Notes Page One

Name: _______________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter One/Part One – Migration to the Americas

I. Human Migration to the Americas

A. The Theories (hypothesis):

Few topics in the study of the history of mankind have been studied, debated, changed, and argued over more than the migration (movement) of people over the face of the earth. This is especially true of the ideas surrounding how people reached North America. Historians depended mostly on archaeology for information on this topic, as humans migrated into the Americas long before the beginnings of writing and recorded history. However, a new form of technology has helped to settle some of the issues. Scientists have used human genes to track the movement of people into the Americas. Here is what scientists and historians can agree on:

The people that first moved into the Americas originally came from Asia and probably spent a long time in a place known as Beringia. Beringia was a piece of land in between Russia and Alaska that was above sea level during the last ice age - over 15,000 years ago. When the ice age ended, temperatures and sea levels rose and this land was covered in water. Today it is known as the Bering Strait. Before the land was covered in water, humans crossed over it or moved along its edge in boats from Asia to the Americas. This theory or idea is now known as the Land Bridge Theory.

Here is what scientists and historians can’t agree on:

Exactly when and how people migrated to the Americas is under constant debate (argument). Some believe that humans came to the Americas as early as 40,000-50,000 years ago while others feel that this took place 14,000-17,000 years ago. While many agree that people migrated from Asia to the Americas over Beringia, others believe that people crossed the Pacific Ocean in boats. Still other scientists and historians feel that people moved by land and sea.

Many feel that the people migrated to America only by crossing Beringia (Land Bridge Theory). Others argue that humans may have actually crossed the Atlantic Ocean, although there is little evidence to support this idea.

EFFECTS: Most historians support the Land Bridge Theory of migration to the Americas regardless of when they believe that it actually happened. Once in the Americas, people spread swiftly throughout North and South America. Many different cultures and civilizations were formed over thousands of years and millions of “Native Americans” were living in North and South America when European explorers such as Christopher Columbus first arrived in the late 1400’s and early 1500’s.

Page TwoVisual Images of Human Migration to the Americas

Source: Public Library of Science Source: Familytreedna.com

The light yellow area on the map is Beringia and this map shows This map shows the spread of humans over the entire planet, including the spread ofthe Land Bridge Theory of migration to the Americas. humans over the Land Bridge and into the Americas from Asia. Each letter or set

letters represent different genetic groups.

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An additional estimate of human migration based on DNA studies

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B. The Neolithic Revolution/Rise of Agriculture:

Early humans lived in small groups and survived by moving from place to place in search of animals to hunt and food to gather. This nomadic (moving from place to place) lifestyle lasted for many thousands of years and was called the Pre-Neolithic Period. Humans were known as hunter-gatherers. For reasons unknown, this began to change around 12,000 years ago (10,000 BCE) in the Middle East and six to seven other locations around the world. People began to grow food, raise animals, and live in larger community groups. Historians believe that the hunter-gatherers who moved over the Land Bridge and into the Americas started to grow food between 4,000-7,000 years ago (2,000-5,000 BCE).

Planting and growing food is known as agriculture. The beginning of agriculture is possibly the single most important event in human history. Agriculture created enormous changes in the way that people lived. Once people began to depend on crops for their food supply, they could no longer migrate (move from place to place) in search of food. They began to remain in one spot for long periods of time to defend and tend to their crops. The surplus of food, or extra amount, could feed larger numbers of people living closely together – especially non-farmers.

Villages, towns, and even cities began to form. Governments and laws were created to keep the peace when large numbers of people lived together. Religions became more formal and priests gained power in the new civilizations. Writing and reading began to develop to record crop harvests, food held in storage, and the laws of the governments. Priests studied the stars to tell when it was time to plant and harvest crops. Armies developed to enforce the will of the rulers. Social classes and ranks of people formed. Living in large communities year-round allowed people to learn crafts such as stone-cutting, weaving, architecture, and trading. Farmers began to irrigate, or bring water to their crops. Life for humans changed and this time period was known as the Neolithic Period.

EFFECTS: Slowly, the hunter-gatherers began to fade away. In short, it was the beginning of true civilizations and everything that we call civilization today. Human populations began to rise across the world and humanity began to change the face of the earth to meet its needs. After hundreds of thousands (or even millions) of years, the entire nature of human living had changed forever.

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C. The Culture Areas of North America

Historians and Social Scientists have grouped Native American Cultures into Culture Areas. A culture area is an area in which groups of people share a similar way of life and characteristics. Most of the traditional Native American culture areas were the result of the environment. Factors such as rainfall, soil conditions, yearly temperatures, animal and plant resources, and competition with other native groups created the culture areas.

Native American groups quickly learned to survive in their environment. Failure often meant death at the hands of nature or their enemies. This process of learning to live in the environment is known as adaptation. Adaptation largely shaped and created the many Native American tribes and nations of the Americas.

Review Questions

2. What is the “Land Bridge Theory?”

4. Explain why the following statement is inaccurate: “Christopher Columbus discovered America.”

5. What changed about human beings approximately 12,000 years ago?

6. How did agriculture change the way people lived?

7. What did agriculture begin?

Notes - Page Six

Name: ________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter One/Part Two – The Great Plains and the Southeast Culture Areas

II. The Great Plains and Southeastern Culture Areas

A. The Great Plains Culture Area:

When modern Americans think of “Indians,” they most often think of the Native tribes that lived on the Great Plains. The Great Plains Culture Area covered a huge area of land that stretched from Canada to Texas and from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi River. Many tribes lived within the Plains Culture Area, including the Sioux, Crow, and Cheyenne. All shared a similar way of life, even when they were mortal enemies that fought over territory or resources.

The Great Plains tribes lived as hunter gatherers and semi-nomads traveling between winter and summer camps. The location of the camps was directly related to the huge herds of buffalo that lived on the plains. The Natives of the Plains Culture Area relied on the Buffalo for the majority of their food, clothing, and shelter. They followed and hunted the buffalo herds that were the source of life for their tribes. When the huge herds of Buffalo were destroyed by American hunters in the late 1800’s, it destroyed the entire way of life for a majority of the Plains Indians.

Men were usually responsible for hunting and warfare. Women were the farmers of the Plains tribes. During the summer months, the women farmed in small fields – using simple tools made of wood or animal bones. Plains tribes were often led by several “chiefs,” each with a specialty such as warfare, hunting, or peace. By the 1700’s, most of the Plains tribes rode horses – greatly improving their ability to hunt, fight, and travel. #3

Plains homes were typically made of buffalo hides and many tribes made tipis. Each family had its own tipi and these simple homes of hide and wooden poles were very easy to set up or take down for travel. Most of the tribes in this culture area worshipped and paid respect to animal spirits. Plains Indians were some of the most skilled warriors in North America. Their ability to fight from horseback became legendary. During United States History, the Army often found itself hard pressed to control the Plains tribes.

Perhaps the most famous of the Plains Indians were the Sioux, who were actually seven separate nations scattered over a wide area of the Great Plains. Before 1850, all of the nations would gather at a great council to decide tribal issues and perform ceremonies such as the Sun Dance. Sioux leaders were selected based on the family background, courage, leadership, wisdom, and generosity. Within the tribes, men were selected to be warriors (the young), advisors (older men), “shirt wearers” (peace makers), and “pipe holders” (ceremonial leaders).

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A Sioux Woman’s Dress A Sioux Baby Sling Traditional Sioux Chief Wahktageli

Sitting Bull, a famous Sioux of the Disputed Picture of Crazy Horse,Late 1800’s another famous chief of the late 1800’s

Page EightB. The Southeastern Culture Area:

The environment of the Southeast provided the Natives of the region with chances to hunt, farm heavily, fish, and trade. Warm temperatures and regular rainfall allowed the tribes in the southeast to grow many crops, including corn, beans, and squash. Many tribes lived in permanent villages or only moved when the soil or supply of animals began to wear out. Tribes commonly lived along rivers and the seacoast.

Basing their calculations on the moon, tribes such as the Cherokee and Natchez divided the year into 13 months, each named after an animal or crop. Ceremonies were designed to give thanks for plentiful harvests and celebrate the end of the growing season. The most important was the Green Corn Ceremony that was held as the corn was ready to be harvested in the fall. This ceremony lasted several days and was the traditional end of one year and the start of another.

The Natchez tribe had an interesting system of social classes. Their leader was known as the “Great Sun.” He was carried everywhere on a litter so that his feet would not touch the ground. Beneath the Great Sun were the “Little Suns,” or members of his family. The rest of the Natchez Culture included the Nobles, Honored People, and the “Stinkards.” In order to make certain that the classes would change over time, Natchez law demanded that the Great Sun, Little Suns, and Nobles had to marry Stinkards. In time, even a Stinkard could become a Great Sun or Noble.

The largest and best of the nations in this region was the Cherokee. They actually called themselves “The Principal People” and are believed to be the descendants of an ancient civilization known as the “Mississippian Culture” or “Mound Builders.” Older Cherokee men belonged to a “White Organization” of older men who led religious practices. A “Red Organization” of younger men was the warrior class of the nation. This division seems to have vanished after a revolt within the Cherokee. Cherokee’s spoke a language related to the Iroquois languages and may have migrated south from the Great Lakes Region.

The Cherokee were heavily involved with European and (later) American settlers as they moved into Cherokee lands. This interaction (acting on or affecting each other) involved the Cherokee in many wars and historical events. Sadly, however, contact with Europeans and Americans eventually led to their removal from traditional lands and movement west of the Mississippi River.

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Traditional Cherokee Chiefs in London A Cherokee Chief in the early Sequoyah, the inventor Chief John Ross – 18411800’s of the Cherokee written language

General area of Cherokee settlement before removal in the 1830’s-1840’s Modern Cherokee land in Oklahoma

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Part Seven Review Questions

2. What was the source of life for most of the Great Plains Natives?

3. What qualities did the Sioux look for when they selected leaders?

4. How did the Plains Natives greatly improve their ability to hunt, fight, and travel?

5. How did the environment and climate help the Natives of the Southeast?

6. What effect did interaction with Europeans and Americans have on the Cherokee?

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Name: _____________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter One/Part Three – Eastern Woodlands/Iroquois

Confederacy

III. The Iroquois Confederacy (Eastern Woodlands Culture Area):

A. Origins of the Confederacy:

Iroquois is actually a French name for this Indian nation – probably based on the inability of the Europeans to understand the Iroquois language. Another theory suggests it may have meant “killer people” in one of the French dialects. The Iroquois refer to themselves as the “Haudenosaunee” meaning “people of the long house”. The Iroquois did not keep a written language or keep track of time as Europeans did. We do not know exactly when the Iroquois became a separate set of tribes or when they arrived in what is now Central New York State.

Historians do know that the five Iroquois Nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and the Seneca) formed into an alliance known as the Iroquois Confederacy or League of the Iroquois (a confederacy is an alliance of nations or states). Although traditional European and American histories place the formation of the Confederacy between 1400 and 1600, recent evidence suggests that the Confederacy may have been formed as early as August 31, 1142. The “new” evidence is contained in the Iroquois oral history and points to a solar eclipse that matches this date in history.

The Iroquois Confederacy survived as a strong and independent government until the Revolutionary War, when the nations split and supported separate sides in the war between Britain and the United States. The Iroquois Government still exists today on the reservations that the Iroquois occupy in New York State.

The Iroquois were a polytheistic people, or a people that worshipped many gods and spirits. Chief among the Iroquois gods was a set of twins. The “right-handed” twin watched over the day while the left-handed twin ruled over the night. They roughly represented good and evil (although not pure good and evil), and the Iroquois thought that both good and evil needed to exist at the same time. They worshipped and paid respect to both gods. The Iroquois also worshipped a number of animal spirits that were thought to be helpful to human beings. Iroquois religion focused on nature and how humans should interact with nature.

EFFECTS: A common language, identity, and set of religious beliefs united The Iroquois. The five nations were closely linked to the land that they lived on and quickly became experts at surviving in the climate of Central New York. Although they were often known for their fierceness in battle, the Iroquois were also excellent hunters and farmers.

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B. Iroquois Society and Farming:

Women held most of the power in the Iroquois nations and owned all property within the nations. The women were respected because they served in the Iroquois religion as a direct link to the earth. In addition, Iroquois women were the first to accept Dekanawida’s message of peace and received special recognition for accepting his suggestions. Dekanawida recognized that women would support peace and would try to keep the Iroquois Confederacy united.

Iroquois women were allowed to select leaders (sachems) and could remove them if they became unhappy with their actions. All Iroquois families were traced by following the female side of the family (matrilineal). Women led the clans (groups of families living together and named after animals such as bear, deer, and turtle). When a man married, he moved in with his wife’s clan and his property belonged to the clan.

Men and women had clearly defined duties. Women were the power behind the Iroquois Government, as well as the farmers, child-raisers, family leaders, gatherers, and property owners. Men were responsible for hunting, warfare, and running the government directly. Each Iroquois nation was made up of several clans living in longhouses (structures 15-20 feet high, 20 feet wide, 150 feet long, and home to 12 or more families) and each tribe had several villages. Longhouses were shared by several families belonging to the same clan. Farming took place in cleared fields outside the village, which was usually placed on top of a wooded hill and surrounded by palisade (a wooden fence 10-12 feet high) for protection.

The women grew three main crops known as the “three sisters” – corn, beans, and squash. Many other types of vegetables and fruits (such as apples) were also grown. Over time, the Iroquois learned how to create orchards and grew large surpluses of all foods to feed the tribes during the winter months. Men and women fished in the streams and lakes and men hunted to provide meat such as deer meat, or venison. When the soil could no longer produce surplus crops, the entire village would move and create a new village. Iroquois villages traditionally rotated in between three to five cleared sites over time.

Behavior was strictly governed – displays of anger and insulting or disrespectful behavior were forbidden. Iroquois men were expected to show complete respect towards women and their elders. Members who broke the code of Iroquois behavior could be banished, or cast out of the nation. Some anthropologists believe the Iroquois were especially fierce on the battlefield and when playing lacrosse because they were under such tight control during their daily lives.

EFFECTS: The Iroquois were a highly organized people and skilled farmers. Each Iroquois person knew his or her place in the village and nation and this made the Iroquois an especially strong, united people. The Iroquois social system prevented fighting within the nations – something that had nearly led to the destruction of the Iroquois before the Confederacy was formed.

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C. Iroquois Government and Achievements:

According to Iroquois History, the Confederacy was formed by Dekanawida – a Huron Indian. Dekanawida was disturbed by the fighting that took place between the Iroquois nations and realized that they would be destroyed by their enemies (the Algonquin Indians, a huge collection of tribes to their north and west) if they could not unite with each other. With the aid of a Mohawk named Hiawatha, he brought a message of peace to the Iroquois, which was slowly accepted by all of the tribes.

The Iroquois united into one nation – the League of the Iroquois or the Iroquois Confederacy. The Confederacy followed a common set of laws known as the “Great Binding Law” or “Great Law of Peace.” Although the laws were not written down, the Iroquois used strings of colored beads known as wampum to help them memorize the laws and rules that governed the Iroquois and their central government.

Each nation was allowed to send representatives selected by women, known as sachems, to the Great Council. The Great Council met once a year to make decisions for all of the tribes and had 50 sachems in total. The Council could only take action if all of the tribes agreed and this made the Iroquois a strong people as well as a powerful military force during war. Any nation that failed to follow the decisions of the Great Council could threaten the break-up of the entire Iroquois nation. Each nation was given a specific job by the Great Council.

The Iroquois also “adopted” other tribes into the Iroquois Confederacy. Some tribes, such as the Tuscarora, asked to join and were accepted. Others were “asked” to join if they were viewed as a threat by the Iroquois. A tribe that refused to join the Confederacy after being asked had two choices – join or go to war against the Iroquois. Under this method, the Iroquois wiped out several tribes (such as the Huron, Erie, Conestoga, and Illinois) and forced many others to join the Confederacy. Newly adopted tribes could speak at the Great Council, but they could not vote (except the Tuscarora).

By the early 1700’s, the Iroquois controlled a territory that included parts of southeastern Canada, most of New York, a large portion of New England, and lands as far west as the Mississippi River and as far south as Virginia. The Confederacy had population of about 16,000 people at its peak. The five main nations of the Iroquois Confederacy were also linked together by a trail that ran from Albany to Buffalo. Iroquois runners could cover 30-50 miles a day (one runner actually covered 90 miles in a single day in 1794). The Iroquois Confederacy operated a highly organized government that controlled much of the eastern part of what is today the United States.

EFFECTS: The Confederacy was a major force in what is now the Northeastern United States. As such, the Iroquois were able to influence everything from trade to warfare within the region. The Iroquois were also strong enough to be able to stand against the Europeans as they arrived in the region.

This forced the Europeans to deal with them on more equal terms than many other tribes for over a century. Before the League of the Iroquois was broken and the Iroquois lost most of their lands, they participated in two major European/American wars and may have even had an influence on the creation of the first American form of government (also a confederacy).

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The Hiawatha Wampum Belt – telling the story or Dekanawida’s The Iroquois Heartland in 1720Journey from east (right) to west (left) to bring the message ofPeace to the Iroquois Nations

The Iroquois Heartland in 1650

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An Iroquois Longhouse was made of a frame of wooden poles that were buried placed in the ground on one end and coveredin slabs of tree bark. The poles were tied together using strips of bark that had been soaked and softened, but would harden as they dried.

The interior of a longhouse was divided into sections for individual families.

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The exterior of a longhouse

Iroquois villages were located on wooded hilltops for drainage and protection. Land was cleared for the village and farming fields. The cleared land also allowed the Iroquois to spot attacking enemies easily. A village of several longhouses was protected by a wooden wall made from sharpened tree trunks and patrolled by Iroquois warriors. Villages were always located near water and the location in the woods provided the village with food (animals to hunt) and supplies of wood. Villages were often very difficult to see from a distance.

(All images on pages 23-24 compliments of the New York State Museum website at www.nysm.nysed.gov)

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Review Questions

1. What united the Iroquois?

2. Who held most of the power and owned all property in the Iroquois Nation?

5. What is the “Great Binding Law” or “Great Peace?”

6. When could the Iroquois Great Council take action?

7. What could happen if a nation refused to follow the decisions of the Council?