hanan einav-levy msc thesis
DESCRIPTION
Heat and mass transfer from aerosol bound species, for application in the solar seeded reactor. Supervisors – Prof. Yinon Rudich, Prof. Jacob Karni A method for measuring the sherwood number of aerosols was developed, utilizing an Aerosol mass spectrometer, a thermal denuder, and a differential mobility analyzer and a condensation particle counter. The goal is to use the measured sherwood number for predicting the nusselt number through the heat to mass analogy, as described in the text.TRANSCRIPT
1
Thesis for the degree Master of Science
By Hanan Einav-Levy
Advisors: Jacob Karni
Yinon Rudich
January 2010
Submitted to the Scientific Council of the Weizmann Institute of Science
Rehovot, Israel
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Development of Method for Measuring Mass Transfer Coefficients of Particles
and Use of the Mass-Heat Transfer Analogy to Obtain Heat Transfer Coefficients
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2
Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................6 Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................................7 1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................7
1.1 Solar thermal energy...........................................................................................................7 1.2 Convective heat transfer .....................................................................................................8 1.3 The heat to mass transfer analogy.......................................................................................9
1.3.1 Heat and Mass Transfer in the Continuum Regime ......................................................9 1.3.2 The dynamic transfer conditions ................................................................................10 1.3.3 The transition regime.................................................................................................13
2 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................13 3 Experimental Apparatus and Test Results................................................................................14
3.1 Experimental system ........................................................................................................14 3.1.1 Aerosol generation.....................................................................................................16 3.1.2 Coating with High Vapor Pressure Material (Benzo(a)pyrene)...................................16 3.1.3 Controlled evaporation...............................................................................................17
3.1.3.1 Increase of coating material (BaP) ambient vapor pressure..................................18 3.1.3.2 Initial design .......................................................................................................19 3.1.3.3 Final Design........................................................................................................21
3.1.4 Measurement .............................................................................................................22 3.1.5 Experimental Procedure.............................................................................................25
3.1.5.1 Data collection....................................................................................................25 3.1.5.2 Measurement of the side-center temperature correlation matrix...........................26 3.1.5.3 Data analysis procedure ......................................................................................29
3.2 Results .............................................................................................................................31 3.2.1 Mobility and vacuum aerodynamic distributions........................................................31 3.2.2 SMPS measured and AMS mass based final diameter and shape factor......................33 3.2.3 Effects of Residence time ..........................................................................................36
4 Discussion...............................................................................................................................38 4.1 Derivation of the Sherwood number .................................................................................38 4.2 Possible sources of measurement bias...............................................................................40
4.2.1 Coating thickness effect on the Sherwood number .....................................................40 4.2.2 The influence of coating thickness on the calibration ratio RM ...................................42 4.2.3 Possible uneven flow splitting effect on bias..............................................................45
4.3 Error analysis ...................................................................................................................45 4.4 Repeatability ....................................................................................................................47 4.5 Measurement of the Sherwood numbers for suspended nano-particles ..............................47 4.6 The use of the heat to mass analogy for suspended nano-particles.....................................48 4.7 Measurement of fractal soot particles................................................................................49 4.8 Correlation of heat and mass transfer vs. particle size and shape.......................................49
5 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................50 Appendix A Calculating the Sherwood number from a non isothermal aerosol mass transfer experiment ....................................................................................................................................51 Appendix B Theoretical estimation of the diffusion coefficient of nitrogen-PAH mixture .............52 Appendix C Measuring the desorption energy of PAHs from suspended aerosols..........................53 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................54
3
List of figures Figure 1: Relevant models for describing transfer dynamics over different ranges of the Knudsen
number (Fang 2003) ..............................................................................................................11 Figure 2: Sherwood and Nusselt number prediction for the transition regime ................................12 Figure 3: Experimental system diagram ........................................................................................15 Figure 4: Coating process schematics............................................................................................16 Figure 5: Maximum BaP coating vapor density build up in the Thermal Denuder. ........................20 Figure 6: Final Thermal Denuder (TD) design...............................................................................22 Figure 7: Minimal denuded layer thickness vs. number concentration ...........................................24 Figure 8: HR-AMS mass fragments for BaP coating on PSL.........................................................24 Figure 9: Typical raw data for measurement of BaP evaporation from PSL spheres ......................25 Figure 10: TC probe configuration ................................................................................................26 Figure 11: temperature scan for fast and normal flow rates............................................................28 Figure 12: Calibrating the side thermocouples (T0-T8) versus a central probe (T9) .......................28 Figure 13: Particle size distribution for different extents of evaporation corresponding ................33 Figure 14: Comparison of vacuum aerodynamic distribution for m/z=104 and 252 .......................32 Figure 15: Change in coating thickness due to evaporation............................................................35 Figure 16: Shape factor versus coating thickness...........................................................................35 Figure 17: Effect of residence time. 200 nm PSL sphere, 15 nm thick BaP coating........................36 Figure 18: Effect of residence time. 300 nm PSL sphere 20-25 thick BaP coating .........................37 Figure 19: Effect of residence time. 400 nm PSL sphere 22-30 nm BaP coating............................37 Figure 20: Sherwood number vs. particle diameter........................................................................38 Figure 21: The effect of Coating thickness on the evaporation rate for two limiting cases. ............41 Figure 22: Partial coating scenario schematics...............................................................................42 Figure 23: Calibration ratio of AMS fragment peak mass signal vs. SMPS & CPC mass...............43 Figure 24: Median mobility diameter variations for different PSL sphere diameters......................46
List of tables Table 1 Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) properties......................................................................................17 Table 2: Typical side-center temperature correlation matrix ..........................................................27
4
Nomenclature ai, j Temperature
correlation matrix L [m] Typical length
D [m],[nm] Particle diameter Lmin [nm] Minimum AMS detectable coating thickness
Dva [nm] Particle vacuum aerodynamic diameter
Loven [m] Thermal Denuder (TD) oven length
Dm [nm] Particle mobility diameter
!m '' [Kg s·m2 ]
Mass transfer rate
Dm!core [nm] Particle core mobility diameter
m0 [µg] Residue mass of coating, obtained by Sherwood theory fit
Dm!TD [nm] Particle mobility diameter, for aerosols passing through the TD
mg [Kg] Gas molecule mass
Dm!bypass
[nm] Particle mobility
diameter, for aerosols bypassing the TD
mm /z [µg /m3] Mass loading of a single m/z
Df [m2 s] Binary diffusion coefficient
mv [Kg] Particle coating molecule mass
DAMS [nm] Equivalent diameter calculated according to AMS and SMPS measurement
Mw [g /mole] Molecular weight
DSh [nm] Sherwood diameter Mcoat [g /mole] Coating molecular weight H [KJ / Kg] Latent heat of
evaporation MAMS
MAMSbypass
MAMSTD
[µg] Single aerosol coating main fragment [m/z] mass, measured by AMS, for aerosols (general – no superscript), or aerosols bypassing the TD (bypass superscript), or going through the TD.
h W m2K!" #$ Heat transfer coefficient
hm [m s] Mass transfer coefficient
MSMPS
M bypassSMPS
MSMPSTD
[µg] Single aerosol coating mass, measured by SMPS, for aerosols (general, no superscript), or aerosols bypassing the TD, or going through the TD.
I [kg /m] Evaporation driving force Nu = hL
k Nusselt number
I [µg] Normalized evaporation driving force
n Analogy fit parameter
k [W /mK ] Thermal conductivity No [#/m3] Molecule number concentration kB [m2Kg s2K ]
Boltzman constant N [# m3]
[# cm3]
Particle number concentration
kv [W /mK ] N2 gas thermal conductivity
Nbypass [#/ cm3] Particle number concentration, for aerosols bypassing the TD
Kn = !L
Knudsen number
5
p [Pa] Pressure Vfrac Volume fraction of aerosol ps [Pa] Saturation vapor
pressure xo, yo, zo Normalized Cartesian
directions pd [Pa] Saturation vapor
pressure with Kelvin effect
! [m2 s] Thermal diffusivity
Pr = !"
Prandtel number ! c Energy accommodation
coefficient q '' W m2!" #$ Heat transfer rate ! Relaxation parameter for ai, j
correlation matrix calculation Q [m3 / s] Volumetric flow rate ! o Average gas adiabatic constant R [J / K ·mol] The gas constant ! coat [dyne / cm]
Coating material surface tension
ReL =UL!
Reynolds number !D[m] Coating thickness
Roven [m] Thermal Denuder (TD) oven radius
!mAMS"SMPS
[µg] Single aerosol evaporated
coating mass, measured by AMS and SMPS
RM = MSMPS
MAMS
Calibration ratio, for aerosols bypassing or passing in the TD
!mSMPS [µg] Single aerosol evaporated coating mass, measured by SMPS
RMbypass
= MbypassSMPS
M bypassAMS
Calibration ratio, for aerosols bypassing the TD oven
! [m] Mean free path
S Jayne shape factor ! [m2 s] Kinematic diffusivity
Sc = !Df
Schmidt number !coat [Kg m3]
[g cc]
Coating bulk density
Sh = hmLDf
Sherwood number !coat"vapor!coat"ambient
[Kg m3] Coating vapor density, near the particle surface, and in the free stream respectively
T [K ] Temperature !p [Kg m3] Particle density
T o Normalized temperature
!g [Kg m3] Gas density
Tp [K ] Particle temperature !0 [Kg m3] Normalization unit density for Jayne shape factor calculation
Tg [K ] Gas temperature ! ,
!
kb [!], [K] Lennard Jones potential
parameters
Ti (t) [K ] Center of oven temperature
!"m#EV ,! I"EV
[µg] Repeatability error for !m and I respectively
Tj (t) [K ] Side of oven temperature
!(Kn) Fuchs correction for mass transfer in transition regime
U [m s] Gas velocity ! Dynamic shape factor uo,vo,wo Normalized velocity
in xo, yo, zo directions ! o Normalized mass fraction
6
Abstract The use of solar energy for the production of solar fuels is currently studied throughout the
world. The first step in the process of solar thermal fuel production is to concentrate the solar flux
onto a gas stream. The gas stream used is typically transparent in the solar wavelengths. Therefore,
an absorbing medium is employed to absorb the solar flux, and transfer the heat to the gas flow.
Recently, Kogan, Kogan & Barak (2005) proposed to use nano-sized black soot particles and the
idea was tested in the solar facilities of the Weizmann Institute of Science.
The aim of this research is to develop a method for measuring mass transfer from nano-
sized particles, such as soot particles, and then obtain heat transfer coefficients through the analogy
between mass and heat transfer. The purpose of the mass transfer experiments in this research is to
examine the influence of the different experimental parameters on the mass transfer rate, and
compare the results to a known theory, thus assessing the efficacy of the measurement method for
obtaining mass and heat transfer coefficients.
A high resolution Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS) in conjunction with a
scanning mobility particle analyzer (SMPS) is used for measuring mass transfer rates of
Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) from polystyrene latex (PSL) spherical particles of different sizes. The
experimental apparatus consists of a thermal denuder (TD) with a very uniform and stable
temperature profile (±0.2°C over 50 cm). The aerosols were coated by a thin layer of BaP, and then
passed through the TD at different speeds and different temperatures. The remaining mass of the
BaP was measured by the AMS and was compared to the original mass. A scan of different
residence times yields the so-called Sherwood number, which is a dimensionless mass transfer
coefficient, describing the ratio of convective to conductive transfer.
Experiments were carried out in the transition zone, between the continuum and the kinetic
regime where the Sherwood number is expected to decrease monotonically as the particles diameter
decreases in this regime.
Measurements where performed for 200,300 and 400 nm diameter core PSL spheres, coated
by 15-25 nm thick BaP. The results underestimate the theory by 5-25%, with measurement error of
±5-10%, and show the expected trend of increasing Sherwood number with particle diameter. This
implies that the proposed method can measure sublimation of thin coatings on high enough number
concentrations of aerosols, and the results are similar to pure conduction transport theory,
indicating that the process is slow enough and the mass transfer is mainly by conduction.
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7
Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge Jacob Karni and Yinon Rudich for their priceless advice and
support, walking me through the last year and a half of research and education. Yinon sent me to
learn first hand on the operation of the AMS, the main and most complicated measurement
apparatus, without which I would not have been able to conduct this research in the short time
frame I had. He followed my progress closely, making sure I know what I am after at each point.
After my first set of experiments I was perplexed by a clear difference between my results and
the theory. Jacob went with me through my experimental system step by step, trying to figure out
the error, and through his suggestions I found the mistake, and learned to take a pause, and try to
look at the problem from a different point of view. For that lesson I am deeply thankful.
I would also like to thank the Weizmann institute of science for supporting me with a generous
stipend allowing me to dedicate the last 2 years to my Ms.c. studies and research.
1 Introduction
1.1 Solar thermal energy The use of solar energy for the production of electricity and fuels is investigated in industry
and academy with the purpose of gradual replacement of non-renewable and polluting energy
sources. Solar energy can be utilized in various ways, among them the thermo-solar method, where
the sun’s radiation flux is concentrated and used to heat a fluid, which is either used to drive a
thermodynamic cycle, which in turn drives a generator and produces electricity (Kribus et al.
1998), or to facilitate a high temperature chemical reaction to produce fuel (Kogan, Kogan, and
Barak 2005; Epstein, Ehrensberger, and Yogev 2004). A highly efficient way to facilitate high
temperature chemical reactions using particle-laden flow exposed to high concentration of solar
flux was proposed and tested (Klein et al. 2007).
In this method, a volume of gas, seeded with black soot particles is entrained in a cylinder
and exposed to a high concentration of solar flux. The soot particles absorb the flux, heat up, and
transfer the heat to the gas by conduction primarily.
The experiment conducted by Klein et al. (2007) resulted in an exhaust gas stream with
about 200 K higher temperature then the projected values of their model. The most probable reason
for this is an under estimation of the conductive heat transfer from the soot particles, since the
theory used was based on spherical particles having equivalent surface area to that of the real soot
distribution. Thus a system for measuring the real heat transfer coefficient of soot particles, or any
particle ensemble, as a function of measurable particle morphology parameters such as the mobility
and aerodynamic diameters is desired.
8
1.2 Convective heat transfer
The process of particle to gas heat transfer is best described by the heat transfer equation
q '' = h·(Tp !Tg ) (1)
h W m2K!" #$ is a heat transfer coefficient, q '' W m2!" #$ is the heat flux per particle surface area,
Tp[K ] and Tg[K ] are the particle surface temperature and free stream gas temperature respectively.
The heat transfer coefficient relates the heat flux to the temperature difference, and is a function of
the particle morphology; fluid properties and heat transfer mechanism. The heat transfer coefficient
can be expressed in a dimensionless form, known as the Nusselt number, relating convective to
conductive heat transfer across the surface boundary -Nu = hLk
where L[m] is a typical length and
k[W /mK ] is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. There are various theoretical and empirical
correlations between the Nusselt number and other non-dimensional parameters of the process such
as the Reynolds, Grashof and Prandtl numbers (Bird, Warren, and LightFoot 2002) describing the
heat transfer of various configurations.
Klein et al. (2007) assumed that the relative velocity between each soot particle and the gas
stream is zero, and used the pure conduction result for spheres – Nusselt = 2 (Bird, Warren, and
LightFoot 2002) ,corrected for the Knudsen number. Since in many cases the particles dimension is
relatively close to the mean free path between the gas molecules ![m] , the heat transfer occurs in
the transition regime, between continuous transfer dynamics and the kinetic regime, 0.1< Kn <10 ,
as defined by the Knudsen number Kn = !L
. In this region the heat transfer coefficient, and
associated Nusselt number, are lower then the continuum solution. Several solutions for the effect
of the transition regime on the Nusselt number exist, all built upon the Fuchs boundary layer
approach (Filippov and Rosner 2000).
To simulate the heat transfer from the soot particles to the gas, Klein et al. (2007) utilized
the volume distribution of the soot particle batch used in their tests, as obtained from SEM images,
and assumed the Nusselt number relating to each volume segments diameter. The resulting
simulations underestimated the experiment by 200 K (~14%).
The main reason for this mismatch is assumed to be the heat transfer coefficient used. The
particles are not spheres, and consequently the equivalent volume approach was not accurate
enough, or may have missed a fundamental difference between the heat transfer from soot
agglomerate particles and an equivalent surface area of spheres. Even simpler, this could be the
result of the in ability to measure the exact surface area of a soot particle distribution by analyzing
2D SEM pictures.
9
1.3 The heat to mass transfer analogy
1.3.1 Heat and Mass Transfer in the Continuum Regime In the continuum regime there is a mathematical-physical equivalence between the energy
equation for convective heat transfer, and the species mass transfer equation.
The normalized energy equation is (Hong and Song 2007)
uo !To
!xo+vo !T
o
!yo+wo !T o
!zo= 1ReLPr
!2T o
!xo2 +
!2T o
!yo2 +
!2T o
!zo2
"
#$%
&' (2)
Where the Reynolds number is ReL =UL!
, the Prandtl number is Pr = !"
, ![m2 s] is the
kinematic viscosity, ![m2 s] is the thermal diffusivity, U[m s] is a typical velocity, uo,vo,wo are
normalized velocities in the normalized directions xo, yo, zo respectively, and T o is the normalized
temperature.
The normalized mass transfer equation is
uo !"o
!xo+vo !"
o
!yo+wo !" o
!zo= 1ReLSc
!2" o
!xo2 +
!2" o
!yo2 +
!2" o
!zo2
#
$%&
'( (3)
Where ! o is the normalized mass fraction of the transported species in the gas stream,
Sc = !Df
is the Schmidt number and Df [m2 s] is the diffusion coefficient of the species involved in
the gas stream. The analogues mass transfer equation to the integral form of the heat transfer
equation, (equation (1)), is
!m '' = hm ·(!p " !g ) (4)
Where !m ''[Kg s·m2 ] is the mass transfer per unit time and particle surface area; hm[m s] is the
mass transfer coefficient; !p[Kg /m3] and !g[Kg /m
3] are the vapor densities of the species being
transferred from the particle surface and away from the particles respectively. The mass transfer
coefficient is related to the non-dimensional Sherwood number Sh = hmLDf
in the same manner that
the heat transfer coefficient is related to the Nusselt number.
If the Prandtl and Schmidt numbers are the same (which is not common in most fluids),
then the Sherwood and Nusselt numbers also equal, for the same flow configuration and boundary
conditions. This allows a mass transfer experiment resulting in the Sherwood number to give the
Nusselt number by analogy (Hong and Song 2007). Because the Prandtl and Schmidt numbers are
not the same in practice, the following approximate relationship is used
10
Nu = Sh PrSc
!"#
$%&n
(5)
Where n is a fit parameter obtained empirically or by calculation according to the geometry and
temperature difference sign (heating or cooling) and is typically between 0.3-0.4 (Incropera and
Dewitt 1996; Bird, Warren, and LightFoot 2002).
Many expressions for the Nusselt number have been obtained from Sherwood number
experiments. For instance, in case of forced convection on a solid sphere
Sh = 2 + 0.6Re1 2 Sc1 3 (6)
And by analogy
Nu = 2 + 0.6Re1 2 Pr1 3 (7)
The analogy is valid if the following conditions are met:
1. Constant physical properties
2. Small net mass transfer rates
3. No chemical reactions
4. No viscous dissipation heating
5. No absorption or emission of radiant energy
6. No pressure diffusion, thermal diffusion, or forced diffusion
7. Similar boundary conditions
In the case of pure diffusion, or pure conduction, the Sherwood and Nusselt numbers are not
dependent on the working medium properties (Schmidt or Prandtl numbers) or on flow conditions
(Reynolds number). Therefore, the analogy is expected to be even simpler (further discussion on
the analogy for suspended aerosols in the transition regime is presented in section 4.6).
1.3.2 The dynamic transfer conditions
The objective of the current research is to develop a method for measuring the mass transfer
coefficient for nano-size soot and other aerosols, at atmospheric pressure. The measured mass
transfer coefficient can be used in conjunction with the heat to mass transfer analogy to give the
heat transfer coefficient, which is necessary for further development of the solar thermal seeded
particle reactor configuration (see section 2.1 on Solar thermal energy).
In the current research, all of the conditions stated in the previous section (top of p. 10)
were taken into consideration (see Chapter 4 – Experimental Apparatus and Test Results). The
main difference between the heat-mass transfer analogy as previously used and the current one is
the dynamic transfer conditions. Soot-particles diameter is typically around 200nm !10µm , which
corresponds to Knudsen numbers of 0.1-10. This is in the transition regime between the continuum
11
and free molecular regimes (Figure 1). The analogy is known and holds for the continuum regime,
but has not been tested for the transition or free molecular regime.
The heat and mass transfer equations for the free molecular regime are given by Lees
(1965) for instance, for the case of no net flow perpendicular to a surface
!qfm = ! 43
2kBmg"
#pgTg
$T$x[w m2 ] (8)
!mfm = ! 4
312"
#$g
pg
%p%x[Kg m2s] (9)
Where ![m] is the mean free path of the gas-particle system, defined as
! = 1 "No # + D2
$%&
'()2
where !"2
4[m2 ]is the effective gas molecule cross-section and D[m] is the
particle diameter, No[#/m3] is the particle number density, mg[Kg] is the gas molecule mass
(apparently, it is not specified in the article) and kB[m2Kg s2K ] the Boltzman constant.
Figure 1: Relevant models for describing transfer dynamics over different ranges of the Knudsen number (Fang
2003)
For spherical particles the expressions are similar, Filippov and Rosner (2000) give
!qfm =pgTg
! c
2kB"mg
# o +1# o $1
%&'
()*
(Tg $Tp ) [W m2 ] (10)
Where ! c is the energy accommodation coefficient (Burke and Hollenbach 1983), and ! o is the
average gas adiabatic constant (Filippov and Rosner 2000). Griffin and Loyalka (1994) give the
mass transfer to a spherical particle in the free molecular regime:
12
!mfm = Tg
8kB!mv
("g # "p ) [Kg m2s] (11)
Where mv[Kg] is the molecular mass of the gas phase molecule.
The driving force is similar in both heat and mass transfer expressions (Eq. (10) and (11),
respectively), the temperature difference being analogues to the partial pressure (or concentration)
difference, but there is no direct correspondence of transport properties coefficients. Instead, these
coefficients are related to the pressure, temperature and density of the gas, in different or even
opposite ways. The change of the transport properties in the continuum regime with pressure and
temperature is also not exactly similar, and this is taken into consideration through the n parameter
(Eq. (5)) relating the Schmidt and Prandtel numbers. In the transition regime however, the
deviation from the continuum model is similar for both heat and mass transfer, as can be seen in
Figure 2, reproducing results for the Nusselt number given by Klein et al. (2007), with Davies
results for the Sherwood number shown as well (Eq. (12)). The trend is the same for both non-
dimensional numbers, the deviation arising from the models themselves, as can be seen for the
large variation for the 4 Nusselt models shown. The Fuchs solution for instance, is the same for
both heat and mass transfer in the transition regime (Filippov and Rosner 2000). Analysis of the
heat and mass transfer analogy in the transition regime is provided in section 4.6.
Figure 2: Sherwood and Nusselt number prediction for the transition regime compared. Nusselt plot reproduced from Klein et al. 2007. Only new addition is the Sherwood number theory by Davies given according to Eq. (12). The Fuchs model (black dashed curve) applies to both mass (Sh) and heat (Nu) transfer as indicated in the figure.
13
1.3.3 The transition regime
The experiments presented in Chapter 3.2 were conducted in the transition regime;
0.2 < Kn < 0.7 where the dynamics are best described as a combination of a continuum and free
molecular dynamics, such as the Fuchs 2-layer approach (Filippov and Rosner 2000): The theory is
based on a boundary layer approach. Since there is no general analytical solution of the Boltzmann
equation describing gas behavior in the intermediate regime of moderate Knudsen numbers, an
interpolation formula is used which is based on the separation of the space outside the particle
surface into two parts: Close enough to the surface of the particle (the boundary layer), the
conditions are assumed to be collision-less – no collisions between gas molecules, only gas-aerosol
interactions are assumed. The boundary layer thickness is typically set to be the same as the gas
mean free path. Outside of the boundary layer, the conditions are described by the continuum
dynamics. A consistent solution is found for both regimes by ascribing the same heat (or mass)
transfer rate at the boundary.
Different interpolation formulas exist for mass transfer in the transition regime, as discussed
above. Our results are compared to the derivation of Davies (1978) from ((Hinds 1999) p. 288):
ShKn = 2·!(Kn) = 2·2" + D
D + 5.33("2 D)+ 3.42" (12)
Where !(Kn) is referred to as the Knudsen correction. Multiplying the Knudsen correction by 2,
gives the pure diffusion result for Re = 0 (as also predicted by equation (6)). The mean free path is
calculated according to ! = kT"d 2N2 p 2
[m] where p[pa] is the pressure. In the limiting cases of
molecular and continuum regimes, the Sherwood number values are therefore 45.33
· 1Kn
& 2,
respectively.
Although this derivation is for the case of a light molecule evaporating through a bath gas made out
of heavier molecules, which is not our case, using more apparently appropriate derivation, such as
Sitarski and Nowakowski (1979) (see Davis 1983) gives very similar results, and so we settled for
this simpler derivation.
2 Research Objectives The research objectives are:
• Development of an experimental method to measure the evaporative mass transfer from
nano aerosol particles in the transition regime
• Use the analogy between heat and mass transfer to relate the mass transfer coefficient to
the heat transfer coefficient (Eq. (5)).
14
An important additional objective is the validation of the proposed method – using spherical
particles suspended in nitrogen – by experimentally obtaining the theoretically predicted rate of
mass transfer, corresponding to each particles size, in the transition regime.
3 Experimental Apparatus and Test Results
3.1 Experimental system A system was designed and built to measure the mass transfer rate from aerosol particles. It is
composed of the following components (Figure 3: Experimental system diagram):
1. Aerosol Generation:
Create a suspension of monodisperse aerosol – polystyrene latex (PSL) spheres – in
nitrogen at atmospheric pressure.
2. Coating of Aerosol with a thin layer of a high vapor pressure material – Benzo(a)pyrene
(BaP)
3. Evaporation step: Allows the aerosols to flow through one of two paths:
a. A thermal denuder (TD) with precisely controlled temperature and flow rate.
b. Bypass at room temperature
4. Measurement of aerosol mass and composition: the aerosol flow is split into a measuring
system consisting of a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS), Aerodyne high-resolution
aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS), and a condensation particle counter (CPC).
The flow is continuously split into these three measurement devices, and measurements are
acquired (>10 Hz), averaged and saved on intervals of 1 second (CPC), 0.5 minute (AMS)
and 1 minute (SMPS). All instruments are controlled through a PC computer. These
instruments are discussed in more detail in section 3.1.5.1
15
Figure 3: Experimental system diagram
PSL: polystyrene latex, DMA: differential mobility analyzer
HR-AMS: high resolution aerosol mass spectrometer, CPC: condensation particle counter
SMPS: scanning mobility particle sizer (combination of CPC and DMA)
16
3.1.1 Aerosol generation
A standard atomizer (TSI 3076) was used to atomize a solution of nanopure water and
polystyrene latex (PSL) spheres. A magnetic stirrer was used to ensure homogenous suspension.
The suspended aerosols subsequently flow through a silica gel diffusion dryer, followed by a 85Kr
radioactive source that creates a symmetrical Boltzman charge distribution. In all of the
experiments the particles’ number concentration increased gradually from about 500[#/cc] to about
800[#/cc] (example for 300 nm PSL spheres), due to increased solution concentration caused by
evaporation of water from the solution. The dried and charged aerosols then passed through the
electrostatic classifier (differential mobility analyzer, DMA), set at the PSL spheres nominal
diameter, to remove all other particles, except the PSL-sphere aerosols with the designated
diameter.
3.1.2 Coating with High Vapor Pressure Material (Benzo(a)pyrene)
Figure 4: Coating process schematics
The nearly mono-disperse PSL aerosol (Duke scientific corp., normally D±1-3%) is injected
into an oven containing a batch of the organic material (Figure 4), in which a type T thermocouple
is attached and used to control an electrical heating tape surrounding the glass oven. The glass
vessel has a central input tube, which impinges the aerosols towards the bottom, and an annular
exit. The suspended aerosols typically stay in the oven for 1-7.5 seconds. Another outlet allows for
the insertion of a thermocouple.
The coating materials used is the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) benzo[a]pyrene
(BaP). A PAH was chosen for three reasons:
1. Stable materials, which do not react with PSL or any other material in the system.
17
2. High molecular mass. The HR-AMS fragmentation pattern of BaP has its major peak well
above the 104 m/z (ion mass over charge) peak associated with PSL (see Figure 8)
allowing for simple mass calibration of the main fragment peak and the real coating mass.
3. Vapor pressures are low enough to have very small evaporation rate at room temperature,
but high enough to enable measurements at not too high oven temperatures (oven
temperatures were 80-160 Co )
The coating material chosen for this research is Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) (see Table 1). There are
tabulated physical-chemical data for this material at the relevant temperature and pressure ranges of
this research, except for the binary diffusion coefficients in nitrogen or air. Values of these
coefficients do not exist for any PAH of relevance to this study, and it was calculated according to
the Chapman-Enskog relationship (see appendix B) according to the LJ parameters (see Table 1).
The residence time in the coating oven was controlled by an additional N2 flow.
Table 1.A Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) physical properties
Formula Molecular weight Mcoat[g /mol]
Bulk density !coat[g / cc]
Surface tension ! coat[dyne / cm]
Melting point [oC]
C20H12 252.3093 1.286 64.7 179
Source: (chemspider.com) Table 1.B Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) Lennard-Jones parameters
" (!)
!
kb[K ]
7.66 918.15
Source: Using PAH derived fit
!
kb= 37.15·Mw0.58
and
! = 1.234·Mw0.33
from (Wang and
Frenklach 1994) Table 1.C Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) vapor pressure parameters
Expression A B
P = 101325·10B! A
T [Pa] 6181±32 9.601±0.083
Source: (John James Murray, Roswell Francis Pottie, and Pupp 1974)
3.1.3 Controlled evaporation
Either controlled coating or controlled evaporation of the particles, driven by a vapor pressure
gradient, could have achieved the goals of this investigation. The choice of controlled evaporation
is a natural one, since creating a known vapor pressure difference is much simpler when far away
from the particle the desired partial vapor pressure is zero, rather than a finite number. Activated
18
charcoal (Aldrich, granules, 4-14 mesh) is used to absorb BaP vapor and create a zero vapor
pressure environment immediately after the oven section.
3.1.3.1 Increase of coating material (BaP) ambient vapor pressure Concern related to this experimental design was that the denuded BaP coating might,
a. Change the coating vapor pressure in the vessel’s ambience (which starts as zero)
b. Condense back on the particles as they cool down between the oven and the denuder
The following approach was taken to deal with these issues:
a. The initial vapor pressure of the coating material in the surrounding ambience is zero. The
vapor pressure of the BaP coating in the ambience, after denuding an L[m] layer from a
D + L diameter sphere is calculated according to:
!coat"ambient = !coat ·Vfrac[
Kgm3 ];Vfrac = N
#6
((D + $D)3 " D3) !1 (13)
Where N[# m3] is the particle number concentration, !coat[Kg m3] is the coating material
bulk density, !D[m] is the evaporated coating thickness, and Vfrac is the volume fraction of
aerosol coating in a unit volume and is smaller then 1, so that the resulting
!coat"ambient ! !coat . Thus, !coat"ambient is the resulting coating material vapor concentration in
the end of the tube after all the coating (!D[m] ) evaporated. Eq. (13) holds whenever L is
smaller that the initial coating layer.
The surface vapor density is calculated according to the vapor pressure correlation listed in
Table 1 ( ps[Pa]), and corrected according to Kelvin Law (to give pd[Pa])
ps = 101325·10B!
ATp [Pa], pd = ps ·e
4" coatMcoat#coat R·Tp ·D [Pa] (14)
Where A & B are taken from Table 1,Mcoat is the molecular mass, R is the gas constant,
Tp[K ] is the coating (particle surface) temperature and ! coat[N /m] is the coating surface
tension.
Finally, according to the ideal gas law –
!coat"vapor = Mcoat ·pdR·Tp
Kgm3
#$%
&'(
(15)
Where !coat-vapor is the vapor density of the evaporated coating, and pd is the vapor pressure
of the evaporating layer corrected for the Kelvin effect.
Figure 5 shows the relation between Equations(13) and (15). The black lines are !coat"ambient
for two limiting cases, of 20 nm coating completely denuded, with BaP as the coating
material, and the color indicates log(!coat"vapor ) and is shown for different temperatures, and
19
particle diameters. The particle diameter influences the vapor pressure through the Kelvin
effect, which, as can be seen, is not large for these diameters.
A temperature of at least 75 oC is needed for the two limiting cases to get a one order of
magnitude difference between the surface vapor pressure and the ambient vapor pressure of
BaP at the end of the Thermal Denuder (TD) oven, which ensures that the difference
between vapor densities will be larger then one order of magnitude in the interior of the
oven. Under these conditions the assumption !coat"ambient # 0 is valid.
b. According to Huffman et al. (2008), who designed and built a fast stepping thermo-denuder
for the measurement of ambient aerosols in conjunction with the Aerosol Mass
Spectrometer (AMS) measurements, and dealt with a similar issue, the condensation of the
coating material vapor on the particle is not a problem. In their configuration the denuder
follows the oven section without any overlap, and the denuder section starts only when the
temperature drops below 10% above the room temperature. During our experiments no back
condensation was detected in cases where only part of the BaP coating evaporated.
3.1.3.2 Initial design The initial design of the Thermal Denuder (TD) oven, and the activated charcoal tube length
were done according to Huffman et al. (2008), Jonsson, Hallquist, and Saathoff (2007) and Orsini
et al. (1999). The general dimensions of activated charcoal section, and oven diameter, length and
resident times where referenced from Orsini et al. (1999) and Jonsson et al. (2007), and the
possibility of separating the oven (evaporation) and the activated charcoal (absorption of
evaporated coating) was verified by all three papers. The following describes the initial design
verification. A description of the final TD is given in section 3.1.3.
For verifying the flow rates and oven length, the evaporation rate for the initial design diameter
(4.3 mm) was calculated for the aerosols of interest and various oven lengths and flow rates. Klein
et al. (2007) found that in their solar reactor, the most effective soot agglomerates for radiation
absorption and conductive heat transfer to the gas were in the size range of 200 < D < 2000[nm] .
The aerodyne HR-AMS used in the present study (described briefly described briefly in section
3.1.4; for a full description see DeCarlo et al. (2006)) can measure only particles in the size range
of 50 < D < 750[nm] . Therefore the particles tested in the present study were in the size range of
200 < D < 500[nm] .
20
Figure 5: Maximum BaP coating vapor density build up in the Thermal Denuder. The Y axis is the diameter of
the denuded particle, showing the negligible effect of the Kelvin effect on the vapor density for particles of 200-
500 nm diameter. The X axis is the temperature of the oven, and the color is negative orders of magnitude
( log(!)[log(Kg /m3)] ) of saturation vapor density of the coating material (BaP). The black line shows the
developed vapor density for the complete evaporation of the coating for two limiting cases as discussed in the
text, and the dashed rectangle shows the experimental conditions, of nominal TD temperature and particle
diameter.
The evaporation rate was calculated by solving the continuum-based differential diffusion
equation (16), including the Fuchs correction for the transition regime (Hinds 1999). The Kn
number equals 0.2-0.7 for particles in the range of 200-500 nm, in nitrogen flow at 1 bar pressure,
at temperatures of 100-200 oC .
dDdt
= - 4DfTp ·Mcoat
!coatR·Td ·D·pd ·"(Kn) for Kn #1
"= 2$+D
D+5.33$2
D+3.42$
(16)
Where ! = kT
2p"!dN22 m[ ] is the mean free path, Kn =
D!
is the Knudsen number, ! is the Fuchs
slip correction and Df is the binary diffusion coefficient, estimated by the Chapman Enskog theory
(See Appendix B). Tp is the particle surface temperature, assumed to be equal to the average
surrounding temperature at a given flow-wise oven cross section, and Td is the aerosol surface
temperature after the latent heat release due to the evaporation process, according to
Td =T! +DABMHpdRkvTd
(17)
21
Where H is the latent heat of evaporation and kv is the nitrogen thermal conductivity. It was
assumed that the rate of evaporation during the experiments is slow enough for Td ! Tp . This
assumption was validated by calculating Eq. (16) for the temperature ranges used in the
experiments (100-200 oC ). The resulting difference between Td and Tp was less then 10!4[K ]
indicating this assumption is valid.
The initial design of the TD system was based on the following assumptions:
1. 100% Nitrogen flow
2. Constant temperature profile in the Thermal Denuder
3. Average flow rate used to calculate resident time
4. The times of temperature increase and decrease near the oven inlet and outlet, respectively,
is negligible in comparison to the residence time in the oven.
5. The partial pressure of the coating material far away from the particle surface is zero (this
assumption has been used throughout the prior analysis (see p. (18)), and validated above
(See discussion following Eq. (16)).
An oven tube inner diameter of 4.3 mm was chosen, based on prior designs (Orsini et al. 1999).
A flow rate range of 100-400 cm3 min-1 was used, according to the flow rate requirements of the
other instruments attached (AMS, DMA) and the particle concentration number needed. The
solution of equation (17) for PSL spheres of 200 nm coated with 10 nm of Coronene (the initial
choice for the coating material), at a temperature range of 100-180 oC showed that a residence time
between 1-5 seconds is appropriate, and translates to an oven length of 60 cm according to
t = !R2ovenLovenQ
where Roven is the oven inner diameter and Q[m3 s] is the volumetric flow rate.
3.1.3.3 Final Design 3 different TDs were built. The two earlier designs used heating coils in one and two separately
controlled sections, respectively. The 3rd and final design used a silicon oil heat bath circulating
around the aerosol tube, which yielded the most uniform temperature distribution along the oven.
22
Figure 6: Final Thermal Denuder (TD) design. The T’s are thermocouple locations. Flow direction is from left to
right, as indicated by the black arrows. Activated charcoal was used downstream of the oven section, for
absorbing the evaporated coating and preventing re-adsorption to the particles.
Gas flow (Q) is measured before the oven with a differential pressure transducer. 9 type-T
thermocouples (TC) are attached to the outer side of the flow tube (T0 - T8), in the circulating oil
bath volume, and measure the temperature along the 60 cm oven length. Another TC is located
between the oven and the activated charcoal (T9 in Figure 6). A circulation of flow was maintained
in the TD, running through a HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter, when the aerosol-laden
flow was diverted to the bypass. This was used to insure that no residue-coating vapor remained in
the TD.
3.1.4 Measurement
The coated aerosols were measured with a combination of instruments. The main flow was
split iso-kineticly (maintaining the same direction and magnitude of flow velocity across the split
cross-section) to 3 streams, flowing into the Aerodyne high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometer
(AMS), condensation particle counter (CPC) and the scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS).
The coating’s mass and the aerosols’ aerodynamic diameter were measured with a high
resolution AMS, thoroughly described by DeCarlo et al. (2006). Briefly, The AMS samples 85
[cm3 min-1] of gas through a critical orifice, followed by an aerodynamic lens, which focuses the
aerosols into a tight beam. The aerosols expand out of the outlet into a vacuum of 10!4[Pa] where
the beams encounter a chopper – a rotating disk with two opposite thin slits – positioned by a servo
in one of three options – open, closed or chopped. In the open mode the aerosol beam does not
impact the chopper, in the closed mode the aerosol beam is completely blocked by the chopper, and
in the chopped mode the aerosols are focused onto the slit in the rotating chopper, and pass through
a close/open cycle at the rate of ~120 Hz. After passing through the chopper the aerosol beam
impacts a cup-shaped tungsten oven at 600-900°C, named the vaporizer, which flash-vaporizes the
23
aerosols. The resulting vapor is ionized by electron impact at 70 eV. The resulting ions are
extracted into a time of flight (TOF) high-resolution time of flight mass spectrometer (TofWerk).
The AMS is operating in one of two modes – the average mass mode, in which the open and
closed positions of the chopper are used. The open mode measures the average mass spectrum of
the aerosol and gas stream, while the closed position measurement reflects the gas background
only. The subtraction of the “closed” mass spectrum from the “open” one gives the average aerosol
mass spectrum mm /z[µg m3] . In the second mode, the chopper stays in the chopped position. The
chopper is used as the starting signal for a particle time of flight measurement through the 39.5 cm
section following the chopper, and the mass measurement signal is the final measurement thus
giving a measurement of the vacuum aerodynamic time of flight related to each mass spectrum,
which allows to calculate the vacuum aerodynamic diameter dva[nm] .
The AMS detection limit in V-mode (the path of the ions. see DeCarlo et al. (2006)) is
estimated as s < 0.04[µg m3] . Combined with the bulk density of BaP this gives the estimated
minimal denuded coating thickness detected by the AMS:
Lmin =6s
N!coat"+ D3#
$%&'(
13) D[nm] (18)
Where s is the detection limit, D is the core PSL diameter, !coat is the BaP bulk density (BaP was
the chosen material for all experiments shown here. For the initial design, coronene was used as
well, and so it appears in previous calculations),N[#/ m3 ] is the aerosol number density, and
Lmin is the minimum detectable BaP layer thickness.
Figure 7 shows a plot of Eq. (18), for relevant core diameters and number concentrations.
As can be seen, the AMS can detect nanometer size coatings, which are small enough to have a
negligible affect the morphology of non-spherical aerosols with a characteristic length bigger then
~30 nm.
24
Figure 7: Minimal denuded layer thickness vs. number concentration, for AMS sensitivity of 0.04 µg / m 3 and
BaP as the coating material.
Figure 8: HR-AMS mass fragments for BaP coating on PSL
300 m/z (mass over charge) intensity was used to calculate the mass of the coronene
coating, and 252 m/z was used for the BaP coating (Figure 8). These were based on SMPS, CPC
and differential mobility analyzer (DMA) combination as will be described in the experimental
section 3.1.5.1 below.
In addition, the vacuum aerodynamic diameter measurement (from the AMS) was used to
assess the sphericity of the coating (see section 3.2.1).
The CPC measures particle number concentration N = [# cm3] , combined with the AMS
measurement of the mass loading of the coating material main fragment m/z m252bypass[µg /m3] gives
the coating mass for each aerosol (Eq. (20)).
25
The SMPS measures the mobility diameter distribution of the aerosols, by combining a CPC and a
DMA. The DMA’s voltage is scanned between low and high voltages, set according to the desired
size range, and the CPC counts the number concentration for each voltage. The result can be
inverted to give a mobility diameter distribution (for more detailed description see Rader and
McMurry (1986)).
3.1.5 Experimental Procedure This section gives a step-by-step description of a typical experiment:
3.1.5.1 Data collection Different sizes of PSL spheres (200-400 nm diameter) were coated and denuded, in
different oven temperature fields (75<T<130 oC ) and flow rates (80<Q<1400 cm!3·min!1 ). Each
experiment consisted of 3 stages – bypass (un-denuded particles), oven (denuded particles) and
bypass again. A typical experiment’s raw data is presented in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Typical raw data for measurement of BaP evaporation from PSL spheres. In this measurement 300
nm diameter PSL spheres where coated by 25 nm thick BaP, in a 80 oC oven and a flow rate of 120 cc·min!1
Dm[nm] is the peak of a Gaussian fit around the mode of the monodisperse aerosol mobility
diameter distribution measured by the SMPS (the mode diameter is the diameter corresponding to
the highest particle number concentration). Dm!bypass[nm] is the average of Dm[nm] in the bypass
section, and Dm!TD[nm] is the average in the TD section.
26
Dm!core[nm] was obtained by measuring the size distributions of the core particles of each PSL
sphere diameter used in the tests.
In addition to these measurements, a correlation was established between the sidewall
temperature measurements of the oven and the temperature at the center of the oven cross section at
each point along the oven’s tube.
3.1.5.2 Measurement of the side-center temperature correlation matrix The oven temperature distribution, Twall (x j ,t) , which is also referred to as Tj (t) , is
continuously measured by thermocouples connected to the outer side of the oven’s tube, evenly
spaced along its axis (Figure 6). This measurement is calibrated against a separated experiment,
where a stiff, thin (1.6 mm diameter) type T thermocouple probe is moved along the oven axis,
measuring the temperatures Tcenter (xi ,t) – also referred to as Ti (t) – at the center-line of the oven
cross section, while the side-wall temperature is also measured. As shown in Figure 9, a small
triangular Teflon holder, with holes at each side, holds the thermocouple probe, allowing the flow
to pass while maintaining the TC tip at the middle of the cross section.
Figure 10: TC probe configuration
The correlation between the center temperature and the wall temperature at close locations
is obtained and averaged over time. A calibration matrix ai, j is then calculated such that
ai, j ·Tj = Ti . Since x j points are fewer then xi points, the sparse wall temperature measurements,
which are the only temperature measurements taken during the aerosol denuding experiment, are
each related to a large oven length interval by the last expression.
The 3 closest j points are used with each i point to calculate ai, j according to the following
relations:
ai0 , j0= 1!Ti0Tj0
,ai0 , j0 "1 = ai0 , j0 +1 =Ti0 1" 1
!#$%
&'(
Tj0 "1 "Tj0 +1
where 1) ! ) 2 (19)
27
For the end points ai0, j0 =Ti0Tj0
. All other ai0, j in the row are set to 0. This equation is the result of
satisfying ai, j ·Tj = Ti with the closest 3 points.
A typical calibration matrix is shown in Table 2, for the temperature profile shown at the
lower part of Figure 11, obtained for 50 mm steps of the probe along the oven center-line (shown in
Figure 12). The steadiness of the oven temperature can be appreciated from this measurement
(Figure 12). The I parameter (see Equation 23) is the vapor density of BaP, multiplied by its
diffusion coefficient of BaP in nitrogen.
Table 2: Side-center temperature correlation matrix ai, j =TiTj
j0 j1 j2 j3 j4 j5 j6 j7 j8
i0 0.2690 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
i1 0.4700 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
i2 0.2320 0.4530 0.2320 0 0 0 0 0 0
i3 0.2520 0.4940 0.2520 0 0 0 0 0 0
i4 0 0.2490 0.4980 0.2491 0 0 0 0 0
i5 0 0 0.2490 0.4980 0.2492 0 0 0 0
i6 0 0 0.2490 0.4980 0.2493 0 0 0 0
i7 0 0 0 0.2492 0.4989 0.2492 0 0 0
i8 0 0 0 0 0.2493 0.4982 0.2493 0 0
i9 0 0 0 0 0.2492 0.4980 0.2492 0 0
i10 0 0 0 0 0 0.2492 0.4983 0.2492 0
i11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2539 0.4984 0.2539
i12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2542 0.4986 0.2542
i13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0351
i14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.9770
i15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.8000
i16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5925
i17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5430
28
Figure 11: Top: temperature scan for fast flow rate of 1400[cm!3 ·min!1 ] and nominal oven temperature of
115°C. The “center of cross section evaporation driving force” is the evaporation driving force (equation (24))
calculated according to the center of cross section temperature profile along the oven (in red)
Bottom: Typical oven temperature profile for I (see Eq. (24)) at flow rate of 400[cm!3 ·min!1 ] and nominal oven
temperature of 85°C
Figure 12: Calibrating the side thermocouples (T0-T8) versus a central probe (T9)
The top of Figure 11 shows the temperature profile during fast flow (Q=1400 cm!3·min!1 ) through
the oven. The temperature increase is slower than for 400 cm3 min-1, as expected, and the
evaporation driving force increase is even slower then the temperature increase. Most of the
experiments where conducted in flow rates lower than 700 cm3 min-1, where the flow pattern is
almost as flat as that shown in the lower part of Figure 11. The flow pattern was measured for
several flow rates, and then used to calculate the correlation matrix for these flow rates. The
temperature profile was linearly interpolated for all other flow rates in between.
29
3.1.5.3 Data analysis procedure 1. Defining a “mass calibration ratio” RM : The AMS does not have a 100% collection
efficiency due to bouncing of particles from the hot place without evaporation.
Additionally, only the main fragment was used to calculate the mass of the coating material.
To provide a real mass determination by AMS, a “mass calibration ratio” is defined. The
mobility diameter of coated particles is calculated by fitting the SMPS distribution to a
Gaussian curve around the coarser mode as measured by the SMPS (See Figure 13 in
section 3.2.1). Using this diameter and the known coating mass density, the calibration ratio
RM is calculated between the AMS’s BaP main fragment peak mass (see Figure 8) and the
mass calculated using the SMPS diameter (Eq. (21)):
MAMSbypass = m252
bypass
N bypass1
1003[µg] (20)
MSMPSbypass = !
6(Dm"bypass
3 " Dm"core3 )·#coat ·10
"18[µg] (21)
RMbypass = MSMPS
bypass
MAMSbypass (22)
This value changed with the coating thickness (For the same core particle diameter).
Changing the coating thickness changed the calibration ratio, possibly due to different
bouncing probabilities in the AMS vaporizer (Matthew, Middlebrook, and Onasch 2008).
This is further discussed in section 4.2.2. Also, a slight drift was noticed in this ratio during
experiments, perhaps due to contamination of the vaporizer. Bypassing the oven before and
after TD experiments allows calculation of RM for the segments immediately before, and
immediately after the oven. It was then possible to interpolate RM linearly and obtain a more
accurate RM for each evaporation measurement in the oven.
2. Calculating the mass loss: The mass loss in the oven is calculated for each data point, as
!mAMS"SMPS = MSMPSbypass " RMMAMS
TD (23)
Where MAMSTD is calculated according to Eq.(20). The effect of a thin layer on the mobility
diameter of non-spherical particles is not necessarily linear. Therefore, using the SMPS to
calculate the mass will provide correct results for spherical particles only. The SMPS is
used primarily for calibration of the coating mass, and for checking the sphericity of the
coating before and after the evaporation stage, by comparing it to the aerodynamic diameter
as measured with the AMS (see Results section, page 31). A different approach must be
30
used to calculate RM in measurements of non-spherical particles. This is further discussed
in section 4.7.
Finally, Eq. (22) and (23) can be written in a more compact form, assuming that
RM = RbypassM : !mAMS"SMPS = MSMPS
bypass · 1" MAMSTD
MAMSbypass
#$%
&'(
3. Flow velocity correction: The flow velocity measurement is corrected for nitrogen density
decrease due to temperature increase in the oven and constant pressure (conservation of
mass), according to Ui =Uref ·!ref!(Ti )
where !ref is calculated at room temperature.
4. Evaporation driving force: The integrated evaporation driving force I[Kg m] defined
below is calculated and integrated for each data point -
I = !satDf dt[Kg /m]0
t f
" (24)
Where Df is the diffusion coefficient (for further details see Appendix B), and t f is the time
from at least 1% increase in ambient vapor pressure of the coating material until the vapor
pressure returns to at least 1% above the ambient vapor pressure (see Figure 11). 1% was
chosen as a low enough value so the error will be negligible. The use of this integral term in
calculating the Sherwood number is based on a simple derivation shown in Appendix B.
5. Deriving the Sherwood number: !m is measured for the same particle at different
evaporation driving forces, by either increasing oven resident time, or the temperature. A fit
line is calculated on a !m vs. I plot, and the Sherwood number is calculated as the best fit
of
Sh = 1!D
"m # m0
I (25)
Where m0 is the residue mass, obtained by the linear orthogonal distance least square fit.
This method is based on the relationship between the mass transfer coefficient and the Sherwood
number, as derived in Appendix A. m0 accounts a measurement bias Eq. (23) or (26)
Mass loss can alternatively be calculated for spherical particles with the SMPS
measurement alone, according to
!mSMPS ="6(Dm#bypass
3 # Dm#TD3 )·$coat ·10
#18[µg] (26)
And the Sherwood number is calculated in the same manner (Eq. (25)).
In all experiments where an SMPS was used along side the AMS and CPC (as illustrated in
Figure 3), !mAMS"SMPS and the resulting Sherwood numbers are shown as well as !mSMPS and the
31
resulting Sherwood numbers (see Figure 17, Figure 18 and Figure 19). In initial experiments the
second DMA was used to size-select coated aerosols to a specific size. No SMPS scans were done
for the evaporated particles.
!mSMPS cannot be used for non-spherical particles and is only used here as an independent
comparison for the mass loss. For non spherical particles !mAMS"SMPS will also have to be calculated
in a different manner, this is discussed in section 4.7.
3.2 Results The main objective of the study is to evaluate the influence of different temperatures and
residence times in the thermal denuder (TD) on the evaporation rate of a coating material for
different PSL particle sizes.
We defined a normalized-driving-force-integral in which both the temperature profile and
the residence time are taken into account: I = I ·!D[Kg] (Eq. (25), Further discussion in appendix
A). Since the entire oven temperature profile is taken into account through the integration (Eq. (24)
), different temperatures and different residence times can both be shown on a normalized driving
force scale ((see Figure 17, Figure 18 and Figure 19)). An adequate unit for designating the coating
mass of a single aerosol and normalized driving force is 109µg , since the mass of typical single
aerosol coating is 10-15 to 10-14 gr.
The pressure of the nitrogen in which the particles are suspended is 1 Bar (the system is
open to the atmosphere) in all the measurements presented here.
3.2.1 Mobility and vacuum aerodynamic distributions A typical mobility and vacuum aerodynamic distributions, measured by the SMPS and
AMS respectively are shown in Figure 13. The right column is based on the 104 m/z peak, which is
the main fragment peak for the PSL particles. The same distribution can be seen in the BaP main
peak, m/z 252 (see Figure 8), but the error is larger, especially for the evaporated particles, due to
the lower amount of material. This is shown for one example measurement in Figure 14.
32
Figure 13: Particle size distribution for different extents of evaporation.
Typical SMPS mobility diameter distribution (left column) and AMS-PToF aerodynamic vacuum diameter
distribution (right column) measurement for evaporation of BaP coated PSL particles. As indicated by the gradual
decrease of Dm and Dva of the particles flown through the TD, the extent of evaporation increased from 1 to 6, with
a1 and b1 showing the same evaporated particle ensemble, a1 is the mobility diameter distribution, and b1 is the
vacuum aerodynamic distribution. A Gaussian fit is used to calculate a higher resolution mode (diameter
corresponding to maximum particle counts) diameter. Core particles are 300 nm diameter PSL spheres, coated by
40-50 nm BaP, Oven average temperature = 85-130 oC Flow rate = 400-1400 cc/min. The shape factor (Figure 16)
was calculated according to these measurements.
33
Figure 14: comparison of vacuum aerodynamic diameter distribution for 104 m/z (PSL peak) and 252 m/z (BaP
peak) for 300 nm PSL spheres coated with 50 nm thick BaP. Oven average temperature = 115 oC Flow rate = 700
cc/min.
The distribution is nearly monodisperse. A normal Gaussian fit around 4-8 point
surrounding the SMPS mode and 8-16 points surrounding the m/z 104 PToF mode was used to
calculate the more refined mode diameter for all shape factor calculations.
3.2.2 SMPS measured and AMS mass based final diameter and shape factor
Figure 15 shows the initial aerosol diameter (peak of Gaussian fit around the mode
diameter, shown in Figure 13) as measured by SMPS, for a typical experiment. The Figure shows
34
the SMPS measured diameter after evaporation in the TD, and the AMS based diameter, calculated
according to a mass balance
DAMS = Dcore + RMMAMS6
!"coat
#$%
&'(
13 (27)
There is a close agreement between the two.
The difference in sphericity can be calculated by comparing the aerodynamic vacuum
mode diameter and mobility mode diameter. This yields the “Jayne shape factor” (DeCarlo et al.
2004) S = Dva
Dm
!0!p
where !0[Kg /m3] , which is a normalization factor – in the same units as the
particles density which is calculated according to the combined mass of the PSL core, and BaP
coating, divided by the volume of the coated sphere. The relation between the Jayne shape factor
and the dynamic shape factor can be explained by looking at two limiting cases – the continuum
limit S ! 1" 2 and the kinetic limit S ! 1
" 3 2 , assuming the particle has no internal voids (DeCarlo et
al. 2004). The different shape factors are displayed in Figure 16, for a thick initial coating (50 nm)
of BaP, and thin initial coating of BaP (5 nm), on 300 nm diameter PSL spheres, For a spherical
particle the Jayne shape factor = 1, and for semi-spherical it is !1. The dynamic shape factor
approached 1 from above as the particle becomes more spherical. In all the experiments the Jayne
shape factor was above 0.8, and converged towards 1 with the evaporation. This behavior is
expected, since the evaporation tends to make particles more spherical: The vapor density
difference, which is the driving force for evaporation, diminishes at a point inside a “valley” on the
surface of a coated particle, and so the “hills” tend to evaporate faster then the “valleys” leading to
a more spherical particle as the evaporation time increases. The initial coating is therefore mildly
non spherical, and becomes more spherical as the particle outer surface evaporates (annealing).
Further discussion of coating and partial coating effect on evaporation rate is given below in
section 5.2.1.
The Jayne shape factor measured with thick coatings (Figure 14(a)) after most of the
coating evaporated (coating thickness = 10 nm) is higher than one, which is unphysical (DeCarlo et
al. 2004). This is in the range of error of the mobility and vacuum aerodynamic diameter, and
therefore associated with measurement error.
35
Figure 15: Change in coating thickness due to evaporation. PSL spheres of 300 nm diameter, coated by 40-50 nm
BaP, Oven average temperature = 85-130 oC Flow rate = 400-1400 cc/min.
Figure 16: Shape factor versus coating thickness for (a) 50 nm BaP coating (from distributions shown in Figure 13) and (b) 5 nm BaP coating, both on 300 nm PSL sphere. Oven average temperature = 85-130 oC Flow rate = 400-1400 cc/min.
36
3.2.3 Effects of Residence time
Figure 17 - Figure 19 show the effect of residence time on the evaporation. In this
configuration the oven nominal temperature is held constant, while changing the residence time in
the oven by changing the gas flow velocity. Two trends are observed in Figure 18 (a) and Figure 19
(b): A linear trend, following Eq. (25), and a decaying trend, caused by the lower vapor density of
an incomplete coating, remaining over the particles when the evaporation period is too long. The
flow rates during the experiments were normally set to avoid this decaying trend, and make sure
only part of the coating is evaporated.
Sbypass STD N Rbypass
M
Minimum 0.796 0.815 260 1.76
Average 0.806 0.877 725 1.98
Maximum 0.816 0.936 1600 2.24
Figure 17: Effect of residence time. 200 nm PSL sphere, 15 nm thick BaP coating. TD flow rate sweep 350-780
cc/min at 85o (upper red fit line), TD flow rate sweep 200-450 cc/min at 80o (lower red fit line). Associated table
displays minimum, maximum and average values for the Jayne shape factor (see page 33) of the coated particles
Sbypass , evaporated particles STD , number concentration N[#/ cc] and calibration ratio RbypassM
37
(a) (c)
Sbypass STD N RbypassM Sbypass STD N Rbypass
M
Minimum 0.805 0.88 260 1.6 - - 200 2.2
Average 0.81 0.92 310 2.1 - - 430 2.8
Maximum 0.815 0.94 360 2.7 - - 660 3.6
Figure 18: Effect of residence time. 300 nm PSL sphere (a) 25-30 nm BaP coating, TD flow rate sweep 80-260
cc/min at 85o (b) 20 nm BaP coating, size selected by second DMA, TD flow sweep 380-1240 cc/min at 85o
(a) (b) (c)
Sbypass STD N RbypassM Sbypass STD N Rbypass
M Sbypass STD N RbypassM
Minimum 0.85 0.91 200 2.5 0.77 0.8 75 3.44 0.84 0.87 190 2.1
Average 0.87 0.94 380 2.85 0.81 0.84 500 4.3 0.85 0.89 320 2.4
Maximum 0.88 0.97 570 3.1 0.85 0.88 1550 7.07 0.86 0.91 440 2.7
Figure 19: Effect of residence time. 400 nm PSL sphere (a) 22-30 nm BaP coating, TD flow rate sweep 300-1100
cc/min at 95o (b) 25-30 nm BaP coating, TD flow rate sweep 380-500 cc/min at 90o (upper 3 points), TD flow rate
sweep 115-500 cc/min at 85o (rest of points) (c) 22-30 nm BaP coating, TD flow rate sweep 290-470 cc/min at 85o .
Associated table displays minimum, maximum and average values for the Jayne shape factor (see page 33) of the
coated particles Sbypass , evaporated particles STD , number concentration N[#/ cc] and calibration ratio RbypassM
38
4 Discussion
4.1 Derivation of the Sherwood number
Figure 20: Sherwood number vs. particle diameter for experiments shown in figures 17-19
The Sherwood number (Sh) was derived for different nominal PSL sphere diameters
according to Equation (25), and is compared to the theoretical diffusive mass transfer case in the
transition regime, using Eq (12) (Davies (1978) from Hinds (1999) p. 288)
ShKn = 2·!(Kn) = 2·2" + D
D + 5.33("2 D)+ 3.42"
Theoretically, for a spherical particle, in the continuum regime, where no convective mass
transfer occurs, Sh should equal 2. This is corrected for the transition regime using Eq (12), which
leads to lower Sh. Figure 20 presents the derived Sherwood number for different PSL diameters and
driving force. The dotted line represents the calculated ShKn numbers for these conditions. It can be
seen that most of the measurements fall close to this line, within the measurement errors. The free
mean path ! was calculated according to ! = kT"d 2N2 p 2
[m] where p = 101325[Pa] and T is the
average of the flat part of the oven, as seen in the bottom of Figure 11. The mass loss calculation,
based on AMS and SMPS, or only on SMPS, are shown in section 3.1.5.3 .
39
The derived Sherwood number, by !mAMS"SMPS measurements (solid circles),
underestimates the theoretical value by ~5-25%, whereas the Sherwood number based on !mSMPS is
overestimated the theoretical prediction by 0-15% for 300 and 400 nm PSL spheres, and
considerably overestimates the theoretical result for the 200 nm PSL measurement. The difference
for the 200 nm core particle measurements is due to partial thin coating and will be further
discussed in section 4.2.2.
These results suggest that at the size ranges of 200-500 nm and coating thicknesses that are
sufficient to keep a complete coating after evaporation, only SMPS measurements are needed
(tandem DMA), as has been done before by Rader and McMurry (1986) for spherical particles,
although they seem to be more dependent on complete coating (see discussion in section 4.2.2).
However, for non-spherical particles, this approach cannot work since the mass is not a simple
function of diameter, and instead a method based on the use of both the AMS and SMPS will be
used here (as discussed below, in section 4.7).
The flow rate used to calculate residence times was based on plug flow calculations,
dividing the volume flow rate by the TD cross section resulting in a mean flow rate. Since the
actual velocity profile in the oven is non uniform, and the aerosols tend to concentrate at the center
due to the thermophoretic force in the oven’s entrance (Orsini et al. 1999), the actual residence time
may be slightly shorter than that calculated by the plug flow assumption. A correction based on
Luo and Yu (2008) and the measured axial temperature profile gives a velocity correction of 9-
15%. Applying this correction would increase the AMS-derived Sherwood number by
approximately the same ratio (not exactly the same due to m0 mass bias, Eq. (25)), which would
bring it closer to the theoretical value. However, it will result in a similar increase in the Sherwood
number derived from SMPS.
The trend in !mAMS"SMPS and the trend in !mSMPS versus evaporation driving force typically
yield parallel slopes (Figure 18 (a), and Figure 19(a-c)), implying the same Sherwood number, but
different bias in the measurements.
In some cases it was found that the measurement of !mAMS"SMPS can suggest two or more
groups of parallel lines, reflecting the same Sherwood number but biased differently (Figure 18 (b)
and Figure 19 (b)).
Looking at Figure 19 (b), the upper points, above the top trend line, where measured for a
nominal TD temperature higher then the rest of the points (the points which the bottom two trend
lines go through). This means faster flow rates where used, with higher temperature, to maintain the
same evaporation driving force range, but different mass loss was measured. On the other hand, the
bottom 2 parallel lines go through measurements done in different flow rates and with the same
nominal oven temperature. So the temperature profile cannot be the only cause for the different
40
mass measurement bias. The possible reasons for flow bias, that can change in between
measurements, are discussed below (section 4.2). For Figure 19 (b), the bottom points where fitted
and the resulting line slope was duplicated and translated. That is how the two additional lines were
created. It can be seen that they fit very closely to the measurements. This suggests that the same
evaporation trend is exhibited (i.e. Sherwood number) but the coating is measured with different
degrees of efficiency.
4.2 Possible sources of measurement bias Differences in measured mass between !mAMS"SMPS and !mSMPS possibly arise from several
sources
• Coating: Non-spherical particles due to uneven coatings can affect the SMPS derived
mobility diameter, which is calculated by assuming a spherical shell volume, multiplied by
the BaP density.
• Measurement Bias between the AMS and the SMPS measurement caused by calibration
differences, in SMPS diameter and RM .
• Flow: Biased flow splitting into the AMS and CPC, could possibly affect the concentration
of particles in one of the flows.
Bias always resides to some extent in any measuring apparatus, and so measurement bias could
explain the shift between the measurement of the SMPS and AMS-SMPS combination. These
different sources are discussed in the next sections:
4.2.1 Coating thickness effect on the Sherwood number We tested the effects of different BaP coating thicknesses for the same diameter core
particle. The coating thickness had a large effect on the evaporation rate as can be seen in Figure 21
for two limiting cases, of 5 nm and 50 nm thick coating. In the case of the thinner coatings, the
evaporation rate decreased, resulting in a lower Sherwood number then that obtained with the
thicker coatings. Such behavior could possibly result from partial coating. When the coating is
sufficiently thick, the evaporation process over a coated particle with spherical shape and smooth
surface, will tend to keep the particle spherical. When the coating is not smooth and contains
“valleys” and “hills” the vapor densities in these locations are different, and the “hills” will
evaporate faster than the valleys, leading to a smoother, more spherical particle as the evaporation
continues.
When the coating evaporates such that areas with no coating begin to appear (see the Figure
22), the vapor pressure immediately above these areas is zero. Consequently, the vapor density
directly over this zero coating spot is below the original vapor density. Such process will result in a
41
reduced rate of mass transfer, since it is driven by the vapor density difference between the
“boundary layer” surrounding the particle, and the ambient zero vapor density.
This is illustrated in Figure 22, where the orange layer symbolizes the coating, and the
green core is the PSL sphere core particle. Partial coating was observed in measurements with low
coating thickness using the same coating oven by Lang-Yona et al. (2008), measuring extinction
coefficient with cavity ring down spectroscopy.
Figure 21: The effect of Coating thickness on the evaporation rate for two limiting cases. Core particles 300 nm,
with 50 nm thick BaP coating and 5 nm thick BaP coating respectively. Oven average temperature = 85-130 oC
Flow rate = 400-1400 cc/min.
As a result of these considerations all experiments were conducted with thick coatings,
above 15 nm.
42
Figure 22: Schematic illustration of Partial coating scenario
Rough coating effect: The measured evaporation rate shown in Figure 19 (c) is higher than
the expected evaporation rate according to Eq. (12). Both, the dmAMS!SMPS and dmSMPS based
Sherwood number fit give the same slope within the error estimate,
ShSMPS = 4.99 ± 0.45, ShAMS!SMPS = 4.72 ± 0.97 . These results suggest that this is a real process and
not the result of systematic measurement or flow bias. The shape factor was similar to other
measurements of similar coated particles. This suggests that the coating was rough, for the duration
of that experiment, resulting in a larger than spherical surface area and consequently higher
evaporation rate than expected for a sphere of the same diameter. Most importantly, this is the
expected behavior for non-spherical particles. The preparation for this experiment (water filtration,
PSL concentration, flow rates) was no different then for any other. The evaporation trend with
increased driving force returned to the expected slope (Figure 19 (a) shows the same experiment
day for higher evaporation driving forces) after a threshold of driving force, which could further
indicate that the initial coating was rough and only after a threshold of evaporation did the surface
become smooth (as explained in section 4.2.1)
High evaporation driving force effect: For all measurements, the linear trend of
evaporation with increase in driving force diverges from a straight line for high enough evaporation
driving force. This is due to the evaporation of most of the coating, causing a decrease in the vapor
density and the evaporation rate (as explained in section 4.2.1 and Figure 22). Thus we avoid in our
discussion high evaporation driving force conditions.
4.2.2 The influence of coating thickness on the calibration ratio RM Initially the calibration ratio of particles at the AMS heater ( RM ,Eq. (22)) was derived by
measuring the PAH main fragment signal at m/z=252 as a function of particle number. This
calibration ratio corresponds to the collection efficiency multiplied by the ratio between the main
fragment of the coating material (Figure 8) and the sum of the fragments. The resulting calibration
43
curve was linear, as expected (see the collection efficiency curve in Jayne et al. (2000) for
example). However, it was found that the calibration factor depended on the coating thickness, and
it also changed significantly for the same coating thickness but in different days. This was taken
into account in each experiment by calculating the relevant RM for the experiment (Eq. (22), for
data acquired as shown in Figure 9). Figure 23 shows the dependence of RM (Eq. (22)) on the
coating diameter (twice the coating thickness) to core diameter ratio, for all the performed
experiment.
Figure 23: Calibration ratio of AMS fragment peak mass signal vs. SMPS & CPC mass calculation (Eq. (22) ) vs.
coating diameter to core diameter ratio
Initially no SMPS was employed, and a 2nd DMA was used to size-select coated aerosols.
This experiment is shown in the vertical line (light blue full circles) depicting RM for 20 nm
coating on 300 nm diameter PSL, for the same estimated coat to core ratio. For all other
experiments the actual mobility diameter distribution is constantly measured (Figure 13), and since
the coating process changes slightly with time, meaning the coating thickness is reduced constantly
for the same coating oven temperature, in a rate of ~4 nm per hour, the result is a scan over a small
interval (~0.05) of coating to core ratio for each experiment.
Collection efficiency: The calibration of the fragmentation pattern main signal with total
PAH mass depends on the ionization efficiency and the collection efficiency (Huffman et al. 2005).
The collection efficiency is made up of three terms - CE(dva ) = EL (dva )·ES (dva )·EB (dva ) . The
transmission efficiency EL (dva ) is the ratio of particles passing through the aerodynamic lens,
focused onto the vaporizer. The collection efficiency due to irregular shape ES (dva ) is the amount
44
of same-size particles hitting the vaporizer versus spheres. Finally, the collection efficiency due to
particle bounce efficiency EB (dva ) is the amount of particles that stick to the surface of the
vaporizer long enough to flash vaporize, divided by the number of particles that made it to the
vaporizer plate and were not accounted by the two prior measures. The particle bounce efficiency is
the only part which has been shown to be affected by the particle coating, and it is directly related
to RM .
Bounce efficiency: Hard particles with high vaporization temperature tend to bounce off
the vaporizer, before actually evaporating. Softer particles (fluid or soft solid) have close to 100%
collection efficiency. The BaP coating was used in all of the measurements shown in Figure 23. No
information was found in the literature on the hardness of either PAH core, or BaP coating, so it is
unknown whether the coating material used is softer or harder than the PSL sphere. The melting
points of polystyrene and BaP are 240oC and 179oC respectively, and the densities are
1.05[gr·cm!3] and 1.286[gr·cm!3] respectively.
Figure 23 shows large variations in RM for the same coating thickness to core diameter.
Additionally, there are different RM values for the same coating to core ratio and different
experiments, for instance the 400 nm blue and green full circles.
Consistency of RM in a single experiment: The difference in RM calculated for particles
bypassing the TD before directed into the TD (first segment of experiment - Figure 9) and
afterwards (last segment of experiment - Figure 9) is below 3% for all experiments. RM for the
particles passing through the TD (open circles in Figure 23) were only calculated for this
presentation, and were not used in calculating !mAMS"SMPS (Eq. (23)). These differences are the
cause of the different measurement in the 400 nm PSL’s of !mSMPS and !mAMS"SMPS , and the
resulting difference between the Sherwood numbers.
Very low evaporation driving force: For low evaporation driving force, RM changed
substantially with the extent of evaporation. This lead to a difference between the !mAMS"SMPS and
!mSMPS slope in some of the measurements, and therefore these points were not used for
calculating the Sherwood number. We attribute the discrepancy to the thin coating, which results in
higher RM value for these measurements then measured in the bypass conditions when the coating
was thicker. This suggests that AMS measurements are highly sensitive to the phase and coatings
of particles, and that these can limit the quantitative nature of AMS under some conditions.
Different trends in Figure 17 for 200 nm core PSLs: The measurements of 200 nm PSL
core particles (Figure 17) is the only measurement showing large discrepancies between
!mAMS"SMPS and !mSMPS , resulting in different slopes and therefore Sherwood numbers. This is
possibly because of the thin coating applied in these measurements. If the evaporated particles
45
coating became partial, then the SMPS derived evaporated mass would not be correct, since the
spherical shell volume is not the real coating volume. The full orange circles in Figure 23 show the
RM value used for calculating !mAMS"SMPS , and the open orange circles show the RM calculated for
the evaporated particles. There is a large and systematic variation in the evaporated RM . As the
coating to core ratio decreases, RM decreases. This could be the result of partial coating, as
explained above, and therefore suggests !mSMPS is wrong.
4.2.3 Possible uneven flow splitting effect on bias The different bias between !mAMS"SMPS and !mSMPS measurements, most apparent in Figure
19 (b) and also Figure 18 (b) could also arise from unequal splitting of the flow into the CPC and
AMS. Since the aerosol coated mass is calculated according to MAMS =m252
N1
1003[µg] , a bias in the
aerosol concentration N # cc[ ]versus the mass concentration of the BaP main peak m252 µg m3!" #$
would alter the single aerosol coated mass, and also the ratio between m252 µg m3!" #$ and the total
BaP derived mass (Eq. (22)) as observed in the experiments. The split was designed according to
iso-kinetic conditions at the split cross section, so this is highly unlikely.
Bias summary: To conclude these three possible effects (measurement bias, non spherical
coating and flow splitting), the parallel lines shown in Figure 18 (b) and Figure 19 (b) (the 4 lower
measurements shown in Figure 19 (b) were fitted and the line shifted to create the two upper dotted
red lines) indicate that there is constant bias in the measurement, since constant slope indicates that
the evaporation process does take place in the same mass transfer rate (thus the same Sherwood
number). This bias therefore does not affect the derived Sherwood number.
4.3 Error analysis
The Sherwood number was calculated according to a linear fit to several !m[Kg]
measurements, vs. different I = I ·!D[Kg] (Eq. (23) to (25)). According to the theory of
propagation of errors, a general expression for the error in each term can be associated to the errors
in each measurement, for instance:
! I = ("Sh"D
! D )2 + ("Sh
"I! I )
2 where ! D ,! I are the standard deviations, or errors, associated with
D and I respectively. The random errors taken for the various parameters are as follows:
• The DMA error is taken as ! D (dm ) = -0.07+ 0.00165·dm[nm] .
46
The calculation of the calibration ratio is very sensitive to small changes in the DMA
measurement. An experimental verification was made to measure the actual standard
deviation in the median diameter for monodisperse PSL spheres of different sizes, for more
than half an hour (this is shown in Figure 24). The results gave a very low standard
deviation; lower than 0.8 nm for the 500 nm PSL spheres, and about 0.16% relative to the
diameter. This low error is in agreement with Rader and McMurry (1986), who showed
mathematically, and verified experimentally, that mobility diameters can be measured with
an error of 0.24%. The equation used is a fit to the experimental median error measurement
(Figure 24).
• The mass measurement error ! dm is taken as the standard deviation of the actual
measurements of the coating mass marker m252[µg m3]divided by the particle number
concentration N[# m3] .
• The driving force integral error ! I [Kg m] depends on the oven temperature measurements,
their calibration to the center of oven temperatures (Eq. (19)), the flow rate measurement,
and the diffusion coefficient calculation. A 10% error is taken for the diffusion coefficient,
according to Wang and Frenklach (1994). The intrinsic vapor pressure parameterization
error was also taken into account ( A,B errors, Eq. (14)), and is the cause for 50-70% of the
error in ! I [Kg] . The averaging over X measurements for each data set is introduced
through the relation ! x =1X! x .
After evaluating each experiment, for a specific aerosol with the approximate same coating
thickness, the data with its associated error bars was fitted according to minimal orthogonal
distance regression (Boggs et al. 1989), to obtain Sh and m0 .
For !mSMPS the only error results from the SMPS median diameter error, which was taken as
specified above.
Figure 24: Median mobility diameter variations for different PSL sphere diameters
47
The results show that the errors in !mSMPS are equal in magnitude to the !mAMS"SMPS errors for
300 nm and 400 nm diameter particles, and lower for the 200 nm diameter. This is because the
SMPS based error is derived from the median SMPS error, which decreases with diameter (Figure
24).
4.4 Repeatability The repeatability of !mSMPS , !mAMS"SMPS and I measurements was estimated by repeating
the same experiment under the same conditions. We found that the standard deviation for mass loss
measurements (both !mSMPS and !mAMS"SMPS ) !"m#EV is
!"m#EV = 0.17[109µg],!"I#EV = 0.0175[109µg] where EV stands for equipment variation (Crossley
2000), and !"I#EV is the repetition standard deviation for the evaporation driving force. The
associated repeatability of the average Sherwood number is ±5% of the average Sherwood
number.
4.5 Measurement of the Sherwood numbers for suspended nano-
particles
The main result from our measurements of nearly spherically coated PSL core particles
(Figure 20) indicate that the proposed method is adequate and gives the expected theoretical value
for the Sherwood number of slowly evaporating spheres. The derived Sherwood numbers are close
to the values predicted by theory.
Measurement errors between 10-6% for the AMS-SMPS based mass loss, and 8-25% for
the SMPS based mass loss were estimated. The errors in the mass loss calculations arise mostly as
result of error in the determination of the mass by the AMS, and the error in the estimation of the
evaporation driving force which arises mostly from the parameterization associated with the vapor
pressure calculation.
A systematic error may arise from the change in the AMS collection efficiency, because it is
calculated for particles with a given coating. This collection efficiency is then applied to particles
partially evaporated. This bias diminishes for large particle number concentration and low coating
thickness.
It is concluded that the AMS-SMPS-TD system is therefore sensitive enough to allow
differentiating between different evaporation processes in the transition regime, and for measuring
the Sherwood number change with particle diameter expected for these pressure and temperature
conditions.
48
4.6 The use of the heat to mass analogy for suspended nano-particles
The heat to mass analogy for evaporation (Eq. (5)) has typically been used for complex
continuum and high Reynolds number situations. In those limits the pure diffusion/conduction
term, such as 2 in Eq. (6) and (7), diminishes in comparison to the Reynolds dependent term. In the
case of nm-sized aerosol suspended in a slow moving flow, the relative velocity is practically zero,
and the Reynolds dependent term is negligible. Therefore the first question that arises is what is the
analogy between heat and mass transfer for the pure conduction/diffusion case?
The constant number in both Eq. (6) and (7) is the same and arises from the same physical
reason – it is a product of the surface to diameter ratio for a sphere. Essentially, the pure
diffusion/conduction mass/heat transfer is dependent on the surface area. The analogy shows that it
depends on the surface area in the same way, and hence the same constant – Sh, Nu = 2.
In light of this, a higher Sherwood number, such as 4.9 which was measured for the 400 nm
PSL presumably coated in a non smooth and rugged manner by BaP (Figure 19 (c)) could be
related to the actual sphere diameter, DSh - the Sherwood diameter, that would give the measured
mass transfer rate:
DSh =1
!ShKn (Dm )"m # m0
I= Dm
ShShKn (Dm )
[nm] (28)
Where ShKn (Dm ) is the theoretical Sherwood number corrected according to the mobility
diameter based Knudsen number (Eq. (12) or similar), and Sh is the measured Sherwood number.
For Sh = 4.72 ± 0.97 (Figure 19 (c)), the resulting Sherwood diameter
isDSh = 1260 ± 260[nm] .
According to the analogy, since no transport properties remain if the Reynolds term is negligible, it
is suggested that DNu = DSh , and consequently the equivalent Nusselt number for a rugged sphere
of Dm mobility diameter, is
NuRe=0 = 2·!(KnDm)·DSh (29)
This analogy allows to use the measured Sherwood diameter to calculate the Nusselt number
for the same particle morphology, and incorporate this into heat transfer calculations between hot
particles and a surrounding cold gas as exist in the seeded solar reactor for instance (Klein et al.
2007).
The second question that arises is the adequacy of this analogy in the transition regime. The
answer according to the transition regime interpolation formulas is yes. Although, Davis (1983)
mentions that for a heavy molecule evaporating through a light gas, as is the case in this research,
the analogy is not exact. So finally, to answer this question a second experiment will have to be
made, with soot particles of the mobility size distribution used in the solar tower experiment (Klein
49
et al. 2007), and this used to calculate the Sherwood diameter and consequently calculate the
Nusselt number for the distribution. Entering these numbers into the CFD - ray tracing coupled
simulation used in (Klein et al. 2007) will reveal the adequacy of this analogy approach.
4.7 Measurement of fractal soot particles
The experimental method developed in this work can be used for measuring highly non-spherical
particles, among them agglomerate soot particles. A few key differences will arise:
1. Since the particles are not spherical, no straightforward mass balance for the calculation of
the coating mass according to SMPS measurement can be performed. Therefore RM will
have to be calculated separately, with a similar coating thickness material on a PSL
spherical particle of an adequate mobility diameter, before and after each experiment.
2. The coating thickness will affect the morphology. Therefore thin coatings are needed. Since
the above coating method cannot be used to obtain thin enough coatings, either larger soot
particles will be used, or an alternative coating system will be used or developed. One can
use the organics adsorbed onto soot, but the monolayer of coated organics exhibit a
diminishing evaporation trend due too diminishing vapor density driving force, as explained
below (Appendix C).
Other than that the experiment will be similar. Since the number concentration of soot particles can
be much higher then used in this experiment (200-1600 #/cc) the coating thickness can be much
thinner (Figure 7), which coincides with the criterion of 2. Also, the thin coating will eliminate the
problem that arises when thick coating is evaporated, namely differences in RM between the bypass
and through TD parts.
Additionally, in this experiment, soot particles and PSL particles of the same mobility
diameter will be measured alternatively for each evaporation driving force, to eliminate any bias as
seen in some of the results above.
4.8 Correlation of heat and mass transfer vs. particle size and shape
The ultimate purpose of our measurement system developed in this research is to enable
measurement of the Sherwood number for non-spherical particles. As shown in Figure 20, The
results obtained here, for spherical particles, reasonably fit the known correlations for spherical
particles, such as Davies (1978) (Eq. 12) that correlate between the Knudsen number and the
Sherwood number.
50
The next step will be measurements of non-spherical particles, characterized by their
mobility and vacuum-aerodynamic diameters, and using these measurements, obtain a correlation
of the Sherwood number vs. these parameters.
For soot particles, a description similar to that given by DeCarlo et al. (2004) of fractal
aggregates could be used, with the end result being a correlation Sh = Sh(Dm ,Dva ,Dpp ) , where
Dpp is the primary particle diameter (the particle aggregated to form the soot aggregate), estimated
from electron microscopy. The correlation should be similar to Eq. 12 (or another spherical particle
correlation, for instance Seinfeld and Pandis (2006) p. 545) for Dm = Dva
!p
= Dpp , and give higher
Sherwood numbers for the same Knudsen number (where Kn = Kn(Dm ,Dva ) ) and non spherical
particles Dm ! Dva
"p
> Dpp .
Additionally, a correlation based on the actual distributions of mobility and vacuum-
aerodynamic diameters will be useful, and measurements of real soot batch particles will be
conducted for the purpose of developing such a correlation.
5 Conclusion A heat-mass analogy approach was taken in order to measure the Nusselt number of heat
transfer between nano-sized aerosols and the bath gas. The approach is an extrapolation of the
continuum analogy between the heat and mass transfer.
The SMPS-AMS-TD system has shown the ability to repetitively measure changes in
Sherwood number of different size spherical aerosols coated by BaP, as affected by the Knudsen
number in the transition regime, but requires further research to understand the discrepancy
between the temperature sweep and flow sweep measurements, and other artifacts arising from bias
in the measurement.
The measurements agree with theory within measurement error indicating that the process is
purely diffusional and the zero relative velocity assumption, between the particle and the gas, is
correct. This further indicates that the analogy applied here is for pure diffusion vs. pure
conduction, and since these are both surface area dependent quantities a simple approach for use of
the analogy has been suggested in the form of the Sherwood diameter – defined as the diameter of a
sphere that would give the measured Sherwood number according to mass transfer theory.
The coating thickness should be minimal for the purpose of measuring the real Sherwood
number for non-spherical particles, which is the aim of this research. Moreover, it was found that
thick coating affects the bouncing efficiency of particles in the AMS detector. Therefore, a thin
coating needs to be applied, and this research shows that our coating system is not adequate.
51
Katrib et al. (2004) shows a method of coating spherical PSL particles with 2-30 nm layer
oleic acid, in a completely spherical manner – which means the coating is complete, with no
uncoated areas. This method could be used for our purpose, with oleic acid or any other suitable
material, since the material coating the particle is of no relevance to the Sherwood number
measured.
Finally, this measurement technique will be further used to obtain a correlation between the
Sherwood number and particle morphology, as defined by its mobility diameter, vacuum-
aerodynamic diameter, and other relevant parameters.
Appendix A Calculating the Sherwood number from a non isothermal aerosol mass transfer experiment
For an isothermal mass transfer process, the mass transfer coefficient is defined as the linear
relationship between the mass transfer rate and the concentration gradient across the
evaporating/condensing surface (equation (4)).
Integrating over the entire surface, for a spherical like aerosol, and integrating over the time of
flight of the aerosol in the specified conditions, gives the mass transfer coefficient as
hm =!mS
1"sat!t
, whereS is the surface of the aerosol, and !" was taken as zero. In the same
manner the Sherwood number can be estimated as Sh = !mS
D"sat!t·Df
.
For non isothermal conditions, where !sat = !sat (T ),Df = Df (T ) , the mass transfer coefficient can
be calculated by the following approach:
1. Sh = dmdt
D!satS·Df
! dm = Sh SD!satDf dt! dm! = Sh S
D"satDf dt!
Where the integral is taken over the entire time of flight through the non-isothermal
conditions, and under the assumption of small evaporation extent, so the characteristic
diameter, and the surface area of the aerosol remains approximately the same. Since the
integral over the mass flux is the total evaporated mass, the result becomes, assuming
negligible change in diameter:
2. Sh = !m DS· 1"satDf dt#
, Which for spherical aerosols reduces to
Shsphere = !m 1"D
· 1#satDf dt$
52
Appendix B Theoretical estimation of the diffusion coefficient of nitrogen-PAH mixture
In order to calculate the Sherwood number Shsphere = !m 1"D
· 1#satDAB dt$
, the diffusion
coefficient needs first be estimated. Since no experimental values where found for Coronene or
BaP, a theoretical solution is used as follows:
1. The Lennard-Jones potential parameters - !(r) = 4" #r
$%&
'()1
2 * #r
$%&
'()6+
,--
.
/00
- ! , the maximum
depth of the potential well, and ! , the characteristic molecule diameter, are
! = 8.16 !A, "
#= 980.9K for Coronene. For BaP no experimental numbers where found, so
he general fit for PAHs was used - ! = 1.234·Mw0.33 and
!
kb= 37.15·Mw0.58 (Wang and
Frenklach 1994).
2. The diffusion coefficient is given by the Chapman Enskog theory (Bird, Warren, and
LightFoot 2002)
DAB = 0.0018583 T 3 1MA
+1MB
!"#
$%&
1p' AB
2 (D,AB
where M is the molecular mass, T is the temperature in kelvin, p is the pressure in
atmospheres, ! AB = 0.5(! A +! B ) , and !D,AB is the binary diffusion collision integral
which is a function of the reduced temperature T * = T !"AB
where !AB = !A!B and given
by !D,AB =1.06036T *0.1561 +
0.193exp(0.47635T *)
+1.03587
exp(1.52996T *)+
1.76474exp(3.89411T *)
where for nitrogen gas ! = 3.667 !A, "
#= 99.8K
53
Appendix C
Measuring the desorption energy of PAHs from suspended aerosols
Attempts have been made to measure the evaporation energy of PAHs from soot particles.
The predominant method so far (Guilloteau et al. 2008), used flame produced soot, and evaporating
the adsorbed PAHs evaporate under set conditions. This was done at low pressures (~13 Pascal)
and not far from ambient temperatures (260-320 K).
The result is a decrease of mass, to a residual amount of PAHs coating left on the soot
particles. This residue decreases as the cylinder temperature increases.
In our experiment, where a particle was coated with a PAH multilayer, the evaporation rate
was constant. The difference arises from the vapor pressure behavior. In our experiments, the vapor
density around a fully coated particle is solely a function of temperature. For the same temperature
- the same vapor density is attained. In Guilloteau et al. (2008), the vapor density driving force
continuously diminishes, down to zero, as can be indicated by the decaying mass loss curve with
driving force (residence time, for the same temperature), [PAH] = [PAH]0 ! exp("kdes (T )) . This
can be explained by the same partial coating method as before (Figure 22). The soot particles are
initially coated by a monolayer of PAH material. Since the apparent vapor density is related to the
areas of zero coating, and the monolayer evaporates leaving behind an increasingly growing area of
non coated particle, this results in a continuously diminishing vapor density driving force, until the
desorption energy is equal to the PAH-soot bond energy and no more PAH evaporates.
Our technique measures the direct evaporation from suspended particles, as occurs
naturally. This makes measuring the desorption energy a very interesting endeavor. In order for this
to be achieved, the residence time will need to be longer, as indicated by the evaporation times in
(Guilloteau et al. 2008), which were up to 17 hours.
Keeping particles suspended for an hour while flowing through a loop of coil suspended in
a temperature-controlled bath could achieve this goal. For a 5 hour experiment, in 50 cc/min flow
rate, a 7.5 meter 2 inch diameter coil could be used. The penetration rate for 200 nm PSL spheres
would be 87% (Hinds 1999), and higher flow rates will allow for shorter resident times, 1000
cc/min will give 15 minutes resident time, and a higher penetration of 98%.
A question of resolution arises - is the AMS sensitive enough to measure this monolayer
evaporation? Only by using a high particle number concentration and extremely long measurements
to allow for extensive averaging, as indicated in Figure 7.
54
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