guidelines on the prevention of postoperative vomiting in children
TRANSCRIPT
TheAssociationofPaediatricAnaesthetistsofGreatBritain&Ireland
ContributingAuthors:AlisonSCarrSimonCourtmanHelenHoltbyNeilMortonScottJacobson
LiamBrennanDavidBainesPer‐ArneLönnqvistJackiePope
Spring 2009
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPost‐operativeVomitinginChildren
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
ContributingAuthors/MembersoftheGuidelinesGroup: DrAlisonSCarr(Chair)ConsultantPaediatricAnaesthetistPlymouthHospitalsNHSTrustDerrifordHospitalPlymouthPL68DH
HonorarySeniorLecturerPeninsulaCollegeofMedicineandDentistryPlymouthalison.carr@pms.ac.ukDrLiamBrennanConsultantPaediatricAnaesthetistAddenbrookesHospitalCambridgeUniversityHospitalsNHSFoundationTrustHillsRdCambridgeCB20QQDrSimonCourtmanConsultantPaediatricAnaesthetistPlymouthHospitalsNHSTrustDerrifordHospitalPlymouthPL68DHDrDavidBainesClinicalAssociateProfessorHead,DeptofAnaesthesiaTheChildren'sHospitalatWestmeadNSWAustraliaDrHelenHoltbyDirectorofCardiovascularAnaesthesiaHospitalforSickChildrenTorontoCanadaProfessorPer‐ArneLönnqvistSeniorConsultantPaediatricAnaesthesia&IntensiveCareAstridLindgrensChildren’sHospitalKarolinskaUniversityHospitalStockholm,Sweden
ProfesssorDeptofPhysiologyandPharmacologyKarolinskaInstitute17177Stockholm
3 DrNeilMortonConsultantPaediatricAnaesthetistYorkhillChildren’sHospitalGlasgowSeniorLecturerUniversityofGlasgowMsJackiePopePharmacistPlymouthHospitalsNHSTrustDerrifordHospitalPlymouthPL68DHDrScottJacobsonResidentFamilyMedicine,UniversityofNevada,UnitedStatesofAmericaFormerlyClinicalFellowTheHospitalforSickChildrenTorontoCanada
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildrenWewouldliketothankthefollowingpeoplewhoprovidedfeedbackonthedraftguidelinescirculatedtoAPAmembersandlinkmeninFebruary2008:
KarenBartholomew FelicyHoward JanePeutrell
GrahamBell IanJenkins PatrickRadford
BobBingham TrottieKirwan JohnRutherford
EdCarver RosLawson JudithShort
PeterCrean JerryLuntley DavidSteward
MarcDavison RobertLoveridge MarkThomas
ClaudeEcoffey DianaMathioudakis FrancisVeyckemans
ThomasEngelhardt AndyMatthews MadeleineWang
StephenGilbert ReginaMilaszkiewicz KathyWilkinson
JohnGoddard EuniceMorley SimonWhyte
WilliamHinton PeterMurphy AmberYoung
JosefHolzki NigelPereira
5
Contents PageNo.
Keytoevidencestatementsandgradesofrecommendation 6
Introduction 7
Remitoftheguideline
Glossary 8
1.Identifyingchildrenathighriskofpostoperativevomiting(POV) 9
Background 9
A.Patientfactors
Age,historyofPOV,motionsickness,gender,preoperativeanxiety,smoking
9
B.SurgicalFactors
Durationofsurgery,typeofsurgery11
C.AnaestheticFactors
Nitrousoxide,volatileagents,peri‐operativeopioids,anticholinesterases,peri‐operativefluids
13
2.PharmacologicaltreatmentofPOVinchildren
A.Anti‐emeticsforprevention&reductionofPOVinchildren
16
SingleAgents: 16
5HT3Antagonists,Dexamethasone,Metoclopramide,Prochlorperazine,Cyclizine,Dimenhydrinate
CombinationTherapy: 22
Ondansetronanddexamethasone,Ondansetronandothercombinationanti‐emetictherapy,Tropisetron
B.Anti‐emeticsfortreatingestablishedPOVinchildren 24
3.Non‐pharmacologicaltreatmentofPOVinchildren 25
StimulationoftheP6Acupuncturepoint
4.Summaryoffindings&recommendations 26
References 29
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildrenKeytoEvidenceStatementsandGradesofRecommendation:
7
IntroductionPostoperativeVomiting(POV)isanimportantcauseofmorbidityinchildren.ThisreportfortheAssociationofPaediatricAnaesthetistsofGreatBritain&Irelandinvestigatesthecausesofpost‐operativevomitinginchildrenandsummarisestheefficacyoftreatmentsusedtopreventandtreatpostoperativevomitinginchildren.TheguidelineshavebeenpreparedusingSIGNMethodology1drawingtogetheravailableevidenceandrecommendingbestpracticebasedontheavailableevidenceandontheclinicalexperienceoftheguidelinesdevelopmentgroup.
RemitoftheGuidelineTheguidelineseekstoanswerthefollowingquestions:
DraftguidelinesweredistributedtoAPAmembersandLinkmeninFebruary2008forfeedbackandweremadeavailableonthewebsiteoftheAssociationofPaediatricAnaesthetistsofGreatBritain&Irelandforcomment.Theseguidelinesarenowinthefinalversion.Theyhavebeenwritteningoodfaithandwillberevisedasnewinformationbecomesavailable.ShouldthereaderfindanyusefuladditionalcontentpleasecontacttheChairofthePOVGuidelinesgroupbyemailtoinformafuturerevision.
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
GlossaryNNT:Numberneededtotreat
Thenumberofpatientswhoneedtobetreatedtoreducetheexpectednumberofcasesofadefinedendpointbyone.
Meta‐analysis Astatisticalmethodthatcombinestheresultsofindependenttrialstogiveapreciseestimateoftreatmenteffect.
Casecontrolstudy Astudythatcomparespatientswithanidentifiedoutcomeagainstpatientswithoutthatoutcome,andreviewingthemtoseeiftheyhadanexposureofinterest.
Cohortstudy Astudyinwhichsubjectswhohaveacertainconditionand/orreceiveaparticulartreatmentarefollowedovertimeandarecomparedwithanothergroupwhoarenotaffectedbythatcondition.
Systematicreview Areviewofrelevantliteraturefocusedonaspecificquestionthattriestoidentify,evaluateandsynthesizeallhighqualityresearchevidencerelevanttothatquestion.
Randomisedcontrolstudy
Astudywherebydifferenttreatmentsarerandomlyallocatedtostudyparticipants.Thisattemptstoensuresthatbothknownandunknownconfoundingfactorsareevenlydistributedbetweentreatmentgroups,therebyreducingerrorandbias.
Sensitivity Probabilityofapositivetestamongpatientswithadisease
Specificity Probabilityofanegativetestamongpatientswithoutadisease
Positive(negative)predictivevalue
Theratioofthetruepositives(negatives)dividedbythesumofthetruepositives(negatives)andfalsepositives(negatives).
Oddsratio Theratiooftheoddsofaneventoccurringinonegrouptotheoddsofitoccurringinanothergroup.Anoddsratioof1indicatesthattheconditionoreventunderstudyisequallylikelyinbothgroups.Itprovidesanestimate(withconfidenceinterval)fortherelationshipbetweentwobinary("yesorno")variables.
Confidenceinterval Anindicationofthereliabilityofanestimate.Theconfidencelevelwilldefinehowlikelytheintervalistocontaintheparameter.
Relativerisk Theratiooftheprobabilityofaneventoccurringinatreatmentgroupversusthecontrolgroup.
9
1.IdentifyingChildrenatHighRiskofPostoperativeVomiting
BackgroundPostoperativeVomiting(POV)isapproximatelytwiceasfrequentamongstchildrenasadultswithanincidenceof13‐42%inallpaediatricpatients2,3.SeverePOVcanresultinarangeofcomplicationsincludingwounddehiscence,dehydrationandelectrolyteimbalanceandpulmonaryaspiration4.Itisoneoftheleadingcausesofparentaldissatisfactionaftersurgeryandistheleadingcauseofunanticipatedhospitaladmissionfollowingambulatorysurgerywithresultingincreasedhealthcarecosts5,6.Importantly,noresearchhasfocusedonthechildren’sperspectiveofPOV,andwhethertheyperceivethissymptomwiththesamedistressandloathingasadults7.IdentifyingchildrenathighriskofPOVisbeneficialasprophylacticantiemetictherapycanthenbetargetedatthisgroup.Indiscriminateprophylaxisisprobablyunnecessaryasitisfinanciallycostlyandmayresultinexcessiveadversedrugreactions8.Researchintothisimportantareaishamperedbythedifficultyindiagnosingnauseainyoungerchildren.Hence,vomitingandretchingareusedastheend‐pointsinmostofthepaediatricliteratureonthissubject3.ThemainriskfactorsforPOVinchildrenmaybeconsideredinthefollowingcategories:
• Patient–relatedissues• Surgicalfactors• Anaesthetic(technique&drugsusedinperi‐operativeperiod)
A.PatientFactorsAge
PaediatricpatientshaveahigherincidenceofPOVcomparedtoadultswithchildrenover5yearsofagehavingarounda34‐50%overallriskofvomitingaftersurgery.Thelowestincidenceoccursininfancy(5%incidenceofemesis)whilethepreschoolchildhasa20%riskofvomiting9.Inacohortstudyof1401children<14yearsold,asharpincreaseinPOVriskoccursaroundage3witha0.2‐0.8%peryearincreaseinriskcontinuingintoadolescence10.Thisincreaseinriskaround3yearsofageagreeswiththefindingsofanearlierstudywhichfoundan8%incidenceofPOVinchildren<3yearsold,increasingto29%inchildren>12yearsold11.
2++,
2+
B RiskofPOVincreasesmarkedlyabovethreeyearsoldandcontinuestorisethroughoutearlychildhoodintoadolescence.
TroublesomePOVisrareinchildrenunderthreeyearsoldandpatientsinthisage‐grouprarelyrequireprophylacticantiemeticmedication.
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
HistoryofPOV
ThishasprovedtobeanimportantriskfactorinthemajorityofstudiesintheadultandpaediatricPOVliteratureandisincludedinalloftheriskscoringsystemstoaidpredictionofPOVthathavebeenpublishedtodate12.Aspecificpaediatriccohortstudyidentified“previousPOV”and“POVinaparentorsibling”asimportantindependentriskfactors10.Acombinedadultandpaediatricstudy(with<10%ofthestudygroupchildren)foundaprevioushistoryofPOVtobethesecondstrongestpredictorofpostoperativenauseaandvomiting13.
2++,
2‐
B AprevioushistoryofPOVisanindependentriskfactorofsubsequentPOVinchildren.
ChildrenwithapasthistoryofPOVshouldbeconsideredforprophylacticantiemeticmedication.
MotionSickness
SeveralstudiesthathavelookedatriskfactorsforPOVinchildrenmentionahistoryofmotionsickness(MS)asapotentialproblem.
Inalargeadultstudy,historyofMSwasidentifiedasastrongpredictorofPOV14howevercautionisrequiredwhenextrapolatingfromadultdata.
OnestudyinchildrenlookedspecificallyatMSasapredictorofPOV.15SeventyconsecutivechildrenwerestudiedundergoingsurgerynothighriskforPOV.
TheoverallincidenceofPOVwas29%.Fourteenchildren(20%)hadahistoryofMS;MS‐positivechildrenweremorelikelytovomitthanthosewhowereMS‐negative(P<0.01).Therewerenoothersignificantvariablesbetweengroups.ThesensitivityofMSasapredictorofPOVwas45%andthespecificity90%,givingapositivepredictivevalueof64.3%andanegativepredictivevalueof80.4%.ItwasconcludedthatMSwasassociatedwithPOVbutitspositivepredictivevaluewasfairlylow.
2+
C AprevioushistoryofmotionsicknessislikelytobeanindependentriskfactorofsubsequentPOVinchildren.
Childrenwithapasthistoryofmotionsicknessshouldbeconsideredforprophylacticantiemeticmedication.
Gender
FemalegenderisastrongriskfactorfrompubertyonwardsinalladultPOVstudies.Adolescentandadultfemaleshaveatwotofour‐foldincreasedPOVriskwhilstprepubescentgirlslackincreasedlikelihoodofPOVcomparedtomales10,11,12,16,17.ThemarkedincreaseinPOVriskatthemenarchesuggeststhatsexhormonesareimplicated.However,initialreportssuggestingthatPOVwasmorecommonduringthefirstweekofthemenstrualcyclehavebeenchallengedinasystematicreview18.
2+adults,
2‐children
D Post‐pubertalgirlshaveanincreasedincidenceofPOVwhichmaybesexhormonerelatedalthoughphaseofthemenstrualcycledoesnotappeartoaffecttheincidence.
11
Post‐pubertalgirlsshouldbeconsideredforprophylacticantiemeticmedication.
Preoperativeanxiety
AlthoughpreoperativeanxietyhasbeenshowntobeaweakriskfactorforPOVinadults,thiswasnotconfirmedinaprevioussmall,butwellconductedstudyinschool‐agechildren19,20.
2‐
Obesity
Earlystudiesfromthe1950sand1960ssuggestedanassociationbetweenobesityandPOVinadults.However,asystematicreviewwithadjustmentformultipleconfoundingfactorsfailedtoconfirmtheseearlierfindings21.ThereisnocomparableevidenceregardingarelationshipbetweenobesityandPOVinchildren.
1+adults
Smoking
AdultsmokersarelesssusceptibletoPOVfromconvincingdatainseveralstudies14,22,23.Nodataonthistopicarepublishedinchildren.ArecentreviewposedtheintriguingquestionifchildrenofsmokershaddecreasedPOVduetopassivesmoking4.
2+adults
B.SurgicalFactors
Durationofsurgery
TheincidenceofPOVincreaseswithlongerdurationofsurgeryandanaesthesiainbothadultandpaediatricstudies10,23.Surgeryundergeneralanaesthesiaof>30minutesdurationwasidentifiedasanindependentriskfactorinalargepaediatricstudywithanoddsratioof3.2510.HalfofthepublishedriskscoringsystemsforPOVinadultsandchildrenincludedurationofsurgeryasanimportantriskfactor17.
2++
C POVincreasessignificantlyifoperativeproceduresunderGAlastmorethan30minutes.
Typeofsurgery
ThestatusoftypeofsurgeryasariskfactorforPOViscontroversial.AlthoughnumerousstudieshaveidentifiedavarietyofproceduresasbeingassociatedwithincreasedriskofPOV,thereisoftenconflictingevidencebetweenstudiesforthesameprocedure.ThisareaofPOVresearchsuffersfromtheproblemofseparating‘true’from‘surrogate’riskfactors3.Forexample,certaintypesofsurgeryassociatedwithhighpostoperativeopioidrequirementsmightbethesurrogateforincreasedPOVriskratherthantheprocedureitself.ThishasresultedinmostoftheestablishedriskscoresforPOVnotincludinganytypeofsurgeryintheirriskmodel10.
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildrenWiththeseconsiderationsinmind,thefollowingproceduresinchildrenhavebeenassociatedwithincreasedPOVrisk:
a.Strabismussurgery
ThisisperhapsthepaediatricsurgicalprocedurethathasthestrongestevidenceofPOVriskwithahighfrequencyofemeticepisodesreportedinasystematicreview(meanincidencelatevomiting59%,butashighas87%inoneoftheincludedstudies)24.ItistheonlysurgicalprocedureincludedintheestablishedpaediatricPOVriskscorewithanoddsratioof4.33,thehighestriskfactorofthefourindependentfactorsidentifiedinthisstudy10.
1++
A ChildrenundergoingstrabismussurgeryareathighriskofPOV.
MinimisingPOVfollowingstrabismussurgeryrequiresamultimodalapproachutilisingantiemetics,dexamethasoneandavoidingearlymobilisationintherecoveryperiod.
b.Adenotonsillectomy
Withoutantiemeticprophylaxis,ahighproportionofchildrenundergoingadenotonsillectomywillexperienceatleastoneepisodeofpostoperativevomiting(89%withoutprophylaxisinoneseries)11,25,26.However,manyofthesestudiessufferfromthedrawbackofthecompoundingeffectofperioperativeopioidadministrationthatmaybeactingasasurrogateriskfactor,asintheabsenceofopioidsinonestudyonly11%ofchildrenvomited27.
1+
A ChildrenundergoingadenotonsillectomyareatincreasedriskofPOV.
MinimisingPOVisessentialforasuccessfulday‐casetonsillectomyprogramme.Scrupuloussurgicaltechniquetodecreaseswallowedblood,avoidanceoflong‐actingopioidanalgesiaandprophylacticantiemeticsanddexamethasonearekeyfactorsinachievingthisgoal.
c.Otoplasty
Otoplastyinchildrenisrecognisedforitsemeticpotentialwithanincidenceofvomitingintheabsenceofantiemeticprophylaxisof60%28.However,surgicaldressings,inparticularpackingoftheexternalearcanal,mayinfluencetheincidenceofPOVinthesepatients29.
2‐
d.OtherproceduresGroinsurgery(herniotomyandorchidopexy)andpenilesurgeryhaveamodestincreasedincidenceofPOV,buttheevidenceisfromolderstudieswithnumerouscompoundingvariablessuchasopioidadministration11,16.
2‐
TheevidencethatproceduresotherthanstrabismussurgeryandadenotonsillectomyareassociatedwithahighincidenceofPOVislesscompelling.However,whentheconsequencesofPOVmaysignificantlyaffectclinicaloutcomese.g.resultinadmissionafterday‐casesurgery,considerationshouldbegiventousingprophylacticanti‐emetics.
13
C.Anaestheticfactors
Avarietyofanaesthetic‐relatedfactorshavebeenimplicatedinproducingincreasedPOVinchildren.However,fewofthesefactorsareincludedinanyofthePOVriskscoringsystemsinthepublishedliteratureforpaediatricpatients4.
Nitrousoxide
Amixedadultandpaediatricsystematicreviewconcludedthatomissionofnitrousoxidereducedtheincidenceofpostoperativevomitingbutnotnauseainhigh‐riskpatientswithaNNTof5.Thereductioninemesis,byavoidingnitrousoxide,wasachievedatthecostofanincreasedriskofintraoperativeawareness30.
Inchildren,avoidingnitrousoxidehasconflictingeffectsonPOV;itproducesasmallreductioninearlyPOVfollowingdentalsurgerybutnotaftergrommetinsertionwithoutanydifferenceinlatePOVrateswitheitherprocedure31,32.InasmallRCT,therewasnodifferenceinPOVratesinpaediatricT&Aspatientswhoreceivednitrousoxidecomparedtothosewhodidnotreceivetheagent.33
1+,
2‐
C TheuseofnitrousoxidedoesnotappeartobeassociatedwithahighriskofPOVinchildren
NitrousoxidemaybeusedforanaesthesiainchildrenwithoutincreasingtheincidenceofPOV.
Volatileagents
Althoughmodernvolatileagentsarelessemetogenicthanolderagents(e.g.ether),thereisevidencethatvolatileagentsmaysignificantlycontributetoearlyPOVparticularlyinhigh‐riskpatients.Thereisalsoastrongdose‐responserelationshipbetweenPOVanddurationofexposuretovolatileagents34.Volatileagentsarefarmoreemetogenicwhenusedformaintenanceofanaesthesiawhencomparedtopropofolmaintenanceinalargemeta‐analysis35.Thereislittleevidencethatanyofthemodernagentsislessormoreemetogenicthantheothers34,35.
1++,1+
A UseofvolatileanaestheticagentsisassociatedwithincreasedriskofemesisparticularlyinchildrenwhohaveotherriskfactorsforPOV.
ItisrecommendedthattotalintravenousanaesthesiashouldbeconsideredwhenchildrenwhoareathighriskofPOVundergosurgerythathasahighriskofproducingPOV.
Peri‐operativeopioids
Despitethewidelyheldbeliefthatperi‐operativeopioidadministrationisstronglyimplicatedinincreasedPOV,theevidencefromtheliteratureislesscategorical.
IntraoperativeopioiduseinchildrenintwolargestudieswasassociatedwithreducedoronlyslightincreasedincidenceofPOV10,34,whereaspostoperativeadministrationinboththesestudieswasassociatedwithincreasedPOVriskwith
1+,1‐
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildrenoddsratiosof1.64and2.3respectively.
Conversely,theuseofperioperativemorphineinchildrenisassociatedwithincreasedPOVriskforarangeofproceduresincludingadenotonsillectomy,strabismussurgeryanddentalsurgery27,36,37,38
AlthoughadministrationofperioperativeopioidsisincludedinhalfofthepublishedadultPOVriskscores,opioidusewasnotregardedasanindependent,statisticallysignificantpredictorofPOVinthemostwidelyquotedpaediatricPOVriskscoringsystem.11
B UseofopioidsmaybeassociatedwithincreasedriskofPOVparticularlyiflonger‐actingagentsareusedinthepostoperativeperiod
TheanaesthetistshouldtrytoachievesatisfactorypostoperativeanalgesiawithouttheuseofopioidswheneverpossibleifPOVistobeminimised,particularlyinhighriskpatients.
Useofregionalandlocalanaesthesiatechniquesarerecommendedwhereappropriatetoreducetheneedforopioids.
Useofanticholinesterasedrugs
AntagonismofneuromuscularblockadehasbeenassociatedwithincreasedriskofPOV.Inasystematicreviewofthissubjectinamixedadultandpaediatricpopulation(25%children),higherdoseneostigmine(>2.5mgsinadults)wasassociatedwithasignificantlyincreasedriskofPOV,althoughthestudydidnotanalysethepaediatricandadultpatientsseparately39.
2‐
D UseofanticholinesterasedrugsmayincreasePOVinchildren.
InsituationswhereachildisathighriskofPOV,anaesthesiawithoutmusclerelaxantsshouldbeconsideredtoavoidtheriskofrequiringreversalofneuromuscularblockade.
Peri‐operativeFluids
Forminorsurgicalprocedures,givinglargevolumesofIVcrystalloidintraoperativelyreducedPOVinchildrenafterstrabismussurgeryinthefirst24hoursaftersurgery.40Onehundredchildrenwererandomlyassignedtoreceive30ml∙kg−1∙h−1(“superhydrationgroup”)or10ml∙kg−1∙h−1(controlgroup)oflactatedRinger'ssolutionintra‐operatively.Nauseaandvomitingoccurredin11(22%)ofpatientsinthesuperhydrationgroupand27patients(54%)ofthecontrolgroup(P=0.001).Inastudyofchildrenadmittedfordaycasesurgery,989children(aged1month‐18years)wererandomisedtotwogroups:mandatorydrinkersandelectivedrinkers.41The464mandatorydrinkershadtodemonstrateabilitytodrinkclearliquidswithoutvomitingpriortodischargewhereas525electivedrinkerschosewhethertheywishedtodrinkornotbeforedischarge.AllpatientsreceivedadequateIVfluidstosupplyacalculated8‐hfluiddeficitpriortodischarge.Theincidenceofvomitingdidnotdifferbetweengroupsintheoperatingroom,thepost‐anesthesiacareunitorafterdischargefromhospital.Inthedaysurgeryunit,
1+,
2+
15 only14%electivedrinkersvomitedcomparedto23%mandatorydrinkers(P<0.001).Themandatorydrinkersstayedlongerthanelectivedrinkersinthedaycareunit(P<0.001).Nochildrenwereadmittedtohospitalwithpersistentvomiting.
Thereisalsoevidencethatwithholdingoralfluidsfromchildrenpost‐operativelyreducedtheincidenceofvomitinginhospitalafterdaycasesurgery.42Inastudyof317children,overallPOVwasreducedfrom56%to38%(P=0.004)bywithholdingoralfluids:Althoughin‐hospitalvomitingwasreducedfrom38%to21%(P=0.003),therewasnosignificantreductioninpost‐dischargevomiting.
1+
B Peri‐operativeIVfluidsmayreducePOVinchildrenafterdaycasesurgery.
POVinchildrenmaybeincreasediftoleranceoforalfluidsismandatorybeforedischargefromdaycasesurgery.
Intra‐operativefluidsmayreducePOVinchildrenafterdaycasesurgery.
Oralfluidsshouldbeofferedtochildrenwishingtodrinkbeforedischargeafterdaycasesurgerybutshouldnotbemandatory.
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
2.PharmacologicalTreatmentofPost‐operativeVomitinginChildren
Inthissection,theevidencefortheefficacyofcommonlyusedanti‐emeticsinreducingpost‐operativevomitinginchildrenisreportedandrecommendationmadeforpreventingPOVinchildren.InadditionrecommendationsaremadeontreatingestablishedPOVinchildren.
A.Anti‐emeticsforPrevention&ReductionofPost‐operativeVomitinginChildren
5HT3Antagonists
5HT3antagonistsareeffectiveanti‐emeticsinchildren.Therearealargenumberofstudiesavailableexaminingtheincreasingnumberoftheseagentsavailableaswellassomeoftheotherissuesrelatedtoadministrationof5HT3antagonists.Ondansetron
OndansetronislicensedforuseintheUKinchildrenandyoungpeople(aged2‐18years)forreducingpost‐operativevomitingandiscommonlyused.Theproductlicenceisforondansetron0.1mg.kg‐1uptoamaximumof4mg.Undesirableeffectsassociatedwiththeuseofondansetroninchildrenarerareandclinicallyunimportant.Arecentpapersuggeststheremaybeapossiblereductionofanalgesiceffectsofparacetamolby5HT3antagonists.
43Thiseffectmaybeimportantbuthasnotyetbeenconfirmedinchildrenanddoesnotappeartobereflectedbyclinicalexperiencereportedsofar.
WhatistheoptimaldoseofondansetronforreducingPOVinchildren?
Theefficacyofondansetronwasstudiedindoseranges0.05to0.3mg.kg‐1andadoserelatedresponsewasdemonstrated44‐46.TheoveralloddsratioforPOVwas0.3644.Thesummaryoddsratioper0.1mg.kg‐1increaseindosewas0.43.
Subgroupanalysisofthepaediatricdata(1688children)showedthatinthepreventionofearlyvomiting,dosesof0.10and0.15mg.kg‐1wereclinicallyeffectivewithNNTof4.68and2.82respectively46.Inthepreventionoflatevomiting,0.10and0.15mg.kg‐1gaveNNTof5.35and3.67respectively.
Alowerdoseof0.05mg.kg‐1hadanoddsratiowithconfidenceintervals0.49to11.39andwasconsiderednoteffective47.
1++
A OndansetronisaclinicallyeffectiveantiemeticinchildrenundergoingproceduresassociatedwithahighriskofPOV.Thereisadoserelatedresponsewiththeoptimaldosebeing0.15mg.kg‐1.
17
ChildrenatincreasedriskofPOVshouldbegivenondansetron0.15mg.kg‐1.OndansetroncanbeusedasasingleagenttopreventearlyandlatePOV.
Whatroutesofadministrationareeffectiveforondansetron?Inameta‐analysisofchildrenundergoingtonsillectomy,studiesusingbothoralandintravenousondansetronwereincluded.TherewasnoevidencethatIVwasmoreeffectivethantheoralpreparationinchildrenundergoingtonsillectomy43.OneRCTof140childrenfoundoralondansetron0.15mg.kg‐1reducedPOVsignificantlywhereasanoraldoseof0.075mg.kg‐1wasnomoreeffectivethanplacebo48.Anoraldispersiblepreparationofondansetron4mgwaswelltoleratedbychildrenandefficacious49.
1+
A TheoralrouteisaseffectiveastheintravenousroutefortheadministrationofondansetroninpreventingPOVinchildren.
Theoralroutemaybeconsideredanalternativerouteforondansetronadministrationinsituationswhereintravenousaccessisnotavailable.
WhenisthebesttimetoadministerondansetrontoreducePOV?
InaRCTof120children,administeringondansetron0.10mg.kg‐1atthebeginningorendofsurgerymadenodifferencetoratesofearly,lateortotalPOV48.
ArecentCochranereviewofalladultandpaediatricPOVstudiesalsofoundnoevidencethattheriskofPOVdifferedingroupsgivenondansetronbeforeinduction,atinduction,intra‐operativelyorpost‐operatively50.
1+,1++
A Thereisnoevidencedemonstratingabenefitoftimingondansetronadministrationinchildrenwithrespecttothetimeofsurgery.
Ondansetronmaybegivenbeforeinduction,atinduction,intra‐operativelyorpost‐operatively.
Howdoestheefficacyofondansetroncomparetootheranti‐emeticsforreducingPOVinchildren?
Ondansetronhashighefficacywhencomparedwithotheranti‐emetics.
Inameta‐analysisexaminingstudiescomparingondansetronwithmetoclopramide(6studies)ordroperidol(9studies)inchildrenundergoingdifferenttypesofsurgery,thepooledoddsratioshowedondansetrontobemoreeffectivethandroperidol,OR0.49,andmetoclopramide,OR0.3345.
InasingleRCTof130children(45pergroup)ondansetronanddexamethasone(1mg.kg‐1)werecomparedtoplacebo.BothondansetronanddexamethasonesignificantlyreducedtotalPOVandearlyPOVeffectively.However,inlatevomiting,ondansetrondidnotreducePOVcomparedtoplacebowhereasdexamethasonewasclinicallyeffectivecomparedtobothplaceboandtoondansetron51.
1+
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
A OndansetronismoreclinicallyeffectivethandroperidolormetoclopramideinpreventingPOVinchildren.OndansetronisequallyeffectivetodexamethasoneforearlyPOValthoughthelattermaybemoreeffectiveinreducinglatePOV.
OndansetronshouldbeconsideredasafirstlinetreatmentinchildrenwithahighriskofPOV.Combinationtherapywithasecondagentmayimproveitsefficacy(asdetailedbelow).
TropisetronTropisetronisaneffectiveanti‐emeticforPOVinchildren.ItdoesnotyethaveaproductlicenseforuseinchildrenintheUK.
Twostudiesusingtropisetron0.1‐0.2mg.kg‐1inchildrendemonstrateanoveralloddsratioof0.15forPOVwithnocleardoserelatedresponse44.Onestudyof120childrenfoundnodifferenceinoutcomewithearlyorlateadministrationoftropisetron52.Anotherstudyexaminedtheadditionofdexamethasonetotropisetronandfoundthatoverallvomitingwasreducedfrom53%(tropisetron0.1mg.kg‐1)to26%(tropisetron0.1mg.kg‐1+dexamethasone0.5mg.kg‐1)53.However,thisreductionwasnotdetecteduntilafter4hourspost‐operatively.
1+
A Tropisetronisaneffectiveanti‐emeticinchildrenathighriskofPOVandthisefficacyisincreasedbytheadditionofdexamethasone.
AlthoughtropisteroniseffectiveinreducingPOVinchildren,itisnotlicensedforuseinchildren.OndansetronshouldbeusedforreducingPOVinchildren.
GranisetronThreestudiesoftheefficacyofgranisetroninchildrenundergoingtonsillectomydemonstrateanoddsratioforPOVof0.11usingadoserangeof10‐80mcg.kg‐1.Thereisnocleardoserelatedresponseasseenwithondansetron44.FurthermoreCochranemeta‐analysissuggeststhattheeffectofgranisetrononreducingPOVmaybeoverestimatedbythesepapers.
1+
A Granisetronmaybeaneffectiveanti‐emeticforPOVinchildren.
MoreevidenceisrequiredontheefficacyofgranisetroninreducingPOVinchildren.
DolasetronInadosefindingstudyin204childrenundergoingdaycasesurgery,dolasetron350mcg.kg‐1wasaseffectiveatpreventingPOVasondansetron100mcg.kg‐1.54Onestudyon150dexamethasone‐pretreatedchildrenundergoingtonsillectomyshowed
1+
19 anoddsratioof0.25forPOVinchildrengivendolasetron55.
Acuteelectrocardiographicchangesinchildrenandadolescentsoccurverycommonlywithdolasetron.(http://emc.medicines.org.uk)ThereisevidencetosuggestthatacutechangesinQTcintervalaregreaterinchildrenthaninadults.Individualcasesofsustainedsupraventricularandventriculararrhythmias,cardiacarrestandmyocardialinfarctionhavebeenreportedinchildrenandadolescents.Theuseofdolasetroninchildrenandadolescentsunder18yearsoldiscontraindicated.
A Dolasetroniscontraindicatedforuseinchildrenandadolescentsunder18yearsold.
DolasetroniscontraindicatedforpreventionofPOVinchildren.
DexamethasoneDexamethasonehasincreasinglybecomerecognisedasaneffectiveanti‐emeticinchildrenonitsownandincombinationwith5HT3antagonists.
WhatistheoptimaldoseofdexamethasoneforreducingPOVinchildren?
Todate,therehasbeenonesystematicreviewondexamethasoneforpreventionofPOVonmixedadultandpaediatricstudies56.Analysisofthe7paediatricstudieswasnotreportedseparately.Dexamethasone1.0‐1.5mg.kg‐1versusplacebo(3trials)hadaNNTof10inpreventingearlyPOV(<6hr)andaNNTof3.2inpreventinglatePOV.
ACochranedatabasereviewin2003examiningchildrenundergoingtonsillectomyconcludedthatchildrengivenasingledoseofIVdexamethasone0.15to1.0mg.kg‐1
(max8‐25mg)werehalfaslikelytovomitinthefirst24hoursaftertonsillectomy(RelativeRisk=0.54,95%CI0.41‐0.74)57.RoutineuseofdexamethasoneinchildrenwasassociatedwithaNNTof4.
Adosefindingstudyofdexamethasone(0.25to1.0mg.kg‐1)in168childrenundergoingstrabismussurgerycomparedtoplaceboidentifiednoadditionalbenefitofusingdosesgreaterthan0.25mg.kg‐1.Forallgroupsstudied,therewasanNNTof2.2‐2.7.Inallgroupsreceivingdexamethasonetherewasnoevidenceofsideeffectsrelatingtoincreasedbloodsugarsorincreasedwoundinfectionrates58.
IVdexamethasonemaycauseperinealwarmthandshouldbeinjectedslowlyintheconsciouschild.Dexamethasonemayalsocauseinsomnolenceifgivenlateintheevening.Thereisnolong‐termfollow‐upstudyevaluatingeffectsofdexamethasoneontheimmunesysteminchildren.
ThreestudieshaveshownlowerdosesofdexamethasoneprovidesimilarclinicallysignificantpreventionofPOV59‐61:
Onestudyin140childrenuseddexamethasone150mcg.kg‐1(max8mg)andfoundanoverallreductioninPOVfrom71%to40%59.
1+,1++
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
Anotherstudycomparedlowdosedexamethasone(50mcg.kg‐1to250mcg.kg‐1)andfoundasignificantreductioninPOVevenwithdosesassmallas50mcg.kg‐160.TheNNTrangeforallgroupswas2‐2.9.
Inanotherstudy.125childrenundergoingadenotonsillectomyortonsillectomywereenrolledinadose‐escalatingstudyofdexamethasone:0.0625,0.125,0.25,0.5,or1mg.kg‐1,maximumdose24mg61.Therewasnodose‐escalationresponsetodexamethasoneforpreventingvomiting,reducingpain,shorteningtimetofirstliquidintake,ortheincidenceofvoicechange.Thelowestdoseofdexamethasone(0.0625mg.kg‐1)wasaseffectiveasthehighestdose(1.0mg.kg‐1)forpreventingPOVorreducingtheincidenceofothersecondaryoutcomes.Theauthorsconcludethereisnojustificationfortheuseofhigh‐dosedexamethasoneforthepreventionofPONVinthiscohortofchildren.SeveralreportsofacutetumourlysissyndromehavebeendescribedafterdexamethasonehasbeengiventoasusceptiblepatientindosesusedinpreventingPOV.62‐64TumourLysisSyndromeisapotentiallylethalconditionthatoccursparticularlyinhaematologicalmalignanciesaftertreatmentwithcytotoxictherapies.Dexamethasonehasinducedacutetumourlysisinpatientswithnon‐Hodgkinslymphoma62andacuteleukaemia.63‐64
A DexamethasonegivenalonereducestheriskofPOVinchildren.ItappearstobeparticularlyeffectiveinpreventinglatePOV(>6hr).
Adoseofdexamethasone150mcg.kg‐1providesgoodreductioninPOVwithnoadverseeffects.Dosesaslowasdexamethasone62.5mcg.kg‐1areefficaciousinreducingPOVinchildren.Dexamethasoneshouldnotbeusedinpatientsatriskoftumourlysissyndrome.
Metoclopramide
Metoclopramideindosesrangingfrom0.15mcg.kg‐1to0.25mcg.kg‐1hasbeenshowntoreducePOVinchildreninsomestudiesonly65‐67.Overall,thereislittlesupportintheliteraturefortheuseofmetoclopramideasananti‐emeticinchildrenfortheprophylaxisofpost‐operativevomitinginthedosestested(usually0.25mcg.kg‐1)15,45,68‐72.
Theextrapyramidaleffectsassociatedwithmetoclopramidearemorecommoninchildrenandhaveoccurredindosesusedtotreatpost‐operativevomiting.73
1+,1++
A Metoclopramideindosesof0.25mcg.kg‐1orlessdoesnotreliablyreducePOVinchildren.Furtherdose‐responsestudiesofmetoclopramidearerequiredtoseeifimprovedefficacyforpreventingPOVinchildrencanbeachievedathigherdoses.
Metoclopramideisnotareliableanti‐emeticinchildrenandisnotrecommendedforreducingPOVinchildren.Theroleofmetoclopramideinthetreatmentofestablishedpost‐operativevomitingrequiresfurtherinvestigation.
21
Prochlorperazine
Theanti‐emeticeffectofprochlorperazineinchildrenhasnotbeendetermined.Side‐effectshavebeenreportedwhenchildrenhavebeengivenprochlorperazine74.Thesearepredominantlyneurological,independentofdoseanddisappearedspontaneouslyafterdiscontinuationofthedrug.Impairedconsciousness,dyskinesia,pyramidalsignsandhypertonuswerethemainneurologicalmanifestations.
4
D ThereisnoevidenceintheliteraturefortheefficacyofprochlorperazineforreducingPOVinchildren.
ProchlorperazineisnotrecommendedforpreventionofPOVinchildren.
Cyclizine
Cyclizineisapiperazineantihistamineavailableover‐the‐counterandbyprescriptionintheUK,Canada,USandAustralia.InCanadatheuseofcyclizineforpatientsunder6yearsoldisoff‐label.Ithasbeenreportedasadrugwithpotentialforabuse75.Thereareonly2studiesontheuseofcyclizinefortreatingPOVinchildrenandneitherhadpositivefindings76‐77.Ithasbeenconcludedthatthereisnodetectableanti‐emeticeffectwithcyclizineandfurthermoretherewassignificantpainoninjection73.
1+
AThereiscurrentlynoevidencetosupporttheuseofcyclizineforPOVinchildreneitherforprophylaxisorfortreatment.
CyclizineisnotrecommendedforreducingPOVinchildren.
DimenhydrinateDimenhydrinateisthetheoclatesaltofdiphenhydramine.DimenhydrinateisavailableinCanada,theUSandAustraliabothover‐thecounterandbyprescription.ItisnotavailableintheUK.Itcanbegivenorally,intravenouslyandasasuppository.Itwassynthesizedwiththeintentionofantagonizingthemoderatelysedativeeffectsofdiphenhydraminewiththemildlystimulanteffectsoftheophylline.Howeversedationanddrymouthandotheranti‐muscarinicsideeffectsdooccur.SeriousadversereactionsappeartoberarealthoughitisaweaknessofbothpublishedRCTsandmeta‐analysesthatthereislittledocumentationofsideeffects.
Twosystematicreviewsreportondimenhydrinate44,78.Inasystematicreviewandmeta‐analysisofanti‐emeticprophylaxisforchildrenundergoingtonsillectomy,dimenhydrinatewasnoteffectiveinthedosesstudied44.Inanothersystematicreview,theeffectivenessofdimenhydrinateforprophylaxisofpostoperativenauseaandvomitingwasreportedinbothadultsandchildren78.ThepaediatricstudieswereanalysedasasubgroupandtheNNTforchildrenwasreportedas4.76
1+,1++
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildrenforIV/IMadministrationand3.57forrectaladministrationofasingleequivalentdoseofdimenhydrinatehowevertheconfidenceintervalsarewide(2.56‐33.3and1.92‐20).
InasmallRCTof100childrenundergoingreconstructivesurgeryforburns,dimenhydrinate0.5mg.kg‐1wasfoundtobeasclinicallyeffectiveasondansetronbutmuchmorecosteffective79.Dimenhydrinate0.5mg.kg‐1hasalsobeenshowntobeeffectiveinstrabismussurgery80.Therearefewseriousside‐effectsandthecostbenefitratioisveryadvantageous.
A Insummary,thereisevidencetosupporttheuseofdimenhydrinateasprophylaxisinchildrenatmoderateorhighriskofpostoperativenauseaandvomitingexceptfortonsillectomy.
Dimenhydrinate0.5mg.kg‐1maybeusedtoreducePOVinchildrenexceptforchildrenundergoingtonsillectomy.
Therearenostudiesexaminingtheuseofdimenhydrinatetotreatpostoperativevomitingbutnonethelessitiscitedasrescuetherapyinonereviewarticleonperi‐operativenauseaandvomitinginchildren81.
4
DDimenhydrinatehasbeenusedforrescuetherapyinestablishedPOVinchildren.
DimenhydrinatemaybeusefulforrescuetherapyinestablishedPOVinchildren.
CombinationTherapy
OndansetronandDexamethasone
ThreerandomizedcontrolstudieshaveexaminedtheefficacyofondansetroncombinedwithdexamethasoneforpreventionofPOV82‐84.
Twolargestudiesdemonstratedthatondansetron50mcg.kg‐1combinedwithdexamethasone150mcg.kg‐1wasmoreeffectiveatpreventingPOVinchildrenundergoingstrabismussurgerythanondansetron150mcg.kg‐1aloneordexamethasone150mcg.kg‐1alone82,83.Astudyof193childrenundergoingstrabismussurgerycompareddexamethasone(150mcg.kg‐1)alonetodexamethasone(150mcg.kg‐1)plusondansetron(50mcg.kg‐1)82.Theadditionofondansetronreducedoverallvomitingfrom23%to5%.Astudyof200childrenundergoingstrabismussurgerycomparedondansetron(150mcg.kg‐1,maximumdose8mg)alonetodexamethasone(150mcg.kg‐1)plusondansetron(50mcg.kg‐1)83.TheincidenceofPOVwassignificantlylessinthecombinationgroup(9%)thanintheondansetrononlygroup(28%).
Inanotherstudynodifferencebetweentreatmentswasdetectedbetweenseveralcombinationtreatmentgroupscontainingondansetronandarangeofdexamethasonedosesandplacebo84.Thiswasattributedtotheparticularlylowbaselineincidenceofvomitingintheplacebogroup.
1+
23
A OndansetroncombinedwithdexamethasoneincreasestheeffectivenessinpreventingPOVinchildren.
InchildrenathighriskofPOV,combinationtherapyofondansetronanddexamethasoneshouldbegiven.IVOndansetron50mcg.kg‐1andIVdexamethasone150mcg.kg‐1shouldbegiventochildrenscheduledforadenotonsillectomyorstrabismussurgery.
Ondansetronandothercombinationanti‐emetictherapy
Ameta‐analysisexamininganti‐emeticcombinationtherapyincluded8paediatricstudies85.Althoughnoseparatedataoranalysiswaspresented,ondansetroncombinedwithdroperidolordexamethasonewasmoreeffectiveinpreventingPOVthanondansetronalone.
1+
A OndansetronwhencombinedwithdroperidolordexamethasoneismoreeffectiveinpreventingPOVthanondansetronalone.
Combinationanti‐emetictherapyshouldbeusedforchildrenathighriskofPOVorwheresingleagenttherapyhasfailedpreviously.Ondansetronanddexamethasoneisthemosteffectivecombinationofanti‐emeticsforreducingPOVinchildrenandisrecommendedforsituationsathighriskofPOV.
TropisetronandDexamethasone
Inastudyof132children,tropisetron0.1mg.kg‐1alonewascomparedtotropisetron0.1mg.kg‐1withdexamethasone0.5mg.kg‐1forpreventionofPOVaftertonsillectomy86.AdditionofdexamethasonereducedtheoverallincidenceofPOVfrom53%to26%.Thisreductionwasnotevidentatlessthan4hours.
1+,1++
A Tropisetronplusdexamethasoneismoreeffectivethantropisetronaloneforthepreventionofpostoperativenauseaandvomitinginchildrenundergoingtonsillectomy.
AlthoughIVtropisetronandIVdexamethasoneiseffectiveinreducingPOVinchildren,tropisetronisnotlicensedforuseinchildren.OndansetronanddexamethasoneshouldbeusedforreducingPOVinchildrenathighriskofPOV.
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
B.Anti‐emeticsforTreatingEstablishedPost‐operativeVomitinginChildren
Therearefewertrialsofefficacyofanti‐emeticsincontrollingestablishedPOVintherecoveryroominadultsandevenfewerinchildren87,comparedtothemultitudeoftrialsonprophylaxisofPOV.
Thereisonlyonetrialofasingledoseofondansetron(0.1mg.kg‐1)versusplaceboformanagingestablishedPOVinchildrenwhohavenotreceivedprophylactictherapy88:childrenexperiencingtwoemeticepisodeswithin2hofdiscontinuinganaesthesiaweregivenIVondansetron0.1mg.kg‐1upto4mg(n=192)orplacebo(n=183).Theproportionofchildrenwithnoemeticepisodesandnouseofrescuemedicationwassignificantlygreater(P<0.001)intheondansetrongroupcomparedwithplaceboforboth2‐and24‐hperiodsafterstudydrugadministration(78%oftheondansetrongroupand34%oftheplacebogroupfor2h;53%oftheondansetrongroupand17%oftheplacebogroupfor24h).Conclusionswereasingledoseofondansetron(0.1mg.kg‐1upto4mg)iseffectiveandwelltoleratedinthepreventionoffurtherepisodesofpostoperativeemesisinchildrenafteroutpatientsurgery.
Doserangingstudiesofasingledrugandcomparativestudiesofdifferentdrugsareabsentinthispatientpopulationinthesecircumstances.
Animportantstudyof428patientswhodevelopedPOVdespiteprophylaxiswithondansetron4mgIVdemonstratedthatgivingaseconddoseofondansetronwasaseffectiveasgivingplacebo89.Thisstudysuggeststhatifprophylaxiswithonedrugfails,aseconddrugfromanotherclassshouldbeusedforrescue.
1+
1+
B IVOndansetronmaybeeffectivefortreatingestablishedPOVinchildrenwhohavenotalreadyreceivedondansetron.
OndansetronisunlikelytobeeffectiveforestablishedPOVoccurringafterondansetronhasbeenadministered.
IVOndansetron0.15mg.kg‐1shouldbeusedtotreatestablishedPOVinchildrenwhohavenotalreadyreceivedondansetron.
Forchildrenwhohavealreadybeengivenondansetronprophylactically,itisrecommendedthatasecondantiemeticfromanotherclassshouldbegiven,suchasIVdexamethasone0.15mg.kg‐1injectedslowly.
25
3.Non‐PharmacologicalTreatmentofPost‐operativeVomitinginChildren
Avarietyofdifferentnon‐pharmacologicaloptionshavebeendescribedinordertopreventortreatPONVinchildrenbutthenumberofpublicationsaswellaspatientnumbersandstudydesignareofteninsufficienttoallowforameta‐analysisorstructuredreview(i.e.typeofbandagingfollowingbat‐earsurgery90).Thus,thissectionwillonlyfocusonthedifferenttypesofstimulationoftheP6acupuncturepoint(acupuncture,acupressure,orelectrical/laserstimulation)thathasbeenreportedinchildren.
StimulationoftheP6AcupuncturePointAmeta‐analysisin1999concludedvarioustypesofacustimulationinadultswereequallyeffectivecomparedtoanti‐emeticdrugsinpreventingvomitingaftersurgeryandthatsuchnon‐pharmacologicalternativesweremoreeffectivethanplaceboinpreventingPONVintheearlypostoperativeperiod91.Nobenefitwasfoundwithinthepaediatricpopulationinthisreview.
Sincethentwofurtherreviewshavebeenpublishedthatincorporatemorerecentpublicationswithinthisfield.InalargeCochranereportfrom2004(up‐dateofthe1999meta‐analysisabove,26trials,n=3,347)92acustimulationwasagainfoundtobeofbenefitinadultscomparedtocontrol.InthisCochranereport,acustimulationwasalsofoundtobeofbenefitinchildreninreducingtheincidenceofnauseaandalsopointingtoaborderlinesignificantreductioninvomitingcomparedtoshamtreatment.Whencomparedtoanti‐emeticdrugsusedforpreventionofPOV,acustimulationappearedtobeequallyeffective.
Recentlyameta‐analysisfocusingonchildrenincludedtwelveRCTs,mainlyperformedinthecontextofhigh‐risksurgery(e.g.adenotonsillectomyorstrabismussurgery)93.Themeta‐analysisshowedthatallacustimulationmodalitiesreducedvomiting(RR=0.69,95%CI:0.59‐0.80,p<0.0001)andnausea(RR=0.59,95%CI:0.46‐0.76,p<0.0001)comparedtonon‐activecontrol.Inthreetrialswhereacustimulationhadbeencomparedtoanti‐emeticdrugstherewasnodifferenceinreducingvomitingbetweengroups(RR=1.25,95%CI:0.54‐2.3,p=0.60).Comparingthedifferentmodalities,acupuncturewasfoundmoreeffectivecomparedtoacupressureandelectricalstimulation.
1+,1++
A CurrentevidencebasesupportsacustimulationreducingPOVcomparedtothenon‐activecontrolsituation.AcustimulationappearstobeequallyeffectiveinpreventingPOVasanti‐emeticdrugsinchildren.
Theuseofacustimulationcanbeconsideredasanalternativetreatmenttoanti‐emeticmedicationsforsurgerywherethereisahigh‐riskPOVinchildren.
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
4.SummaryofFindings&Recommendations
PatientFactorsassociatedwithahighriskofPOV:
SurgicalproceduresassociatedwithahighriskofPOV:
27 AnaestheticfactorsaffectingtheincidenceofPOVinchildren:
SummaryofrecommendationsforpreventionofPOVinChildren:
GuidelinesonthePreventionofPostoperativeVomitinginChildren
SummaryofrecommendationsfortreatmentofestablishedPOVinChildren:
29
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