urban governance

TheWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI)RossCenterforSustainableCitiescarriedoutananalysisoftheupwardandoutwardgrowthof499cities.Thisanalysisconfirmsthatthechallengesofrapidoutwardexpansionaregreatestinlower-incomecitiesthathaveweakplanningandlandgovernanceandlessmaturefinancialmarkets.

Muchempiricalevidenceexistsonhowacity’sincreased spatial extent and the decline in its population density increases its per capita costs to providepublicservices,aswellasthesocialcostsassociatedwithcongestion,pollution,andurbaninefficiencies.Theselanddevelopmentpatternsaredifficulttoreverseandsignificantlyaffecttheconsumptionofresourcessuchasland,energy,andwater.

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Figure 7: UrbanspatialexpansioninBangalore’smetropolitanregionbetween1990–2015CourtesyMahendra,A,SetoC.K©TheWorldResourcesInstituteRossCenterforSustainableCitiesWorkingPaper(2019)

b. Land tenure regulations

TheWRIdistinguishesthreeprinciplesforurbangovernanceandlandtenure:

i. Transparent records of land titles, occupancy, and transactions

Goodrecordsoflandownershipareaprerequisitefordraftingeffectivelandregulationsanddesigningincentiveschemes.Unjustifiedprivatecaptureoflandvaluecanbeavoidedwhencompleteandup-to-dateland records enable local authorities to appropriately assessandtaxproperties.Whiletheabsenceofsecuretenureandtitleininformalhousinglimitspublicinvestments in basic services, some cities are paying moreattentiontoexistinginformal,community-recognised titles and tenure systems. Thecoexistenceofmultiplelandtenuresystemsinvolving public, private, tribal, and customary ownership,particularlyinAfricancities,createschallenges, but increasingly countries like Zambia, Botswana,andNamibiaarerecognisingcustomarylandownershipaspartofformaltenuresystems.Satelliteimageryaimedatidentifyinginformalsettlementlocationsoffersanewopportunitytocomplete land records.


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ii. Incentives for cross-agency coordination with local authority to enforce plans

Inmanygrowingperi-urbanareas,conflictsarecommonbetweenruralandurbanauthoritiesregardingjurisdiction,policyenforcement,andwhopaysforserviceprovision.Ofcentralimportancearegovernance processes that give cities authority to enforcedevelopmentplansandprovideincentivesfromhigherlevelsofgovernment(national,state,ormetropolitan)forcross-jurisdictional,cross-sectoralcoordination.

iii. Participation of the under-served in land readjustment and development schemes

Land-related policies and plans must prioritise public participation,mustbeenforceable,andshouldincludemechanisms that are unlikely to be challenged or altered by short-term priorities.

OrganisationssuchastheGlobalLandToolNetwork(GLTN)facilitatedbyUN-HABITAT,amulti-sectoralallianceofinternationalpartners,iscommittedtoensuringaccesstolandandtenuresecurityforall,withaparticularfocusonthepoor,womenandyouth.TheNetwork’spartnersincludeinternationalruralandurban civil society organisations, research and training institutions, bilateral and multilateral organisations, andinternationalprofessionalbodies.

Figure 8: WorldResourcesInstituteRossCenterforSustainableCitiesWorkingPaper(2019)TowardsAMoreEqualCityUpwardand OutwardGrowth:ManagingUrbanExpansionforMoreEquitableCitiesintheGlobalSouth.LandOwnershipinCities Areasthatgrewbetween1990and2014(Redrawn)

AccordingtotheWorldBank:womeninhalfofthecountriesintheworldareunabletoassertequallandand property rights despite legal protections. Securelandrightsareessentialforwomen’seconomicempowermentandcreatingincentivesforinvestment,providinganassetthatcanbeleveragedforagricultureorbusinessdevelopment,andofferingasolidfoundationforfinancialstability.

c. Planning

Target11.aofSustainableDevelopmentGoal11onmakingcitiesandhumansettlementsinclusive,safe,resilientandsustainableTarget11.arecommends:

11.A Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning.

Goodplanningaswellasgoodgovernanceisrequiredbothforexpandingcitiesaswellasforoptimalruralland-use.Amajorityofpublishedassessmentscallfortheuseofplanningasatoolforamorebalanceddevelopmentbetweenruralandurbanareas.

UN-HABITAT,throughtheimplementationoftheNewUrbanAgendadefinedin“ImplementingtheNewUrbanAgendabyStrengtheningUrban-RuralLinkages”highlightstheimportanceofregionalandterritorialplanningforintegratedurbanandruraldevelopmentasanentrypointforStrengtheningUrban-RuralLinkages.

i. Recommendations for improvements in planning law

Urban-RuralLinkagesrequirealong-termenablingpolicyframeworkundertheumbrellaofnationalguidanceinlinewithparticipatoryplanningandmanagementofintegrateddevelopment.Risinginequalitiesinruralaswellasurbanareasrequiresaflexibleplanningsystemthatcanbeadjustedtotheneedsoflow-andhigh-incomecitizens.Theadaptabilityofthisframeworktolocalareasandtochangingcircumstancesisequallyimportant.

UN-HABITATestablishedtheInternationalGuidelinesonUrbanandTerritorialPlanning(IG-UTP)in2015,asaglobalframeworkforimprovingpolicies,plans,designandimplementationprocessesthatwillleadtomorecompact, socially inclusive, better integrated and connectedcitiesandterritoriesthatfostersustainable urban development and are resilient to climatechange.(…)AddressingUrban-RuralLinkagesthroughtheIG-UTPmeansidentifyingurban-ruralsynergies and entry points to the planning system inordertopromoteeconomiesofscaleandagglomeration, increase productivity, improve connectivityandflows,andbetterconnecttheoverallinteractions and processes occurring at the regional


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andmetropolitanlevelsonthepathtowardsmoresustainable urban development.

Within the urban-rural linkages planning system UN-HABIATrecommends:improvementtourban-ruralconnectivitythroughinfrastructureandregulationsincludingwatermanagement;infrastructurethatisstrategicallylinkedtomarketsandservices;developmentofinclusivegovernance;promotionofcity-regionlanduseandregionalandterritorialplanning that takes into account urban, peri-urban andruralareas;fosteringeffectivelandandpropertymanagementandlandsystems;developmentofintegrated regional strategies through local and regional characteristics and elaborating on mixed spaces, combining urban and rural characteristics.

ii. The role of decentralisation

Decentralisationthroughthetransferofauthorityfromcentraltolocalgovernment(subjecttonationalcircumstancesandrecommendations),continuestoplayanimportantroleforlocalauthoritiesandcitiesin order to actually implement policies and govern-anceatthelocallevel.Thisiscrucialforanintegratedapproach to rural-urban development. Social dialogue andparticipatoryapproachescanensurethatwhilststrengtheninggovernanceandpolicyframeworks,the‘green transition’ is a ‘just transition’.

UN-HABITATestablished,intheInternationalGuidelinesonDecentralisationandAccesstoBasicServicesforall(2009),thatdecentralisationisanimportantcatalystforpolicyandinstitutionalreformatthenationalleveltofurtherenableandempowerlocalauthoritiestoimprove urban governance. C2. A POSSIBLE WAY FORWARD

a. Special economic and ecological zones in peri-urban areas for testing new dynamics between rural and urban areas

Whilst adjustments to governance and planning requiretheintroductionoflawsortheadaptationofexistingregulationstothenewandchangingrealitiesofgrowingcities,designatingspecialzoneswhereanewrelationshipbetweenruralandurbanareascouldbe tested in practice through pilot projects could bring effectiveresults.Considerationsshouldbegiventoequitablelandtenurerulesandrights.Similarapproacheshavebeensuccessfullyimplementedincasesoftransitionfromminingindustriestogreeneconomies,andforstimulatingcirculareconomygrowthinsomecountries.

b. Incremental increase of land supply

The WRI recommends an incremental increase in the supplyofservicedlandbyformingpartnershipstofinancecoreservices,especiallyinperi-urbanareas.

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by2050,Africa’surbandwellersareprojectedtohaveincreasedto1.2billion.

Informalsettlementsprovidemuch-neededaffordablehousingingrowingcities,buttheyexistinalegal‘grey’space.Integratingexistinginformalorunregulatedsettlementswithinthecity’sformaljurisdictionandimprovingthemisanimportantwayofmaintainingresidents’socialandeconomicnetworkswhilereducingtheneedformoreurbanland.

b. Land degradation and livelihood strategies in peri-urban areas

ConsiderationsforlegalisinginformalsettlementsfortheprovisionofbasicservicescouldincludetheLandDegradationNeutrality(LDN)Frameworkasanalter-nativesolutionfortheprovisionoflivelihoods,andassuchcreateanewrelationshipbetweenruralandurbanareas.TheWRIRossCenterforSustainableCities’WorkingPaperonTowardsAMoreEqualCityUpwardandOutwardGrowthmakesapointontheimportanceoflivelihoodstrategiesinperi-urbanlocationsandthatadisplacementoflow-incomeinformalsettlementsdwellerstoperi-urbanareasonlywiththeprovisionofhousing–butwithouttheavailabilityofurbanservicesoreconomicopportunities–isnoteffective,becausenewhousingonthecity’speripherymaydolittletoalleviatepovertyorimprovewell-being.

c. Secondary Cities, intermediary cities and rural urbanisation

CitiesAlliancedefinessecondarycitiesashavingapopulationrangeof100,000to2.5million.

Thethreebroadtypesofsecondarycitiesaredistinguishedasfollows:

1. Sub-nationalregionalurbancentresof administration,manufacturing,and agricultural development.2. Clusteredsecondarycities,whichdevelopon theperipheryofmetropolitanorurbanregions andtaketheformofnewtowns,spill-over growthcentres,andlinearcities.Thesemay alsoincludemigrantandrefugeecities.3. Corridorsecondarycitiesdevelopedalong majortransportationcorridors.(Roberts2014)

Inruralareasespecially,villages,intermediatetownsand secondary cities can provide basic services, healthcare,amenitiesandeducationfortheruralpopulation;theycanfunctionasmarketsforthesurroundingregionandcanbeacrucialfactorinensuringfoodsecurity.Assuch,theyattractruralmigrants,lookingfortheadvantagesofsmallandintermediatetowns.Theroleofsmallandintermediateagglomerationscan,thus,beasignificantfactorforlinkingruralandurbanareas,andforbridgingthe urban-rural gap.

Increasedsupplyofservicedlandthroughlandreadjustmentschemesandpartnershipstofinanceanddelivercoreservices-“buildtogether,benefittogether”cancreateagreatersynergybetweenurban and rural areas.

Strategies for alternative livelihoods can be found through Sustainable Resource Management and Circular Economy, addressing issues of biological and municipal waste, whilst protecting environmental degradation, ensuring a just transition towards green jobs and creating new industries. Transport, infrastructure, sustainable energy provisions, technology transfer, digitalisation for development, research and innovation can all play a vital role in finding local solutions and foster regional collaboration through transboundary natural resource management (UNCCD).

Sub-themes:• Builtenvironment,citiesandinfrastructure.• Resourcemanagementandcirculareconomy.• Transportandenergy.• Industries,goodsandservices.

D1. CO-DEPENDENCIES IN THE MANUFACTURED CAPITAL BETWEEN RURAL – URBAN DYNAMICS

a. Affordable housing and legalisation of informal settlements

Housingaccountsformorethan70percentoflanduseinmostcitiesanddeterminesurbanformanddensities;italsoprovidesemploymentandcontributestogrowth.Acombinationofalackofaffordablehousing,unaffordablelandprices,socialinequalities,ruraltourbanmovementandclimatemigrationsarecontributingtotheexistenceofinformalsettlementsontheboundariesofcitiesadjacent to rural areas.

Today,aroundtheworld,aquarteroftheurbanpopulation live in slums. In developing countries, 881millionurbanresidentsliveinslumconditions.In1990,thisfigurewas689million.Thisrepresentsanincreaseof28percentinslumdwellers’absolutenumbersoverthepast15years.Slums are spontaneously emerging as a dominant and distincttypeofsettlementinthecitiesofthedevel-opingworld.Since2000,theglobalslumpopulationgrewonaveragebysixmillionayear.Thismeansanincreaseof16,500personsdaily.InSub-SaharanAfrica,59percentoftheurbanpopulationlivesinslumsand


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D. MANUFACTURED CAPITAL – SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY

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Intermediatetownsareoftenmoreaccessibletoruralpopulations,actingasabridgebetweenthemandlargercities.UN-HABITATrecognisesthatmanyofthesesecondarycities,particularlyinsub-SaharanAfrica,arestrugglingtomanagethechallengesofurbanisation,such as attracting investment and meeting the demandforhousing,landtenure,infrastructureandbasicurbanservices.Often,theyarepoorlymanaged,haveweakcommunicationsystemswithinandbetweenthem,struggletocreateandretainjobs,havehighlevelsofunemployment,andfinditdifficulttodiversifyandstrengthentheireconomiesandretaincapital.


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Investment in smaller cities may prove critical to counterbalanceinformalsettlementpopulations,rural-urban migration to megacities and to regain developmentalequilibriumbetweenruralandurbanareas. Polycentric national and regional approaches to development may need to be strengthened so as to createsuccessfulruralurbanisation.

Figure 9: Roberts,B(2014)CitiesAlliance,ManagingSystemsofSecondaryCities:PolicyResponsesinInternational Development(Redrawn).111

D2. A POSSIBLE WAY FORWARD

Whilstacknowledgingthatthealleviationofpovertyandinformalsettlementshasbeenasubjectofmul-tilateral agreements and national government action fordecades,recentdevelopmentsintechnology,ICTandsocio-economictrendssuchastherevivalofthecircular economy, can bring improvements to current conditionsandtothesupplychainbetweenruralandurban economies.

a. Increase connectivity through infrastructure

i. Mobility, secondary roads, transport and ICT connections (WRI) 112

Existingmobilityprogrammesinsuccessfulcitiescanbe extended to secondary and rural areas. In particular, public transport interchanges, various modesofcommunicationthroughintegratedpublicandprivate-partnershipfortransportservicestointegratedandinclusiveplanningforwalking,cyclingandwheelingcanimproveconnectivitybetweenurbanand rural areas.

Sustainableurbanmobilityprovidesefficientaccesstogoods,services,jobmarkets,socialconnections;itisaprerequisiteforsustainablelocaltradeandeconomicexchangebetweenruralandurbanareas.

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Governments may consider prioritising investment indevelopingICTsystemsandnetworks,andinsoftinfrastructuresupport,suchaseducationandtrainingofSMEandmicro-businessnetworking.

b. Sustainable resource management and circular economy opportunities

Inthesearchforalternativeeconomicgrowthmodelsinarid,semi-aridanddrysub-humidareaswithlimitednatural resource availability, the capacity to sustainably managenaturalresources,whichareavailableinsituand/orresultingfromagriculturalactivities,aswellastheabilitytosensiblymanagemunicipalwaste,canproveadrivingforceforchange.

ii. Secondary roads

Secondaryroadsinparticular,canactasconduitsforcoreservicesandinfrastructureinruralandurbanareas.Thearterialorsecondaryroadsystem–whichiswherecoreurbantrunkinfrastructure,suchaswaterpipelines,sewers,stormwaterdrains,andpublictransport are located – is largely undersupplied in sub-SaharanAfricanandAsiancities.


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Primaryroadsaretheresponsibilityofcentralgovern-ments,whereastertiarylocalroadsareoftenprovidedby private sector developments under the jurisdiction oflocalmunicipalities.Greaterconsiderationneedstobegiventoregionalandnationalplanningstrategiesofprimaryandsecondaryinfrastructure,includingroads,inordertoimproveconnectivitybetweenruralandurban areas.

Figure 10: Percentageofruralpopulationlivingmorethan2kmfromaroadinTheGlobalRoadsInventoryProject(GRIP2018) dataset©OfficeforNationalStatistics,UK(ONS)

iii. ICT and ‘soft’ infrastructure

In addition to physical connectivity, there have also beenrecentadvancementsintheprovisionofICTandbasictechnologyservices,whichareessentialtotheeconomyandtoanimprovedqualityoflifeinthemodernworld.Suchadvanceshavethepowertoenhance economic, social and environmental links betweenurbanandruralareas.TheInternetofThingsand digitalisation are changing social relationships as wellastheeconomy,giventhattheyconstituteeconomicdriverswhicharenolongersolelydependant on industrialisation. Withpooraccesstonationalandglobalinfrastructureservicesandnetworks,alackofcapitalandskills,andtheuseoflow-leveltechnologies,manysecondarycitiesarenotinapositiontoengageeffectivelyintheinformationage. 115

i. UNCCD recommendations on transboundary natural resource management

TheUNCCDConvention,inArticle11onSub-regionaland Regional Action Programmes, recommends agreedjointprogrammesforthesustainablemanagementoftransboundarynaturalresources,scientificandtechnicalcooperation,andstrengthening relevant institutions. Traditional paradigmsofnaturalresourcemanagementinaridand semi-arid regions have declined rapidly over the pastfortyyearsduetotheimpactsofmodernisationand industrialisation. Nevertheless, agricultural productivityofsomecultivars,suchasdatepalm,isontheincrease.However,traditionalprocessesconnectedtotheutilisationofdatepalmwastearenolongerinuse,andattimesthisdatepalmwasteislandfilledinforty-sixcountriescurrentlycultivatingdate palms in arid or semi-arid climates.

TheUNCCDrecommendationsontransboundarynaturalresourcemanagementinthecontextofpovertyalleviation,desertificationanddroughtaswellasraisingawarenessofcirculareconomybenefitsand technological advancements has the potential toachievearegionalandtransformativesustainabledevelopment transition, leading to economic diversificationandtotheprovisionofalternativelivelihoods.

A transboundary approach to natural resource management,acrossarangeofrenewableresourcesavailableingeographicalsubregions,offersacapacityofscalerequiredforinvestmentand,inparticular,canfostertheimplementationofSustainableDevelopmentGoal17.6ontechnologycollaboration:

17.6 Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism.

TheNorth-Southcollaborationcanofferaccesstoscientificlaboratoriesandtechnologyneededtoassessthecapacitiesofexistingmaterialsintheeographical South that are no longer in economic circulation.TheEuropeanUnioniscurrentlyaworldleader in the circular economy transition and adapting to the local context circular economy. ThesuccessstoriesofthegeographicalNorth,combinedwiththeadaptationoftraditionalpractices and modern technology has a potential foratransformativesustainabletransitiontowardsa green economy.


ii. Circular economy and jobs

According to the ILO – “World Employment and Social Outlook2018:Greeningwithjobs”theadoptionofmoresustainableagriculturalpoliciescancreatewageemploymentinmediumandlargeorganicfarms,andallowsmallholderstodiversifytheirsourcesofincomethrough a transition to conservation agriculture. Thiscanoccurinparallelwithembracingacirculareconomy. Circular economy emphasises the reuse, recycling,remanufactureandrepairofgoodsandwouldcreatearound6millionnewemploymentopportunitiesacrosstheworldassuchactionsreplacethetraditionalmodelof“extract,make,useanddispose”.Notably,itmeansareallocationfromtheminingandmanufacturingsectorstowastemanagement(recycling)andservices(repair,rent).TheILOexpectsglobalemploymentgrowthservicesandwastemanagementtocreateupto45millionjobs in total.

iii. Biological waste management and re-introduction of circular food systems between cities and rural areas

Theexistinglinearmodelofmassfoodproductionandlackofsystemicapproachtobiologicalwastewithinthecity’sboundariesoffersopportunitiesforthere-introductionofthecirculareconomymodel.Inthisinstance,‘re-introduction’referstoanacknowledgementthathistorically,citiesandruralareasrecycledtheirwaste,andinsomecases,suchasintheMiddleEast,thecirculareconomymodelwasinexistenceforaround8,000years.

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Figure 11: Circulareconomymodelofdatepalmindustryis8,000yearsold.Recyclingofalldatepalmtreecomponentsandby-productsareindeclinesince1970intheMiddleEast©SandraPiesik

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Today,incities,lessthan2percentofthevaluablebiologicalnutrientsinfoodby-productsandorganicwaste(excludingmanure)iscompostedorotherwisevalorised.

Citieshaveauniqueopportunitytosparkatransformationtowardsacirculareconomyforfood,giventhatitisexpectedthat,by2050,80percentofallfoodconsumedwillbeincities.

Itisrecommendedthatcitiesre-establishfoodsupplychainswiththeirsurroundingperi-urbanareas,estimatedataround20kmfromcityboundariesandrural areas. Circular economy models can extend to watermanagementsharedbyruralandurbanareas,bio-composting to SME enterprises aimed at production,foodprocessing,salesandtheeliminationoffoodwaste.


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The Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s report on “Cities and Circular Economy for Food”(2019)estimatesthatrealisingthevisionofacirculareconomyforfoodwouldresultineconomic,societal,andenvironmentalbenefits.Thebenefitstocitiesofachievingtwooftheambitionstogether,thatis:i)sourcingfoodregenerativelyandlocallywhereappropriate;andii)makingthemostuseofthefood,wouldgeneratebenefitsworthUSD2.7trillionannuallyby2050,andreducegreenhousegasemissionsby4.3billiontonnesofCO2.AneconomicopportunityofoverUSD700billionayearcanberealisedbyreducingediblefoodwasteandusingorganicmaterialstoproducenewproducts.

Figure 12: EllenMacArthurFoundation(2019)CitiesandCircularEconomyforFood.Theflowofmaterialsinthefoodsystemis overwhelminglylinear.Inthelinearfoodsystem,averyhighproportionoffoodflowsintocitieswhereitisprocessedor consumed,creatingorganicwasteintheformofdiscardedfood,by-productsorsewage.Incities,onlyaverysmall proportion(<2%)ofthevaluablenutrientsinthesediscardedorganicresourcesgetsloopedbacktoproductiveuse.124

iv. “Zero waste to landfill” for urban and rural areas

Theflowofbuildingmaterials,water,electronicwaste,andfood,canbereconfiguredtoavoidresourcewaste.Urbanareasoffertheidealenvironmenttobothreapthebenefitsanditerateonthechallengesofsuchmodels.Citiesaroundtheworldarealreadyexperimentingwithinterventionsthatleveragesynergiesacrossdifferentsectorstofostersymbioticrelationships in the consumption process, and as a commitment to circular economy concepts in urban planning,somehavegoneasfaraspledging“zerowastetolandfill”asastrategicgoalfortheircity.125

The“Zerowastetolandfill”conceptcanalsobeextended to the agricultural sector and rural areas andincludeplasticwaste,circularprocurementandthereintroductionofnaturalmaterialsfromruralorforestecosystemstoconstructionandproductdesignindustries.

v. Renewable energy for rural and peri-urban areas

Citiesarecrucialtotheworld’stransitiontoalow-carboneconomy,accountingfor65percentofglobalenergyuse,and70percentofman-madearbonemissions.Almosttwobillionpeopleindevelopingcountries–onethirdoftheworld’spopulation–havenoaccesstoelectricity.Fuelwood,agriculturalresidues,humanpoweranddraftanimalscontinuetobetheprimaryenergyresourcesformillionsofruralfamilies.Findingalternativesourcesofenergy that are both economical and environmentally friendlyiscrucialforincreasingagriculturalproductivityandimprovingthequalityoflifeinruralcommunities.

Theglobaldeploymentofrenewableenergyisexpanding.Focusonrenewableenergyprovisionscanbringnewrevenuesources,andcanincreasethetaxbaseforimprovingserviceprovisioninruralcommunities. It can also generate extra income orlandowners.

Forexample,farmersandforestownerswhointegraterenewableenergyproductionintotheiractivitieshavediversified,increased,andstabilisedtheirincomesources.Renewableenergycanprovideremoteruralregionswithnewjobsandbusinessopportunities,andnotablytheoptiontoproducetheirownenergy(electricityandheatinparticular),ratherthanimportingconventionalenergyfromoutside.Being able to generate reliable and cheap energy can trigger economic development.

vi. Technology development and transfer – research, development and demonstration (RD&D) – innovation and adaptation of traditional knowledge

InlinewiththeUNCCD’s3rdScientificConferenceof2015,inCancunMexico,“Combatingdesertification,landdegradationanddroughtforpovertyreductionandsustainabledevelopment–thecontributionofscience,technology,traditionalknowledgeandpractices”,theroleofRD&Dandinnovationinthecontextofhighereducationandprivatesectorsiscritical,asisfinancialsupportfromnationalgovernmentsandinternationalfinancialmechanismsin this area.

Underinvestmentinupscalinglocaltechnologies,bothinagriculturalpracticesaswellasintheconstructionindustry,sometimesresultsintheintroductionofforeigntechnologicalsolutionsthatareoftenunsuitedtolocalconditions.Thecontributionofscienceandtechnologytotheadaptionoftraditionalknowledge,combinedwithhybridsolutionsofthebestavailablemoderntechnologycanofferlong-termsocio-economicbenefitsandenvironmentalsustainability.


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The biggest opportunity in city planning in desert regionsistheemergenceof‘hybridneighbourhoods’thatareabletoadapttraditionalprinciplesofdesertcitiesandagriculturalpracticeswithnewtechnologyandamenities,whilstmeetingthesocialaspirationsofits population, in particular the younger generation. Thisholisticconceptofspatialandruraldevelopment,oncepracticed,couldbringanewdimensiontorural-urban linkages.

All three Rio Conventions, including the Paris Agreementandthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmentmakereferencestotechnologydevelopmentandtransfer,andthisisstillverymuchrelevantinthelightoftheFourthIndustrialRevolution.

vii. Digitalisation for development

Satellite technology and remote sensing to gather spatial data can have multiple applications. On the one hand, it is possible to measure a city’s expansion, and on the other hand, assess land-use and degraded land areas. This can expedite city planning and controlled expansion,especiallyintheabsenceofland-usemaps.

The WRI recommends that satellite imagery interpretationsbematchedwithfieldworkinasampleoflocationstounderstandtheiraccuracylevels.Increasingly, in China, India, Tanzania, and some Latin American countries, drones are being used as a low-costwaytotackletheotherwiseexpensiveexerciseoflandmapping.Thishasallowedcitiestomonitor development patterns, complete their land registries,enforceland-useregulations,andcollecttaxrevenue.Detaileddroneimages,combinedwithsatellite imagery generated over time, can help monitorlevelsofserviceprovisioninexistinginformalsettlements,analysegrowthpatterns,andinspecttheconditionofopenspacesandenvironmentallyvitalareas.

The European Commission advocates Digitalisation forDevelopment(D4D)inreducingpovertythroughtechnology,whilstrecognisingthespeedatwhichthedigitaleconomyisunfolding.TheEUrecognisesthehugepotentialofdigitaltechnologyandservicesintheachievementoftheSDGs,providedthatactionistakentoaddressthedisruptiveeffectsoftechnologies.Theseeffectsinclude:theautomationofjobsimpactingonemployability,digitalexclusionandinequality,cybersecurity, data privacy and regulatory issues. TheEUalsostatesthatanydigitalstrategymustbefullyinlinewith,andcontributeto,therealisationofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment.Thisisnotablywithreferenceto:SDG4onqualityeducation,SDG5onachievinggenderequalityandempoweringallwomenandgirls,SDG8ondecentworkandeco-nomicgrowth,andSDG9onindustry,innovationandinfrastructure.Moreover,itisnotedthatiftheSDGsaretobeachievedby2030,astrengthenedglobal,national, regional and local partnership is needed

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betweengovernmental,scientific,economicandcivilsociety actors.


A green economy is a benefit for all. Financing a just transition to green jobs and creating enabling environments for sustainable growth in peri-urban areas, including incentives and investment in agriculture, are important factors for the successful expansion of cities in coexistence with prosperous rural areas.

Sub–themes:• Micro-economy.• Sustainablemicro-finance.• Enablingenvironmentsandtaxincentives.• Investments.

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Figure 13: HighresolutionpovertymappinginthePhilippines©ThinkingMachines.In2015,theGovernmentinthePhilippines estimatedthat5percentoffamiliesintheprovinceofPampangawerepoor.ThinkingMachinesappliesapoverty- mappingtechnologytosatellitetechnologyestimatingmoreaccuratewealthforareaswithin18sqkm.Itisapositive examplehowdigitalisationcanhelpinpovertyalleviation.

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Allinitiativesforenhanceddynamicsinruralandurbanareascanonlybemadepossiblewithadequateprovisionofsustainablefinance.Thereissufficientevidencefortheneedforurgentaction,andthiscanonlybemobilisedanddeliveredwithappropriatefinance.

ClimatePolicyInitiative’s2017editionofthe“GlobalLandscapeofClimateFinance(GLCL)”reportedthatglobalclimatefinanceflowssurgedtoUSD437billionin2015,beforefallingby12percenttoUSD383billionin2016,ofwhichUSD242billionwerefromprivateactors,andUSD141billionwerefrompublicactors.

TheGLCFrecommendsabroaderscaleofinvestmentsacrossallsectorsoftheeconomy.Fortheenergysector,includingenergyuseinpower,transportation,andbuildings,theneedstotaloverUSD1trillionperyearthrough2050.Evenmorefundsareneededinagriculture,forestry,water,andwastetoenablealow-carbontransition,whileadaptationfinanceneedsarealsopressinginordertominimisethecostsofclimate impacts that are already locked in.

E. FINANCIAL CAPITAL – ENABLING ENVIRONMENTS FOR THE GREEN ECONOMY TRANSITION

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Sourcesandintermediariesofprivateclimatefinancearederivedfromprojectdevelopers,corporateactors,households,commercialfinancialinstitutions,privateequity,venturecapital,infrastructurefundsandinstitutional investors.

Greenfinance,offeringinvestmentinenvironmentaltechnology,infrastructureandservices,sustainableagriculture,circulareconomytransition,RD&Dandinnovationiscriticalforsocial,environmentalandeconomicsustainabilityofhinterlands.Supportinglocalmicro-economiesthroughmicro-finance,particularly in rural areas, intermediate and secondary towns,cooperationwithinvestmentanddevelopmentbanks,privateandpublicsectorinitiatives,taxfreezones,taxincentives,supportforbusinessandmicroandsocial-enterprises–canactasenablersforagreeneconomictransitionbetweenruralandurbanareasdelivering“buildtogether,benefittogether”approaches.

The rural-urban relationship entails cross-sectorial classificationofadaptationandmitigation.However,withabrokenlinkbetweenthetwo,adaptation(process-basedapproaches)mayneedtobeemphasisedovermitigation(quantitative-basedapproaches).Communitiesandterritoriesneedtore-learnhowtocoexist,whichisitselfaprocess-basedapproach.

TheGLCFestimatesthatbetween2015–2016USD382billionwasspentonmitigation,andonlyUSD22billionon adaption. With current global trends on re-direction ofeffortstowardseco-systems-basedadaptationandadaptioningeneral,thiscanbeanopportunityforadditional investment in peri-urban areas, in particular, to enhance urban and rural connectivity through land, nature-based solutions and bio-economy.

Sourcesofpublicfinancevaryfromdevelopmentfinanceinstitutionstonational,bilateralandmultilateralfinance,includinggovernments,agenciesandclimatefunds.


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Figure 14: ClimatePolicyInitiative’s,GlobalLandscapeofClimateFinance(2017),LandscapeofClimateFinancein2015/2016. MitigationspendingUSD382billion,adaptationspendingUSD22billion.135

Digitalisationfordevelopment,satellitetechnologyand remote sensing are going to become important toolsinexpeditingtransformativechangesincitiesandruralareas,whilstmeetingthesocialaspirationsoftheglobal youth.

InlinewiththerecommendationsofallthreeRio Conventions, the Paris Agreement and the Agenda 2030forSustainableDevelopment,all-inclusivepartnershipsatalllevelsofengagementfrominternational organisations, sub-regional programmes, national and local initiatives are encouraged. Identifyingrural-urbandynamicsintheNationallyDeterminedContributionswillfosterimplementationprocesses,includingtheprovisionoffunding.

Containedinthe1994textofTheUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertificationreferencestotheNationalActionProgrammes(Article10),Sub-regionalandRegionalActionProgrammes(Article11)includingactionprogrammesforindividualcontinentsformingAnnexestotheConventionremainvalidandhelpfultoolsforrural-urbandynamicsactionprogrammes.

3. FIGURES CREDITSFig1.Rural–UrbanDynamicsPolicyRecommendationsSummary.

Fig2.Outwardgrowthpatternsfrom2000-2014,illuminatetherapidrateofglobalurbanization.World Resources Institute

Fig3.UNCCD(2017)GlobalLandOutlook,GlobalLandProductivityDynamics(1999-2013) Fig4.UNCCD(1994)AvisualinterpretationofArticle1inthecontextofrural–urbandynamicsonprevention,rehabilitationandreclamationofland.(Redrawn)

Fig5.UNDP2018GlobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI).2018MPIestimates,byregion(millions).(Redrawn)

Fig6.TheInternationalStandardIndustrialClassificationofAllEconomicActivities(ISIC)of2008,isaUnitedNationsindustryclassificationsystem.Industrialsectorsareimportantreferencesforadiverse jobs and skills creation in urban, peri-urban and rural areas.

Fig7.UrbanspatialexpansioninBangalore’smetropolitanregionbetween1990–2015CourtesyMahendra,A,SetoC.K©TheWorldResourcesInstituteRossCenterforSustainableCitiesWorkingPaper(2019)

TheIPCCSpecialReportonGlobalWarmingof1.5ºC(2018)ontheimpactofglobalwarmingof1.5°Cabovepre-industrial levels, and related global greenhouse gasemissionpathways,inthecontextofstrengtheningtheglobalresponsetothethreatofclimatechange,sustainabledevelopment,andeffortstoeradicatepoverty, provides an apocalyptic, science-based pictureoftheplanetresultingfromglobalwarming.

Rural-urbandynamicsofferameetingpointforasystemicchangeinoureffortstocombatclimatechange and developmental patterns. The sustainable development agenda positions people at the centre ofa‘greentransition’.Thefighttoalleviatepovertyisanongoingchallengethatisoftenmetinperi-urbanareas. It might be that the peri-urban areas could becomecatalysts,andatestinggroundfordevelopmental change through local action programmes,newapproachestogovernance,landtenure regulation and policy implementation. Providinglow-costhousingfortheglobalpoorinperi-urbanareaswillnotbesufficient;holisticapproaches to livelihood strategies including, but notlimitedto,sustainableagriculturewillneedtobeconsidered.Oneofthebiggestsocio-economicandenvironmentalopportunitiesforcitiesandruralareasliesinintegratedfoodsystems.Sustainableprovisionoffood,agriculturalbiodiversityoflocalproduceandre-establishmentoflocalfoodchainscanenhanceconnectivitybetweenthecityanditssurroundingrural areas.

Thesustainablemanagementofnaturalresources,includingmunicipalwaste,throughthecirculareconomycanofferopportunitiesfornewjobsandtheemergenceofmicro-industries.“Zerowastetolandfill”strategiesofferawin-winscenarioforbothruralandurbanareas.Capitalisingonagrowingmomentumbehind the circular economy movement, especially in theEuropeanUnionandAsia,canbringdevelopmen-talbenefitsforthegeographicalSouth.NotallstrategiesrequireNorth-Southinput.Many countries in arid regions have developed their ownholisticwastemanagementstrategiesovermillennia,whichsometimesstoppedbeingpracticedduetoglobalisation.Re-engagingwiththesetraditionsthrough cross-sectorial strategies, innovation and adaptationprocesses,maybethemostcost-effectivewaytoalleviatepoverty,whilstpreventinglanddegradation.

Arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions have scarce resources,thereforetransboundarynaturalresourceprogrammes may prove essential to deliver innovation inwastemanagementduetotheeconomyofscale.


2. CONCLUSION

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Fig8.WorldResourcesInstituteRossCenterforSustainableCitiesWorkingPaper(2019)TowardsAMoreEqualCityUpwardandOutwardGrowth:ManagingUrbanExpansionforMoreEquitableCitiesintheGlobalSouth.LandOwnershipinCitiesAreasthatgrewbetween1990and2014(Redrawn)

Fig9.Roberts,B(2014)CitiesAlliance,ManagingSystemsofSecondaryCities:PolicyResponsesinInternationalDevelopment(Redrawn).

Fig10.Percentageofruralpopulationlivingmorethan2kmfromaroadinTheGlobalRoadsInventoryProject(GRIP2018)dataset©OfficeforNationalStatistics,UK(ONS)

Fig11.Circulareconomymodelofdatepalmindustryis8,000yearsold.Recyclingofalldatepalmtreecom-ponentsandby-productsareindeclinesince1970intheMiddleEast©DrSandraPiesik

Fig12.EllenMacArthurFoundation(2019)CitiesandCircularEconomyforFood,Theflowofmaterialsinthefoodsystemisoverwhelminglylinear.Inthelinearfoodsystem,averyhighproportionoffoodflowsintocitieswhereitisprocessedorconsumed,creatingorganicwasteintheformofdiscardedfood,byproductsorsewage.Incities,onlyaverysmallproportion(<2%)ofthevaluablenutrientsinthesediscardedorganicresourcesgetsloopedbacktoproductiveuse.Source:FAOSTAT,FoodBalanceSheets(2013);FAOSTAT,livestockmanure(2013);WBA,GlobalBioenergyStatistics(2017);TheWorldBank,WhataWaste(2012);Scialabba,N.,etal.,Foodwastagefootprint:impactsonnaturalresources(2013),UnitedNationsUniversity,Valuinghumanwasteasanenergyresource(2015),CitiesandtheCircularEconomyforFoodanalysis

Fig13.HighresolutionpovertymappinginthePhilippines©ThinkingMachines.In2015,theGovernmentinthePhilippinesestimatedthat5%offamiliesintheprovinceofPampangawerepoor.Thinking Machines applies a poverty-mapping technology to satellite technology estimating more accuratewealthforareaswithin18sqkm.Itisapositiveexamplehowdigitalisationcanhelpinpoverty alleviation.

Fig14.ClimatePolicyInitiative’s,GlobalLandscapeofClimateFinance(2017),LandscapeofClimateFinancein2015/2016.MitigationspendingUSD382billion,adaptationspendingUSD22billion.


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Natural Capital Challenges

• Existentialco-dependencyofcities on rural areas • Landdegradationandfood production

Question1:Howcanwestrengthenrural-urbandevel-opmentthroughsustainablefoodsupplychains?

Question2:CouldweconsiderextendingtheLandDegradationNeutralityFrameworktoperi-urbanareasin order to develop joint programmes aimed at the protectionofarableland?

Human Capital Challenges

• Rural–Urbandynamicsandpoverty alleviation • Demographicshifts,globalisationand migration • Provisionofskillsandgreeneconomy

Question3:Howcanmigrationworkforall,tobenefitruralandurbanareas?

Question4:Whatkindoftrainingprogrammescouldbeprovided,andinwhatsectors,totrainpeopleinnewskills,especiallytheyouthandwomen?

Social Capital Challenges

• Governanceandinsufficientland regulations • Planning • Decentralisationandlocalpolicies

Question5:Howbesttointroduceorupdatelandtenureregulationsinordertocreateco-benefitsforallstakeholders?

Question6:Canplanningpoliciesembraceland-useinbothurbanandruralareas?

Question7:Howbesttoimplementdecentralisationandtoempowerlocalgovernmentsinparticipatoryprogrammesbetweenruralandurbanareas?

Manufactured Capital Challenges

• Affordablehousingandlegislationof informalsettlements • Increasedconnectivitythrough infrastructure • Sustainablemanagementofnatural resources through the circular economy • Technologydevelopmentandtransfer

Question8:Islegalisinginformalsettlementsthebestwayforward?

Question9:HowcouldLandDegradationNeutralityandfoodsecuritybeusedforimprovementofliveli-hoodsforpeoplelivingininformalsettlements?

Question10:Howbesttoimproveconnectivitybetweenruralandurbanareasthroughtheprovisionofhardandsoftinfrastructure?

Question11:Istransboundarymanagementofnaturalresources through the circular economy an attractive propositionforalternativelivelihoodsandjobcreation?

Question12:Howbesttofacilitate“zerowastetolandfill”strategiesbothforcitiesaswellasruralareas?

Question13:Doyouseeopportunitiesindigitalisationfordevelopmentasatoolforeconomicgrowthbetweenruralandurbanareas?

Financial Capital Challenges

• Financingthegreeneconomybetweenruraland urban areas

Question14:Whatkindofshort-termandlong-termfinancingschemescouldberecommendedtoenhancethemicro-economyofruralandurbanareas?

Question15:Whatkindofimmediateactionscouldlocal authorities take to enhance the existing relationshipbetweenruralandurbanlinkages?

6. APPENDIX 1 - THEMATIC QUESTIONS FOR A HIGH-LEVEL POLITICAL FORUM MEETING

global land working paper outlook€¦ · global land outlook working paper prepared by: sandra...

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