03/16/20 HCM25 Legacies of warfare and violent conflict | University of Brighton

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HCM25 Legacies of warfare and violentconflict(2017/18)

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Course Information (1 items)

Course Administration                                        course codescore course: HCM30 Forms & Legacies of War and Violent Conflictoption module semester 1: HCM26 Forms of Warfare and Violent Conflictoption module semester 2: HCM25 Legacies of Warfare and Violent Conflict

teaching scheduleseminar 1: Tuesday 15:00-16:30 – room 103 Pavilion Parade seminar 2: Tuesday 17:30-19:00 – room 103 Pavilion Parade lecture: Tuesday 19:00-20:30 – room G7 Pavilion Parade

Tutors: Michael Neu, Eugene Michail, Jon WatsonCo-ordinator: Eugene Michail, room 411 Pavilion Parade, e.michail@brighton.ac.uk

Unit Description                                         This module looks at how modern states and societies deal with the multiple legacies ofwar, and how they try to avoid or how they prepare for new wars. It is structuredthematically around four sections: - HUMAN IMPACT explores the long-term effects of war, looking at the concepts of changeand justice, before moving on to look at the disparate scholar field of 'refugee studies'- THE POLITICS OF MEMORY examines how post-1945 Western Europe and post-1989Europe dealt with their recent past, while also exploring some key themes in memorystudies- WAR IN PEACETIME looks closely how ideologies, discourses and practices that justify wardevelop in peacetime, in the name of peace – focusing on contemporary debates - ANTI-WAR looks at how the above forces pushing for war have been countered byanti-war and pacifist movements in the last 100 years.

Assessment                                             As a Core Module: one essay of 5000 words. As an Elective Module: one essay of 3000 words.The essay submission deadline is Friday 25 May 2018.

Lectures and Seminars                                         Please make sure you are present in all lectures and all seminars. Send your apologiesbeforehand, if you cannot attend either the lecture or the seminar. For the presentations, your aim is NOT to offer a long summary of the sources. Thepurpose of the presentation if to kick-start a critical discussion that encompasses all the

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Reading Lists

sources and all the topics for discussion, plus any other topic under that week's themethat you consider relevant and significant. So, aim to offer an overview of points andopinions that can generate a discussion of the sources and all questions. Consider thepossibility of dividing your presentation into sections, allowing for discussion and debatebetween the different sections.

Readings                                             Every week there is a wide selection of sources in the Key Readings and Further Readingslists. Students, of course, cannot read all these sources. But they should learn to readcritically and quickly, and to think independently as to what sources are most useful fortheir personal learning journey. To access some of the sources you need to visit St Peter'slibrary, where ideally you read the book on site so that others can read it that same week.Other sources are to be found through the Online Library. Many of the key readings – butnot all, due to copyright reasons – are on our Aspire list athttps://brighton.rl.talis.com/index.html .

Introduction (1 items)

In the first week there are no seminars. The course starts with a lecture (19:00), where youwill be introduced to the course's contents, structures and different requirements. Afterthis preliminary section, there will be a full lecture on next week's Topic, a pattern that willbe followed every week.

Section A: HUMAN IMPACT (topics 1-3) (1 items)

The call to 'move on' is an almost universal call at the end of every war. But what does'moving on' mean varies widely. While many use the end of the war as an opportunity for aradically changed life, many others lack the will or the capacity to leave the past behindthem.

1. Change (6 items)

How do people, societies and politicians manage to organize again after the destruction ofwar, to start life anew? And is the new life more of a continuity with the prewar, or is thewar used as an opportunity for new starts? Using European in the Second World War as itscase study, this week explores the dilemmas of reconstruction.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionWhere was change and where was continuity in postwar Europe? Which forces werepushing to what direction and hate were the deciding factors? War 1945 indeed Zero Hour for Europe?

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What sort of change took place in 1945?How can different methodologies (such as those of emotional history) can yield results thatproduce new insights in established fields of research?? Any other ideas – where elseshould we look?

The Legacy of War - Tony JudtChapter | ch.1 ‘The Legacy of War’, 13-40

Reconstruction: The Historiographical Issues - M. Mazower, 2011-01-01Article

Interwar, War, Postwar: Was there a Zero Hour in 1945?’ - Richard OveryChapter | ch.2 ‘Interwar, War, Postwar: Was there a Zero Hour in 1945?’, 60-78

Histories of the aftermath: the legacies of the Second World War in Europe - Frank Biess,Robert G. Moeller, c2010

Book | ch.2 ‘Feelings in the Aftermath: Toward a History of Postwar Emotions’, 30-48

Further Readings

Gender

-       Erica Carter, How German is she?: postwar West German reconstruction and theconsuming woman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997)

-       Jane Lewis, Women in Britain since 1945: Women, family, work and the state in thepost war years (Oxofrd: Blackwell, 1992)

-       Joanne Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver: women and gender in postwar America,1945-1960 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994)

-       FionnualaNi

Aolain, Naomi Cahn, Dina Francesca Haynes, On the frontlines: gender, war, and thepost-conflict process (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011)

Culture

-       John Pendlebury, Peter Larkham, and Erdem Erten (eds), Alternative visions ofpost-war reconstruction: creating the modern townscape (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015)

-       Mark Clapson, and Peter Larkham (eds), The Blitz and its legacy: wartime destructionto post-war reconstruction (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013)

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-       Iain Boyd Whyte, Man-made future: planning, education and design inmid-twentieth-century Britain (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007)

-       Michael Kelly, The cultural and intellectual rebuilding of France after the SecondWorld War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)

International Politics

-       Antonio Varsori and Elena Calandri (eds), The failure of peace in Europe, 1943-48 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002)

-       Peter Calvocoressi, Fall out: World War II and the shaping of postwar Europe (London:Longman, 1997)

-       David Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and PostwarReconstruction (London: Longman, 1992)

-       Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the reconstruction ofWestern Europe, 1947-1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987)

-       Daniel E. Rogers and J.C.D. Clark (eds), Politics after Hitler: The Western Allies and theGerman Party System (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995)

-       Tony Judt, A Grand Illusion? An Essay on Europe (London: Penguin, 1996)

Also

-       Jim Obelkevich and Peter Catterall, Understanding Post-War British Society (London:Routledge, 1994)

-       Dubravka Zarkov, Cynthia Cockburn, The postwar moment: militaries, masculinitiesand international peacekeeping, Bosnia and the Netherlands (London: Lawrence & Wishart,2002)

-       Jeffry Diefendorf, Rebuilding Europe's bombed cities (New York: St. Martin's Press,1990)

-       John Grindrod, Concretopia: a journey around the rebuilding of postwar Britain(Brecon: Old St, 2013)

2. Justice (8 items)

This week looks at the question of Justice and Peacebuilding in post-conflict societies,looking at a variety of case studies: Bosnia, Rwanda, South Africa and Germany. We willexplore the main approaches and theories that have been explored in the effort first toestablish an international standard of war crimes justice and second to mend relationswithin communities on the ground level.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionShould Peace or Justice be the top priority at the war's end?

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Should justice come from within a community or from without (e.g. an international crimestribunal)? Are post-genocidal communities condemned to never heal the wounds of wartimeatrocities? Today the global system of international justice is under heavy strain. Will it survive? Canwe find the right remedies by looking at the history of the politics and theories thatcreated in the first place? 

A scrap of paper: breaking and making international law during the Great War - Isabel V.Hull, 2014

Book | ch.1 ‘Prologue: What we have forgotten’, 1-15

A scrap of paper: breaking and making international law during the Great War - Isabel V.Hull, 2014

Book | ch.1 ‘Prologue: What we have forgotten’, 1-15

Global justice: the politics of war crimes trials - Kingsley Chiedu Moghalu, 2006Book | ch.2 ‘Prosecute or Pardon?’, 15-49

Mahmood Mamdani · The Logic of Nuremberg: Nuremberg’s Logic · LRB 7 November 2013Webpage

Srebrenica in the aftermath of genocide - Lara J. Nettelfield, Sarah E. Wagner, 2014Book | ch.3 ‘The Politics and Practice of Homecoming: Refugee Return’, 73-108

The key to my neighbor's house: seeking justice in Bosnia and Rwanda - Elizabeth Neuffer,2001

Book | ch.16 ‘Rwandan Crimes, Arusha Justice’, 371-88

Further Readings

International Justice and War Crimes Tribunals

-          Philippe Sands, East West Street: On the Origins of Genocide and Crimes AgainstHumanity (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2016)

-          Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge, Mass.;London: Harvard University Press, 2012)

-          Mark Mazower, Governing the World: The History of an idea (New York: Penguin,2012)

-          Pierre Hazan, Justice in a Time of War: The True Story behind the InternationalCriminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, trans James Thomas Snyder (College Station,Tex: Texas A&M University Press, 2004)

-          Gerry Simpson, Law, War and Crime: War Crimes Trials and the reinvention of

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International Law (Cambridge: Polity, 2007)

-          Gary Jonathan Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War CrimesTribunals (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000)

-          Donald Bloxham, Genocide on Trial: War Crimes Trials and the Formation ofHolocaust History and Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)

-          Adam Jones, Genocide, war crimes, and the West: history and complicity (London;New York: Zed Books, 2004)

On Conflict resolution

-          Claudia Card, and Armen Marsoobian (eds), Genocide's aftermath: responsibilityand repair (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007)

-          Nigel Biggar, Burying the past: making peace and doing justice after civil conflict(Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2003)

-          Charles Hauss, International Conflict Resolution, 2nd ed. (New York and London:Continuum, 2010)

-          Naomi Roht-Arriaza and Javier Mariezcurrena, Transitional justice in the twenty-firstcentury: beyond truth versus justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

-          Eric Stover and Harvey M. Weinstein (eds), My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice andCommunity in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2004)

-          Rachel Kerr and Eirin Mobekk, Peace and justice: seeking accountability after war(Cambridge: Polity, 2007)

-          Susanna Campbell, David Chandler and Meera Sabaratnam, A liberal peace?: theproblems and practices of peacebuilding (London: Zed, 2011)

After the Yugoslav Wars

-          Richard Holbrooke, To End a War, rev. ed.(New York: Modern Library, 1999)

-          SlavenkaDrakulic, They would never hurt a fly: war criminals on trial in the Hague (London: Abacus, 2004)

Also

-          Alan Sharp, The Versailles settlement: peacemaking after the First World War,1919-1923 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)

-          Kimberly Susan Theidon, Intimate enemies: violence and reconciliation in Peru(Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012)

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3. Refugees (8 items)

This week focuses on today's 'refugee crisis'. Wars always trigger mass populationdisplacement and cross-border human movements. Part of the week will be dedicated in acritical review of the field of refugee studies which is in its embryonic phase and the mainanalytical and methodological questions that dominate it. At the same time we will look atcontemporary debates. NOTE: During May the Refugee Festival will be held in May at theUniversity of Brighton as part of the Brighton Fringe Festival, organised by the Migrant AndRefugee Solidarity group. Talk to Dr Michail if you want to take an active role in organisingany of the festival's events.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionWhat are the main obstacles that refugees face in their long journey to safety?When is peace achievable for the refugee'? Why are refugees hidden from history?What gaps do the sources identify in the study and public knowledge of refugee issues?  What needs to be done today for the 'refugee crisis'?

The routes to exile: France and the Spanish Civil War refugees, 1939-2009 - Scott Soo,2013

Book | ch.1 ‘Unravelling rights and identities: the exodus of 1939’, 25-56

The making of the modern refugee - Peter Gatrell, 2015Book | ‘Conclusion: refugees and their history’, 283-96

The routes to exile: France and the Spanish Civil War refugees, 1939-2009 - Scott Soo,2013

Book | ch.1 ‘Unravelling rights and identities: the exodus of 1939’, 25-56

Remembering refugees: then and now - Tony Kushner, 2006Book | ch.1 ‘Refugees: the forgotten of history, the abused of politics’, 15-54

The making of the modern refugee - Peter Gatrell, 2015Book | ‘Conclusion: refugees and their history’, 283-96

Refugees—What’s Wrong with History? - Peter Gatrell, 2016-04-11Article

Further Readings

Histories of war refugees.

-          Michael R. Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985)

-          Jean Michel Palmier, Weimar in exile: The Antifascist Emigration in Europe andAmerica (London: Verso, 2006)

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-          Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, 2nd ed(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)

-          Loring M. Danforth and Riki Van Boeschoten, Children of the Greek Civil War:Refugees and the politics of Memory (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2012)

-          Jan-Hinnerk Antons, 'Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany: Parallel Societies in aHostile Environment', Journal of Contemporary History, 49/1 (2014), 92-114

-          special issue 'Relief in the Aftermath of War', Journal of Contemporary History, 43/3(2008)

On the experience of refugeedom.

-       W. G. Sebald, The emigrants (London: Harvill Press, 1996)

-       David Herd and Anna Pincus, Refugee Tales (Manchester: Comma, 2016)

-       Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994)

-       E. Valentine Daniel and John Chr. Knudsen (eds), Mistrusting Refugees (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1995)

On borders, free movement, and asylum rules.

-       Frances Webber, Borderline Justice: The Fight for Refugee and Migrant Rights (London: Pluto, 2012)

-       Wendy Brown, Walled States, Waning Sovereignty (New York: Zone, 2010),

-       Nathalie Mae Peutz, Nicholas De Genova, The deportation Regime: Sovereignty,Space, and the Freedom of Movement (Durham, N.C.; London: Duke University Press,2010)

-       Ruth Wodak, Michi Messer, andRenee Schroeder (eds), Migrations: interdisciplinary perspectives (Vienna and London: Springer,2012)

-       Corey Johnson et al, 'Interventions on rethinking the border in border studies', in Political Geography, 30/2 (2011), 61-9

-       M. Rovisco, 'Reframing Europe and the global: conceptualizing the border in culturalencounters', in Environment and Planning D-Society & Space, 28/6 (2010)

-       Steve Cohen, No One is Illegal: Asylum and immigration Control - Past and present (Stoke on Trent: Trentham, 2003)

Section B: THE POLITICS OF MEMORY (topics 4-5) (1 items)

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How does the memory of a conflict develop once the war is over? Memory studies is abooming area of interdisciplinary research of the past and its uses. This section looksparticularly at how collective memories of war - and the meanings that are attached to it –are constantly affected by political agendas.

4. After the Second World War: Germany and France (8 items)

This first session in this section focuses on France and Germany, the two Europeancountries that witnessed the most intense debates on how to deal with their memories ofthe Second World War after 1945. One posing as one of the victors of the war, the otherstanding as the undisputed perpetrator of the worst crimes in human history, the memorybattles in both countries became very public and where characterised by the mostimpressive swings from pride to guilt and vice versa. In both cases the past proved to bemore malleable and political than what is commonly assumed to be.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionCompare the way France and Germany dealt with their wartime past after 1945.Was there a 'German Guilt' after the Second World War and how did German society dealwith it?What is the Vichy Syndrome? Is it indeed a malaise?

"Introduction" and "Scheme of Distinctions" - Karl JaspersChapter | Key | pp. 21-37

The politics of memory in postwar Europe - Richard Ned Lebow, Wulf Kansteiner, ClaudioFogu, 2006

Book | Wulf Kansteiner, ‘Losing the War, Winning the Memory Battle: The Legacy ofNazism, World War II, and the Holocaust in the Federal Republic of Germany’, 102-46

Ernst Nolte, ‘The Past That Will Not Pass: A Speech That Could Be Written but NotDelivered’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (June 6, 1986)

Document

Forever in the shadow of Hitler?: original documents of the Historikerstreit, the controversyconcerning the singularity of the holocaust - 1993

Book | Key | Read chapter Jürgen Habermas, 'A kind of settlement of Damages: Theapologetic tendencies in German History writing’, pp34-44

Trials, Purges and History Lessons - Timothy Garton AshChapter | ‘Trials, Purges and History Lessons’, 294-314

Introduction: The Neurosis - Henri RussoChapter | Key | pp. 1-11

Further Readings

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Reading Lists

Postwar Europe

-       Sam Edwards, Allies in Memory: World War Two and the Politics of TransatlanticCommemoration 1941-2001 (Cambridge University Press, 2015)

-       Jörg Echternkamp and Stefan Martnes (eds), Experience and Memory: The SecondWorld War in Europe (New York and Oxford; Berghahn, 2010)

-       Wood, Nancy, Vectors of Memory: Legacies of Trauma in Postwar Europe (Oxford:Berg, 1999)

Postwar Germany

-       Neil Gregor, Haunted City: Nuremberg and the Nazi Past (New Haven, Conn.; London:Yale University Press, 2008)

-       Maja Zehlfuss, Wounds of Memory: The Politics of War in Germany (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2011)

-       Charles Maier,The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust and German NationalIdentity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997)

-       Jeffrey Herff, Divided Memory: The Nazi Past in the Two Germanys (Cambridge,Mass.; London: Harvard University Press, 1997)

-       R. Evans, In Hitler's Shadow. West German Historians and the Attempt to EscapeFrom the Nazi Past (London: Tauris, 1989)

-       Dirk Moses, German intellectuals and the Nazi past (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2007)

-       Ralf Dahrendorf, Society and democracy in Germany (London: Weidenfeld andNicolson, 1968)

Postwar Britain

-       Lucy Noakes and Juliette Pattinson (eds), British Cultural Memory and the SecondWorld War (London: Bloomsbury, 2014)

-       Penny Summerfield, 'Dunkirk and the Popular Memory of Britain at War, 1940–58', Journal of Contemporary History, 45/4 (2010), 788-811

Also

-       Peter Carrier, 'The Second World War in the Memory Cultures of France andGermany', National Identities, 8:4 (2006), pp. 349-366

-       Akiko Takenaka, Yasukuni Shrine: History, Memory, and Japan's Unending Postwar(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2015)

-       Yoshikuni Igarashi, Bodies of memory: narratives of war in postwar Japanese culture,

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Reading Lists

1945-1970 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000)

-       Jay Winter,‎Emmanuel Sivan (eds), War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (2000)

5. After the Cold War: Eastern Europe (9 items)

The arrival of the Cold War froze all memories of the Second World War and its precedingconflicts. This was especially the case in Eastern Europe. When after 1989 the cap onpublic memories was finally lifted an eruption of memory took place along a parallelsuppression of other popular memories. Memory went hand in hand with forgetting - as italways does. But for how long could this distorted memory pattern last? 

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionCome to the seminar ready to discuss a memory battle around one Second World Warmemorial (you can pick any memorial, from Britain or the rest of Europe) How did the Cold War affect the memory of the Nazi years in postwar Eastern Europe? Andhow has European memory of the second War changed since the end of the Cold War?Multiple layers of memory suppress each other in Eastern Europe. How does this happen? What is post-communist 'nostalgia;' and how does it work?

Memory and Power in Post-War Europe - 2002Book | Tony Judt, ch.7 ‘The past is another country: myth and memory in post-war

Europe’, 157-83

Nostalgia and Post-Communist Memory - Svetlana BoymChapter | Ch.6 ‘Nostalgia and Post-Communist Memory’, 57-71

Post-Communist nostalgia - Mariia Nikolaeva Todorova, Zsuzsa Gille, 2012Book | Dominic Boyer, 'From Algos to Autonomos: Nostalgic Eastern Europe as

Postimperial Mania', 17-28.

Memory and representation in contemporary Europe: the persistence of the past - SiobhanKattago, c2012

Book | Key | especially ‘Goodbye to Grand Narratives? Moving the soviet War memorialin Tallinn’, pp 77-96

Memories, Monuments, Histories: The Re-thinking of the Second World War since 1989 -Martin Evans, 2006-12

Article | Key

The Great Patriotic War in Soviet and Post-Soviet Collective Memory - Roger MarkwickChapter | Key

Further Readings

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Eastern Europe and Individual Countries

-       Uilleam Blacker, AleksandrEtkind, Julie Fedor (eds), Memory and theory in Eastern Europe (New York: PalgraveMacmillan, 2013)

-       Alexander Etkind,‎Rory Finnin,‎Uilleam Blacker, Remembering Katyn (Cambridge: Polity, 2012)

-       George Sanford, Katyn and the Soviet massacre of 1940: truth, justice and memory (London; New York: Routledge, 2005)

-       Heike Karge, 'Mediated remembrance: local practices of remembering the SecondWorld War in Tito's Yugoslavia', European Review of History / Revue Européenne d' Histoire, 16/1 (2009)

-       AleksandrEtkind, Warped mourning: stories of the undead in the land of the unburied (Stanford,California: Stanford University Press, 2013)

-       Kathleen Smith, Remembering Stalin's victims: popular memory and the end of theUSSR (Ithaca, N.Y.; London: Cornell University Press, 1996)

-       Roger Markwick, ch.34 'The Great Patriotic War in Soviet and Post-Soviet CollectiveMemory', in Dan Stone (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2012), 692-713

On Memorials

-       Lisa Maya Knauer and Daniel J. Walkowitz (eds), Memory and the Impact of PoliticalTransformation in Public Space (Duke University Press, 2004)

-       Florence Vatan and Marc Silberman (eds), Memory and postwar memorials:confronting the violence of the past (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)

-       Cynthia Milton, Monica Patterson, Erica Lehrer (eds), Curating difficult knowledge:violent pasts in public places (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)

Also

-          Martin Evans and Ken Lunn (eds), War and Memory in the Twentieth Century (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1997)

-          Pakier, MalGorzata and Bo Strath (eds), A European Memory? Contested Histories

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and Politics of Remembrance (New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 2010)

The future of nostalgia - Svetlana Boym, 2001Book

Section C: WAR IN PEACETIME (topics 6-9) (1 items)

War must be understood as a concept that is alive and active beyond the confines of anactual violent conflict. Ideologies and theories that lead to war are developed andexpounded in peacetime. People can easily move away from a collective aversion toviolence towards an approach that condones certain forms of violence. Doing war forpeace or during peacetime sounds like an oxymoron, but it is very often a reality. Thissection explores how War is discussed and conducted in peacetime, looking at the mostcontemporary and up-to-date debates.

6. Contemporary Analytic Just War Theory (8 items)

This week is on contemporary analytic just war theory. We analyse texts by "exemplary"contemporary theorists. Our aim is to understand what they are up to: what questionsthey ask, what answers they give, what assumptions they make and what methodologiesthey use. We will also critically interrogate what, if anything, might be problematic aboutthe discursive framework of contemporary just war theory, reflecting critically about therelationships between the theory and practice – as well as morality, history and politics –of war.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionWhat are the basic parameters of the contemporary analytic just war discourse?Can fictional cases – like trolley cases of fat men falling off cliffs – help us gain moralclarity about contemporary wars? Do contemporary just war theorists have something valuable to offer?What, if anything, is wrong with contemporary just war theory? 

The ethics of war and peace: an introduction - Helen Frowe, 2011Book | Read: Introduction

Proportionality in the Morality of War - THOMAS HURKA, 2005-01Article

War - Lazar, SethArticle

War as Self-Defense - McMahan, Jeff, 2004Article

Just liberal violence: sweatshops, torture, war - Michael Neu, 2018Book | chapter 5, 75–96.

Just liberal violence: sweatshops, torture, war - Michael Neu, 2018Book | chapter 5, 75–96.

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Reading Lists

Further Readings

Bellamy, Alex. Just Wars: From Cicero to Iraq. Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2006.

Burke, Anthony. 'Just War or Ethical Peace: Moral Discourses of Strategic Violence after9/11'. International Affairs 80, 2 (2004): 329–53.

Butler, Judith. Frames of War. London: Verso, 2010.

Calhoun, Laurie. War and Delusion: A Critical Examination. Basingstoke: PalgraveMacMillan, 2013.

Coady, C.A.J. Morality and Political Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2008.

Dower, Nigel. The Ethics of War and Peace: Cosmopolitan and Other Perspectives.Cambridge: Polity, 2009.

Evans, Mark. 'In Defence of Just War Theory', in Just War Theory: A Reappraisal, edited byMark Evans, 203–22. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005.

Fabre, Cécile. Cosmopolitan War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

Frowe, Helen. Defensive Killing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Holmes, Robert. On War and Morality. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989.

Hutchings, Kimberly. 'Cosmopolitan Just War and Coloniality'. In Race, Empire and GlobalJustice, edited by Duncan Bell, forthcoming.

Kamm, Frances. The Moral Target: Aiming at Right Conduct in War and Other Conflicts.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Kochi, Tarik. The Other's War: Recognition and the Violence of Ethics. Abingdon: BirkbeckLaw Press, 2009.

May, Todd. Nonviolent Resistance: A Philosophical Introduction. Cambridge: Polity Press,2015.

Jeff McMahan. Killing in War. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2009.

Neu, Michael. 'The Tragedy of Justified War'. International Relations 27, 4 (2013): 461–80.

Norman, Richard. Ethics, Killing and War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Orend, Brian. The Morality of War. 2nd ed. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2013.

Ryan, Cheyney. 'Self-Defense, Pacifism, and the Possibility of Killing'. Ethics 93, 3 (1983):508–24.

Steinhoff, Uwe. On the Ethics of War and Terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

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Reading Lists

Strawser, Bradley. 'Moral Predators: The Duty to Employ Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles'. Journal of Military Ethics 9, 4 (2010): 342–68.

Walzer, Michael. Just and Unjust Wars. 4th ed. New York: Basic Books, 2006.

7. The "Responsibility to Protect" (10 items)

This week is on "The Responsibility to Protect" and mirrors the previous week. We analysetexts by leading contemporary defenders of the "R2P". Once again, our aim is tounderstand what these theorists are trying to achieve, and to evaluate whether or not theysucceed in defending the notion that war can be a legitimate means to defend humanrights and/or minimise human suffering. We will also critically interrogate whether or notthe R2P discursive framework is "fit" for purpose, as it were, or whether the analysis onwhich its prescriptions are based offers a limiting and distorting perception of the materialrealities of the contemporary world. One key focus of this week will be the question of howthose called upon to "save strangers" are themselves implicated in the production of massavoidable deaths, and whether or not this disqualifies them as potentially "justified"war-waging interveners.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionIs war a viable means to save lives? Why or why not?Do you find academic defences of the "R2P" persuasive? What, if anything, is wrong with a moral and political analysis that begins at the momentof aggression?If you are an R2P opponent, would you let the Rwanda genocide happen in front of youreyes?If you are an R2P supporter, how does the fact that the Rwanda genocide was carried outwith weapons imported from France affect your argument?What's to be done in and about a world of mass avoidable deaths?

The responsibility to protect: a defense - Alex J. Bellamy, 2015Book | Introduction, 1–18

The responsibility to protect: a defense - Alex J. Bellamy, 2015Book | Introduction, 1–18

Introducing Jus ad Bellum as a cosmopolitan approach to humanitarian intervention -Garrett Wallace Brown, Alexandra Bohm, 2016-12

Article

When is it Right to Fight? - Gareth Evans, 2004-09Article

The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All - Gareth Evans,2009

Article

R2P and Pragmatic Liberal Interventionism: Values in the Service of Interests - JonathanGraubart, 2013

Article

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Reading Lists

Responsibility to Protect or Right to Punish? - Mahmood Mamdani, 2010-03Article

Humanitarian disintervention - Shmuel Nili, 2011-04Article

Further Readings

Amin, Samir, The World We Wish To See (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2008)

Callinicos, Alex, "The Ideology of Humanitarian Intervention", in Tariq Ali (ed.), Masters ofthe Universe? NATO's Balkan Crusade (London and New York: Verso, 2000), 175–89.

Chandler, David, From Kosovo to Kabul (London: Pluto, 2005).

Charlesworth, Hilary, 'International Law: A Discipline of Crisis', Modern Law Review 65, 3(2002): 377–92.

Chomsky, Noam, The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo (London: Pluto, 1999).

Collins, Barrie, "New Wars and Old Wars? The Lessons of Rwanda", in David Chandler (ed.),Rethinking Human Rights (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

Cunliffe, Philip (ed.), Critical Perspectives on the Responsibility to Protect (Abingdon andNew York: Routledge, 2011), various chapters.

Doyle, Michael, "International Ethics and the Responsibility to Protect", InternationalStudies Review 13, 1 (2011): 72–84.

Dunford, Robin and Michael Neu. Just War and the Responsibility to Protect: A Critique,London: Zed, forthcoming.

Evans, Gareth, "The Responsibility to Protect: Rethinking Humanitarian Intervention", American Society of International Law 98 (2004): 78-89.

Evans, Gareth, The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All(Brookings Institution, 2009).

Frost, Mervyn, and David Rodin. 'How to Get Humanitarian Intervention Right: What LibyaTeaches Us about Responsibility to Protect'. Inside Briefing, Oxford Martin Law School,March 2011. Accessed 20 May 2017. http://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/briefings/2011-03-Libya.pdf.

Gibbs, David N., First Do No Harm: Humanitarian Intervention and the Destruction ofYugoslavia (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2009)

Hammond, Philip, "Moral Combat: Advocacy Journalism and the New Humanitarianism", in

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David Chandler (ed.), Rethinking Human Rights (Basingstoke and New York: PalgraveMacmillan, 2002).

Hammond, Philip and Edward S. Herman (eds.), Degraded Capability: The Media and theKosovo Crisis (London: Pluto, 2000).

Hehir, Aidan, The Responsibility to Protect: Rhetoric, Reality and the Future ofHumanitarian Intervention (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012).

Orford, Anne, International Authority and the Responsibility to Protect (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2011).

Pattison, James, Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2010).

Seymour, Richard, The Liberal Defence of Murder (London: Verso, 2008).

Tesón, Fernando R., "Ending Tyranny in Iraq", Ethics & International Affairs 19, 2 (2005):1–20.

Wood, Ellen Meiksins, "Kosovo and the New Imperialism", Monthly Review 51, 2 (1999), athttps://monthlyreview.org/1999/06/01/kosovo-and-the-new-imperialism/.

8. Waging War with Drones (9 items)

There is a third "strand" of contemporary just war thinking to which we will turn in thisweek: the thinking about drones. Here, we analyse the view that the military use of dronesis not only justified, but obligatory, as it has – so the argument goes – the potential ofsparing civilian lives whilst also not putting "just combatants" at risk. Indeed, there is anargument according to which drones should be used to launch military humanitarianinterventions.It is our task this week to understand the basic structure of this argument in defence of themilitary use of drones. Moreover, taking recourse to more critical literature, we willinvestigate what, if any, the shortcomings of these defences are.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionCarefully analyse Strawser's argument? Do you agree with it? Why or why not?Do you find Beauchamp's argument convincing? Why or why not?What are the basic tenets of Chamayou's, Gregory's and Calhoun's critiques, respectively?What is the central claim made in Wall's and Monahan's essay. Critically assess.

The manhunt doctrine - Chamayou, G, 2011-09-01Article

Interview With Laurie Calhoun: Author of, ‘We Kill Because We Can: From Soldiering toAssassination in the Drone Age’ | Desert Austrian

Webpage

Targeted killings: Drones, noncombatant immunity, and the politics of killing - ThomasGregory

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Article

Killing by remote control: the ethics of an unmanned military - 2013Book | Beauchamp, Zach, and Julian Savulescu, “Robot Guardians: Teleoperated

Combat Vehicles in Humanitarian Military Intervention”, 106–25.

Killing by remote control: the ethics of an unmanned military - 2013Book | Beauchamp, Zach, and Julian Savulescu, “Robot Guardians: Teleoperated

Combat Vehicles in Humanitarian Military Intervention”, 106–25.

Moral Predators: The Duty to Employ Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles - Bradley Jay Strawser,2010-12

Article

Surveillance and violence from afar: The politics of drones and liminal security-scapes -Tyler Wall, Torin Monahan, 2011-08

Article

Further Readings

Allinson, Jamie, "The Necropolitics of Drones", International Political Sociology 9, 2 (2015):113–27.

Barrinha, André, and Sarah da Mota, "Drones and the Uninsurable Security Subjects", ThirdWorld Quarterly 38, 2 (2017): 253–69.

Benjamin, Medea, Drone Warfare: Killing by Remote Control (London: Verso, 2013).

Blakeley, Ruth, and Sam Raphael, "Understanding Western State Terrorism", in RichardJackson (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Critical Terrorism Studies (London: Routledge,2016).

Calhoun, Laurie, We Kill Because We Can: From Soldiering to Assassination (London:

Zed, 2015).

Chamayou, Grégoire, Drone Theory (London: Penguin, 2015).

Elish, M. C., "Remote Split: A History of US Drone Operations and the Distributed Labor ofWar", Science, Technology, & Human Values 42, 6 (2017): 1100–31.

Grayson, Kyle, Cultural Politics of Targeted Killing: On Drones, Counter-Insurgency, andViolence (London: Routledge, 2016).

Gusterson, Hugh, Drone: Remote Control Warfare (Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 2016).

Coyne, Christopher J. and Abigail R. Hall, "The Drone Paradox: Fighting Terrorism with

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Mechanized Terror", July 27, 2016, GMU Working Paper in Economics No. 16-29, at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2815135 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2815135

Grayson, Kyle, "The Ambivalence of Assassination: Biopolitics, Culture and PoliticalViolence", Security Dialogue 43, 1 (2012), 25–41.

Grayson, Kyle, "Six Theses on Targeted Killing", Politics, 32, 2 (2012): 120–8.

Gregory, Derek, "From a View to a Kill: Drones and Late Modern War", Theory, Culture andSociety, 28, 7-8(2011): 188–215. 

Kaplan, Caren, "Mobility and War: The Cosmic View of US 'Air Power', Environmental andPlanning A,38, 2 (2006): 395-407.

Kaplan, Shawn, "What's Not to Like About Targeted Killings? A Philosopher's View" TheBrooklyn Rail: Critical Perspective on Art, Politics and Culture, February 2016, athttps://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2735352

Neocleous, Mark, War Power, Police Power (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014).

Packer, Jeremy, and Joshua Reeves, "Romancing the Drone: Military Desire andAnthropophobia from SAGE to Swarm", Canadian Journal of Communication 38, 3 (2013):309–31.

Satia, Priya, "Drones: A History from the British Middle East", Humanity: An InternationalJournal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 5, 1 (2014): 1–31.

Shaw, Ian and Majed Akhter, "The Dronification of State Violence", Critical Asian Studies46, 2 (2014): 211–34.

Shaw, Ian, and Majed Akhter, "The Unbearable Humanness of Drone Warfare in FATA,Pakistan", Antipode 44, 4 (2012), 1490-1509.

Strawser, Bradley J. (ed.) Killing by Remote Control: The Ethics of an Unmanned Military(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), various chapters (including the introduction).

Walters, William, "Drone strikes, Dingpolitik and Beyond: Furthering the Debate onMateriality and Security", Security Dialogue 45, 2 (2014): 101–18.

9. Framing War: On the Ethics of Writing about War (6 items)

In the previous three weeks, we encountered ways of writing about war. Our analysis herewas critical: we explored potential shortcomings in the writings of contemporary defendersof war, military "humanitarian" interventions and drone bombing, respectively. This week,we synthesise our findings, discussing how the shortcomings identified reflect a broaderfailure of influential contemporary intellectuals who think and write about war. This weekis partly on the question of intellectual irresponsibility, indeed perhaps complicity, but alsoon the question of how, if at all, one might be able to think and write about war in a waythat is not (or at least not as clearly) intellectual irresponsible. One suggestion will be toground one's thinking about war in material realities, specifically the racial, epistemic and

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Reading Lists

power hierarchies of one's time: to decolonise one's thinking about war.

Tasks and Questions for DiscussionAre their common features (and perhaps shortcomings) in defences of just war, military"humanitarian" interventions and drone bombing?What, if anything, is wrong about contemporary "ethical" thinking about war?If one were to look for a paradigm shift as far as thinking and writing about war isconcerned, what might it look like?

Just War or Ethical Peace? Moral Discourses of Strategic Violence after 9/11 - AnthonyBurke, 2004

Article

Can one lead a good life in a bad life? Adorno Prize Lecture - Butler, J, 2012-11-01Article

Toward a decolonial global ethics - Robin Dunford, 2017-09-21Article

Just War and the Responsibility to Protect: A Critique - Robin Dunford, Michael Neu -Google Books - Robin Dunford

Book

Further Readings

Afxentis Afxentiou, Robin Dunford, and Michael Neu, "Introducing Complicity", in AfxentisAfxentiou, Robin Dunford and Michael Neu (eds.), Exploring Complicity: Concept, Casesand Critique (London: Rowman and Littlefield International, 2017), 1–15.

Anghie, Antony, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2004).

Butler, Judith, Frames of War (London: Verso, 2010).

Calder, Todd, "Shared Responsibility, Global Structural Injustice, and Restitution", SocialTheory and Practice 36, 2 (2010): 263–90.

Calhoun, Laurie, War and Delusion: A Critical Examination (Basingstoke: PalgraveMacMillan, 2013).

Davis, Mike, Planet of Slums (London and New York: Verso, 2006).

Docherty, Thomas, Complicity: Critique Between Collaboration and Commitment (London:Rowman and Littlefield, 2016).

Dunford, Robin, The Politics of Transnational Peasant Struggle: Resistance, Rights andDemocracy (London: Rowman and Littlefield International, 2016).

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Reading Lists

Escobar, Arturo. "Beyond the Third World: Imperial Globality, Global Coloniality andAnti-Globalisation Global Movements", Third World Quarterly 25, 1 (2004): 207–30.

Frank, Andre Gunder, "The Development of Underdevelopment", Monthly Review 18, 4(1966): 17–31.

Galtung, Johan, "Violence, Peace, and Peace Research", Journal of Peace Research 6, 3(1969): 167–91.

Lee, Steven, "Poverty and Violence", Social Theory and Practice 22, 1 (1996): 67–82.

Leech, Garry, Capitalism: A Structural Genocide (London: Zed, 2012).

Liberti, Stefano, Land Grabbing: Journeys in the New Colonialism, translated by EndaFlannelly (London and New York: Verso, 2013).

May, Todd, Nonviolent Resistance: A Philosophical Introduction (Cambridge: Polity Press,2015).

Mehta, Vijay, The Economics of Killing: How the West Fuels War and Poverty in theDeveloping World (London: Pluto, 2012).

 Mgbeoji, Ikechi, "The Civilised Self and the Barbaric Other: Imperial Delusions of Orderand the Challenges of Human Security", Third World Quarterly 27, 5 (2006): 855–69.

 Mignolo, Walter D., The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, DecolonialOptions (Durham: Duke University Press, 2011).

Quijano, Anibal, "Coloniality and Modernity/Rationality", Cultural Studies 21, 2/3 (2007):168–78.

 

Section D: ANTI-WAR (topics 10-11) (1 items)

One increasingly important legacy of modern warfare is the increasing, universal urge tominimise, stop or abolish war and violent conflicts. But how can we achieve in this task?This section of the course looks at two different types of efforts that developed along theselines in the decades since the end of the Second World War: activist-based anti-warmovements, and the more recent state-driven concept of humanitarian war.

10. Anti-war activism (7 items)

Every time there has been the threat of a war in the last hundred years, there has been ananti-war movement opposing it. Considering the violent record of the 20th century, it isdifficult to know when anti-war activism has been successful. For sure recent popularperceptions after the Iraq war focus on its failures. The lecture for this last week will offer areview of the main academic trends in the study of anti-war activism from the First WorldWar to the Iraq War.

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Tasks and Questions for DiscussionWhat are the most effective methods and what are the most effective arguments inanti-war?How can we judge whether an anti-war movement is a success or a failure?What makes one turn against and war and into anti-war activism? Do ideologies and/oridentities matter? What is your opinion on the British anti-war movement today?

The peace movement: overview of a British brand leader - MARTIN CEADEL, 2014-03Article | Key

Daniel Lieberfeld, ‘What makes an effective antiwar movement?, International Journal ofPeace Studies, 13/1 (2008), 1-14

Webpage

Martin Luther King's Speech Against the Vietnam War - by David BromwichWebpage | Key

Lawrence Rosenwald, ‘On Modern Western Antiwar Literature’, Raritan, 34/1 (2014),155-173 - 2014

Article | Key

From Prowar Soldier to Antiwar Activist: Change and Continuity in the Narratives ofPolitical Conversion among Iraq War Veterans - David Flores, 2016-05

Article | Key

Further Readings

First World War activism

-       F. L. Carsten, War Against War: British and German Radical Movements in the FirstWorld War (London: Batsford Academic and Educational, 1982)

-       Brock Millman, Managing Domestic Dissent in First World War Britain (London: FrankCass, 2000)

-       Frances H. Early, A world without war: how U.S. feminists and pacifists resisted WorldWar One (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997)

-       Jo Vellacott, Pacifists, patriots and the vote: the erosion of Democratic suffragism inBritain during the First World War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007)

Cold War

-       Thomas R. Rochon, Mobilizing for Peace: The Antinuclear Movements in WesternEurope (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988)

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-       Richard Taylor, Against the Bomb: The British Peace Movement 1958-65 (Oxford:Clarendon, 1988)

-       Holger Nehring, Politics of security: British and West German protest movements andthe early Cold War, 1945-1970 (Oxford University Press, 2013)

Greenham Common

-       Barbara Harford, Sarah Hopkins, Greenham Common: women at the wire (London:Women's Press, 1984)

-       John Kippin, Cold War pastoral: Greenham Common (London: Black Dog Press, 2001)

-       Sasha   Roseneil, Disarming patriarchy: feminism and political action at Greenham(Buckingham: Open University Press, 1995)

21st century

-       Kevin Gillan, Jenny Pickerill and Frank Webster (eds), Anti-war Activism: New Mediaand Protest in the Information Age (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)

-       Alex Danchev and John MacMillan, The Iraq War and Democratic Politics (London:Routledge, 2005)

-       J. B. Sears, 'Peace Work: The Antiwar Tradition in American Labor from the Cold Warto the Iraq War', Diplomatic History, 34/4 (2010)

-       Tiina Seppala, Globalizing resistance against war: theories of resistance and the newanti-war movement (London: Routledge, 2012)

Also

-       Peter Brock and Thomas P. Socknat (eds), Challenge to Mars: essays on pacifism from1918 to 1945 (Toronto; London: University of Toronto Press, 1999)

-       Richard Taylor & Nigel Young (eds), Campaigns for Peace: British Peace Movementsin the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester U.P., 1989)

11. Vietnam: exploring the legacies of the war at home (5 items)

The Wars for Vietnamese independence lasted from the end of the Second World Waracross three decades. For the United States, Southeast Asia was regarded as abattleground in the struggle against global communism and its engagement in the conflictwithin What would become Vietnam gradually escalated from material land financialsupport for the French, to supporting partition between the Communist North andpro-western South after French withdrawal, to providing direct support to the South viaadvisors and special forces, before fully committing hundreds of thousands of its owncombat troops in conflict that lasted for nine years. Direct American involvement, and theuse of conscription (the draft) to provide troops in the numbers requested, exacerbateddivisions within American society. The legacies of the conflict in the United States are

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Reading Lists

complex. We will consider how protest and counter-protest was quickly mythologisedalong class lines, how the treatment of war criminals revealed the limits of Americanconcern for the laws of war, and the battle to remember Vietnam in a politically acceptableway. Tasks and Questions for DiscussionDid the anti-war movement only succeed in revealing the depths of divisions in the UnitedStates? What role does class play in our understanding of antiwar activism?What did the aftermath to the My Lai massacre and the prosecution of its protagonistsreveal about American attitudes to the military and war crimes?How have public attempts to commemorate those who died in Vietnam sought toremember the conflict? What have they chosen to forget?

Collective memory of Vietnam antiwar sentiment and protest - Penny LewisChapter | Key

Atrocity, Authenticity and American Exceptionalism: (Ir)rationalising the Massacre at MyLai - Kendrick Oliver, 2003

Article | Key

The Wall and the Screen Memory: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial - Marita SturkenChapter | Key | Chapter 2

Further Readings

The Vietnam War.

-       David L. Anderson, ed. Facing My Lai (Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press,1998).

-       Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam wars, 1945-1990 (New York: Harper Collins, 1991).

The anti-war movement.

-       Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, Peace Now! American Society and the Ending of the VietnamWar (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1999). -       Simon Hall, Rethinking theAmerican anti-war movement (Routledge, New York & London, 2012).

-       Charles DeBenedetti and Charles Chatfield, An American Ordeal: The AntiwarMovement of the Vietnam Era (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990).

-       David Cortright, Soldiers in revolt: GI resistance during the Vietnam War (Chicago, Ill.:Haymarket, 2005)

On memory.

-       Kristin Ann Hass, Carried To The Wall: American Memory And The Vietnam Veterans

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Memorial (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University Of California Press, 1998).

-       Christian Appy, American Reckoning: The Vietnam War and Our National Identity (New York: Penguin, 2016).

-       Marita Sturken, Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, the AIDS Epidemic, and thePolitics of Remembering (Los Angeles et al: University of California Press, 1997) Chapter 2.-       Robin Wagner-Pacifici; Barry Schwartz, "The Vietnam Veterans Memorial:Commemorating a Difficult Past" American Journal of Sociology (Vol. 97, No. 2. 1991),376-420.

12. Workshop on Research Essays (1 items)

This last session is solely focused on helping you with essay-writing. There will be nolectures. We will meet only for the seminars. In the seminars we will talk a bit about basicessay skills and requirements and then students will share their essay plans. Come along with an outline, reflecting on the following points on your essay:a) Your argument. At this stage we are looking for an argument that goes beyond simplisticyes/no, good/bad, important/unimportant, significant/insignificant utterances. To formulatea complex argument you need to engage critically with the scholar sources, b) A summary of the main scholar debates on your topic. We expect a critical engagementthat goes well beyond 'he says that', 'she argues this', moving towards an evaluation ofwhat individual scholars say, but also the identification of trends and schools of thought, c) The rationale, the logic of your structure. Are you merely listing points in a totallyrandom manner? Is there a sequence in your structure that reflects the sequence of yourargument? Do you realise the benefits and problems that come with such a structure asthe one you have chosen?

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