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Heinrich von Gunterrodt

A short treatise on the true principles of combat, written for the most illustrious prince John, duke of Mecklenburg.

Edited by Matthaeus Welack in Witttenberg (1579)

Translated, commented, and explained

by Bert Gevaert (Hallebardiers, Brugge) January 2014


About the Author Bert Gevaert received a PhD in classical philology (disability in ancient Rome, specifically in the epigrams of Marcus Valerius Martialis), teaches Latin in a secondary school, is lecturer on historical subjects and city guide in Brugge (Belgium). He started historical fencing in 2007 as a member of the Hallebardiers, also known as the Order of Saint Michael in Brugge. He practices armoured combat, longsword, dussacken and recently (September 2012) also rappier, mainly focussing on authors of the 16th century with a preference for Joachim Meyer and Hector Paulus Mair. In September 2013 he began a wrestling and dagger class for secondary school students, based on Fiore dei Liberi. As an avid competitor, he participated in his first longsword tournament at Arts of Mars (2010), placed second at SwordFish (2011), was king (champion) of his own guild (2011) and obtained a place in the quarter finals at Swordfish (2012). Besides his work on von Gunterrodt, Bert is currently working on a translation of the longsword section of Hector Paulus Mair (based on the Codex Icon 393). He is also working on a Dutch book on historical European martial arts from the 14th till 17th century and a book on the history of the guild of the Hallebardiers.


Dedicated to John VII http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_VII,_Duke_of_Mecklenburg http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00009474&tree=LEO I would like to thank the following people for their suggestions, historical and juridical commentaries, and proofreading of my translations: Henri Bouillon (Sint Lodewijkscollege) Alwin Goethals (Swarta), Krist Martens (Hallebardiers), Roger Norling (GHFS, HROARR), Jens Peter Keinau (Stahl auf Stahl), Prof. Laurent Waelkens (KULEUVEN) and last but not least Kevin Maurer (MFFG) who informed me about the existence of the text of von Gunterrodt and encouraged me to make this translation. Further I wish to thank Greg Mele and Christian Tobler for their belief in this project! Any remarks about this first English translation, can be emailed to bert.gevaert@sint‐lodewijkscollege.be Timide abstine! This translation of the printed text of von Gunterrodt is published as an e‐book, the translation of the manuscript (and comparison with the printed text) will be published as a critical edition later in 2014.

Heinrich von Gunterrodt (1557‐1618): Introduction

The least one can say about Heinrich von Gunterrodt (Henricus a Gunterrodt) is that his life is well‐hidden by the mists of history. We find many different spellings of this noble Saxon family name: Gunterode, Gunterrodt, Guntherod, Guntherode, Gunterod and Gunterrode, and for a long time the family themselves wrote ‘Gunderrode’. They also lent their name to the village Günterrodt near the city of Eichsfeld, mentioned as early as 1209.1 In his own writings Heinrich uses the name ‘Henricus a Gunterrodt’ and ‘Gunterodt’ in his printed text (Wittemberg, 1579),2 but in his written text, he writes his name as ‘Heinricus a Gunterroda’ (MS. Dresd. C. 15, fol. 4 v.).3

The von Gunterrodt family had their own coat of arms: a blue field, emblazoned with a white, crowned owl sitting on a green branch, accompanied by a six pointed star.4

1 Ersch, S., Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Kunste (Leipzig, 1878) 114. 2 When I refer to pages of the printed text I use sig., without mentioning (Wittemberg, 1579) unless explicitly stated differently. 3 From here on I omitt MS. Dresd. C. 15, while speaking about the manuscript. I only use fol. to indicate the folio with the relevant text. 4 The translation of the device under the Wappen is: Look, the white night owl of Von Gunterrodt has a star next to it and it sits on a green branch.


Once we deterimine which surname(s) refer to ʺourʺ von Gunterrod, we then have to sort through the names Heinrich and Hans, which occur several times in the familyʹs genealogy. It is very confusing that Heinrich’s father and grandfather share the same name ‘Hans’, but our Heinrich also had a famous nephew Hans Heinrich von Gunterrodt. This nephew wrote in 1643 about our Heinrich, who was his father’s brother and is buried in Padua.5 Besides our author Heinrich, there is another famous Heinrich von Gunterrodt, who was born in 1571 and had a glorious military career ending as the Hofmarschal to the Prince. This Heinrich was the son of our Heinrich’s brother Caspar and not the author of De Veris Principiis, a pity, since, unlike our man there is a great deal of biographical data to find about this famous soldier. Here is what little we know of our Heinrich von Gunterrodt: he was born in Lengefeld in the year 1557, probably in the family castle of Rauenstein, which the family obtained in 1480. He was the son of Hans von Gunterrodt (1526‐1566) and Elisabeth von der Linda (?‐ 1564). Heinrich was the middle son amongst his four brothers and lived longest.6 As a Junker, a member of the Saxon nobility, he received a very good education and studied Greek and Latin, of which we can find many erudite examples in his work. At the age of writing his De Veris Principiis he was about 22 years old and had already made some travels to study the art of fighting (fol. 2 v.). Because of the many references to jurisprudence and law found throughout his texts, it is very likely that he studied law, although we do not know if he took any formal degree. In his discussion of duelling, he mentions his Belgian professor Mattheus Wesenbeeck (1531‐1586), who taught at Wittenberg (fol. 70 v.), so it is certain he also studied at this university. He was a close friend to Johannes Herwart of Würtzburg, a girdle maker and famous fencer, who obtained a fencing book from a Franconian monastery when he was a soldier under Markgraf Albert (fol. 17 v.‐18 r.). This is probably the famous Royal Armouries Ms. I:33.7 Another friend was Balthasar Cramonius of Pommern (Poland), who instructed our von Gunterrodt in fencing (fol. 18 r.). Heinrich von Gunterrodt has left us two texts, one manuscript (MS. Dresd. C. 15) and one text printed in Wittemberg by Mattaeus Welack. The title of the printed text is ‘De veris principiis artis dimicatoriae tractatus brevis ad illustrissimum principem Ioannem ducem Megapolensem’.8 The full title of the manuscript is much longer: ‘Sciomachia et hoplomachia: sive de veris principiis artis dimicatoria liber unus, in quo precipua ad eius artis fundamenta et plenam cognitonem deducentia, ex ipsis fontibus methodice, et additis non paucis typis ac figuris ad oculum quasi demonstrantur’.9 Each text is written in humanistic Latin but with certain words (mainly in the margins) written in German. In the printed text and the manuscript the font of these

5 Ersch, S. (o.c.) 119. 6 Ersch, S. (o.c.) 119. 7 Anglo, S., The Martial Arts of Renaissance Europe (Singapore, 2000) 22 and Forgeng, J., The Medieval Art of Swordmanship: A Facsimile and Translation of Europe’s Oldest Personal Combat Treatise, Royal Armouries MS. I.33 (California, 2000) 5-6. 8 "A short treatise on the true principles of combat, written for the most illustrious prince John, duke of Mecklenburg" 9 "Fighting with and without arms: or the true principles of combat, book one in which the principal fundaments of this art, leading also to the full knowledge of it, are methodically shown more ore less before your eyes, based on the sources itself and with many figures and illustrations." For the word sciomachia, see also note 175.


German words is gothic, but usually humanistic script is used in the manuscript and italic script in the printed text. Von Gunterrodt frequently uses Greek words and sentences, showing his humanistic education. Both texts were published in 1579 and are dedicated to prince Johann VII, duke of Mecklenburg (1558‐1592). This Johann was a rather unfortunatey choice for a patron, he was the son of Johann Albert I, duke of Mecklenburg‐Güstrow and Schwerin (1525‐1576). When his father died, Johann VII was only eighteen years old and received a regent for nine years, only taking control in his own name in 1585. Johann was probably not fit for the hard politics in his time, suffered from enormous debts and increasing pressure from territorial concessions made to his uncle Christopher. This caused the young duke to commit suicide at 34, a terrible deed in the eyes of the church. To hide the suicide some women were accused of witchcraft, amongst them Catharina Wankelmod, who died from torture and Margarethe Schulze, who was burnt at the stake. As a supporter of Johann VII, Heinrich von Gunterrodt must have followed these events with a solemn interest. Though there are many similarities between the manuscript and the printed text, one also finds huge differences, some of them seen at first sight, other differences only to be noticed in close reading and comparing both texts. The handwritten manuscript, containing 76 folios, differs from the printed text in containing 74 images, while the printed text, containing 46 pages, only has one image (the Wappen of the von Gunterrodt family). These illustrations are made by the otherwiee unknown artist Louradus Knobloch, whose name we can read on the last image (fol. 62 v.). Most images in the manuscript depict people in fighting positions, but it also presents some geometrical figures and a huge image of a sword and its parts:

‐ geometrical figures (fol. 4 v.; 64 r.; 65 v.; 66 v. and 67 v.; ) ‐ figures of weapons (fol. 30 v.) ‐ fighting people: without arms (fol. 21 v.; 22 r.; 23 r., 24 r.; 24 r.; 25 r.; 25 r.; 26 r.; 26

v.; 27 r. ; 33 v.; 62 r. and 71 v.), with unclear swords (fol. 28 r.; 29 r. ; 29 v.; 68 r.; 68 v.; 71 r. and 34 v. which is the only clear example of fighting with the longsword), with scimitar/dussacken (fol. 32 r.; 32 v.), with long spears (fol. 35 r.; 35 v. and 36 r.), with axes (fol. 37 r.; 37 v.; 38 r.), with the cestra (fol. 38 r. and 39 r.), with daggers (fol. 39 v.; 40 r. and 40 v.), with rappiers (fol. 42 r.; 42 v.; 43 r.; 43 v; 44 v.; 45 r.; 45 v.; 46 r.; 46 r.; 46 v.; 47 v.; 48 v.; 49 r.; 50 r. and 54 r.), with rappiers and main gauches (fol. 51 r.; 51 v.; 52 r.; 52 v. and 53 r.), with rappiers and cloaks (53 v.; 54 v.; 55 r. and 55 v.); with rapier and small shield (fol. 56 r.; 56 v.; 57 r.; 56 r.; 56 v.; 57 r.; 57 v. and 58 r.), with a case of rappiers (fol. 60 r. and 60 v.), with unarmed vs dagger (fol. 62 v.).

The images are sometimes accompanied by extra text in which the author gives explanation on certain techniques. Other extra text in the manuscript is the introduction, which is absent in the printed work. In contrast, the printed text contains poems written by Johann Maior (sig. A1 v.), von Gunterrodt himself (sig. A3 v. ‐A4 v.) and the theologian Heinrich Bolschen (sig. F2 r.). Looking at some mistakes against the Latin in the manuscript, the well‐polished poems in the printed text and the sketch‐like nature of the drawings, it is my opinion that the


manuscript functioned as a draft for the printed text. I believe the printed text served as an apologia by which von Gunterrodt tried to spread his ideas on the art of combat. Sadly, Von Gunterrodt has never been taken seriously in the secondary literature on fencing. Usually when people refer to his text, he is primarily mentioned as the first person ever speaking about the famous I:33 manuscript (Sig. C3 v.‐C4 r.).10 This is the only reason Carl Wassmannsdorf dedicates any attention to the printed text of von Gunterrodt, as we can read in his comments added in the binding of the MS I:33: “Offenbar gehen diese Stellen aus dem Codex membr. N° 115 der Herzoglichen Bibliothek zu Gotha, in welchem sich auch der Name Herewart (aus Wirtzburgk) findet – Heidelberg 2. August 1860(…).”11 The other reason fencing historians refer to von Gunterrodt is also not because of the content of his work, but because he himself refers to Joachim Meyer (Sig. C3 r‐v).12 It is our intention to show with this annotated translation that von Gunterrodt deserves to be more than just ‘a historian on fencing’13 or the first person who mentions I:33 and Joachim Meyer. In our opinion he not only made a tremendous effort to show the true principles of combat but also wanted to honor the art of swordsmanship. In his time the use of the sword had declined and was surpassed by guns, a fact also complained about by Joachim Meyer.14 Von Gunterrodt also complains about the so called ‘klopffecher’ who made the art of sword fighting a carnavalesque spectacle. With his work von Gunterrodt sought to show that the art of fencing was a noble art, much more than what other people made of it (even the Marxbrüder and Federfechter fencing guilds) and still useful on the battlefield, in spite of the revolutionary techniques of gunpowder. Unfortunately the fencing manual he probably wanted to write about the art of combat – he calls the manuscript book one, so this suggests he also thought about a more practical, book two ‐ is lost, or perhaps was never written. We’ll never know, unless someday someone is very lucky to find it a library, on a dusty shelf, neglected and forgotten for so many centuries. Stranger things have happened.15 Bert Gevaert and Kevin Maurer January 2014

10 See note 6. 11 Forgeng (2000) 18-19 (notes of Wassmannsdorf), 154-155 (transcription and translation of this notes) “Clearly these passages come from Codex membr. N° 115 of the Ducal Library of Gotha, in which the name of Herewart of Würzburg can also be found. Heidelberg, 2 August 1860 (…).” 12 Anglo (o.c.) 92 and Forgeng, J., The Art of Combat: A German Martial Arts Treatise of 1570, by Joachim Meyer (London, 2006) 12-13. 13 Anglo (o.c.) 91. 14 Meyer, J., Gründtliche Beschreibung der Kunst des Fechtens (Strassbourg, 1570) sig. A2 r. –A2 v. 15 For example, as this work was being prepared the so-called "lost" second book of Nicoletto Giganti was found, in plain sight, at the Lord Howard de Walden Library at the Wallace Collection in London. It is now readily available as, Pendragon, J. and Terminiello, P., The 'Lost' Second Book of Nicoletto Giganti (1608): A Rapier Fencing Treatise (s.l., 2013).


Some Remarks About This Translation In this first, full and annotated translation, I have tried to render the text De veris principiis artis dimicatoriae tractatus brevis of Henry of Gunterrodt (Heinrich von Gunterrodt) in modern English as well as possible, trying to stick as closely as possible to the original text. For my translation I used the text found in the Raymond J. Lord Collection (http://www.umass.edu/renaissance/lord/pdfs/Gunterrodt_1579.pdf) As so many authors of his time, von Gunterrodt takes great care of the stylistic expression of his thoughts, making it sometimes very difficult for a modern translator to put his words in modern, comprehensible phrases. This is why I sometimes had to add extra words to make sentences more clear. I have also annotated the text with footnotes, which have multiple functions. They consist of: ‐ etymological references ‐ information about the authors von Gunterrodt refers to ‐ historical background information In the text I have kept the original Latin and Greek names of the authors von Gunterrodt refers to (e.g. Plutarchus not Plutarch). I have translated the titles of their works, but in footnote the original (Latin) title of the work is used. I have also put the short words which sometimes appear on the left side of the original text, in the margins of my translation. When this text was longer than usual (e.g. consisting of entire phrases), I have added the original text in a footnote. To stay close to the original, I have used a blackletter font (e.g. Rapier) in the main text. After each page I have added //, to make it easier for a modern reader to refer back to the original pages.


Epigram by John the Elder

The fire of the body stimulates a person to (omitted: the) movement of the spirit This spirit is overwhelmed by rust in a stagnant body.

Thus stimulated limbs grow tired by various kinds of wrestling: A perpetual laziness takes control of lazy bodies.

When you have color in your face, you have to maintain the fire in your heart! Make sure you have rules in your movement and care in your steps.

For it is necessary for all limbs to show elegance, for brutal movement violates pious eyes.

The entertaining art instructs the serious man to (have) a good character and teaches us how the body can be protected against an enemy in front of us.

Therefore, you who teach methods of honest wrestling, instruct the power of body and mind!

To the most illustrious Prince and Lord, Sir John, Duke of Mecklenburg,16 Prince of the old family of Henetus,17 Count of Schwerin, Lord of Rostock and Lord of Stargard, his most Clement, I greet you … A2 It can probably look strange, most illustrious Prince, that in this time I dare to address myself to your majesty, especially on such an unimportant subject. But easily, as I hope, I will justify myself to Your Majesty and I will set myself free from each spot of dubious suspicion in front of my sincere readers. I wanted, you see, that this text of mine – in which I have played a little role ‐‐ would be published in the name of Your Highness. (They will understand my choice) if they understand that I have chosen as patron for this work this hero, who in the practice of wrestling – or the art of combat ‐ has an excellent theoretical and practical knowledge. // This means, he is provided with skill (of combat). Therefore, it is more necessary that people think of me that I have observed that what is decent, than that I’m accused of writing insignificant things. Instead of fearing jealousy in this part, because I have undertaken a treatise about the art in the face of someone who understands the art, the authority of this person can without any doubt protect my attempt against the words of my opponents. Further, it was not my intention in this treatise to deal with the system of this art, explained in all parts and aspects. In contrast, I from my part exhibit briefly a mentioning and some very important chapters about the true fundamental essence of this art. Nor was it within my full authority to bring up all rules, on which the knowledge of the art is solidly founded. Thus I didn’t take away the palm of victory of him, who instructed me in this discipline, nor did I want people to believe of me that I took credit for the knowledge

16 Mecklenburg is a region in the north of Germany, the most important cities are Rostock and Schwerin. Stargard is a smaller city in this area. 17 Henetus was a legendary king, already mentioned in the Aeneis of Vergilius.


whereby the master surpasses his student. In this way, chapter 31 on the duel in the book of Alciatus18 is seriously different from this. Meanwhile, with this plan, I wanted to ensure that the seeds of this art would be sewn, so that other people would be encouraged to obtain a more fruitful benefit from [its study]. When they have a more thorough theory or more outstanding fundamentals of this art, they can bring increase public interest and bring them amongst our midst. In doing so, this noble art, fitting to noble people, could be saved from perishing and could protect itself against people who have no clue of the art. // Your Excellency will kindly receive these reflections, when he looks at my work, more because these are written in sympathy towards him, than to honor themselves. For these are writings – depending on what they have of importance – which one sees as insignificant, more than they could satisfy the judgment of such a prince. But if they are seen from the point of view of their dignity, then they are absolutely worthy to such a great name! When they are regarded, taking into reckoning my efforts, they will certainly be accepted by you. Anyway, if Your Excellency would kindly and with open arms accept these rudimentary writings, first steps – so to speak – brought forward by me in the art of combat, then it can happen that I, according to the will of my Master in this art, and with my own efforts, will compose a more perfect and solid work. So I would also put a crown to this work. All the best, good luck and health! Edited in Wittenberg, from the Museum, on that day itself on which Christ was born 1579 years before. By taking the nature of a human being, he set us free again for God the Father, by perpetual being and support of the same nature He confirmed that we would be in His perpetual care. To Your Highness, Your most humble, Heinrich von Gunterrodt.

18 Alciatus or Andrea Alciato (1492-1550) was an Italian jurist and author. Von Gunterrodt is here referring to one of the legal works of Alciatus, De Singulari Certamine (1543). In Chapter 31 Quid si is provocetur, cui iure naturali vel civil honor debeatur (What if he is challenged who is owed with honor by natural or civilian right) Alciatus discusses whom one can’t challenge for a duel, e.g. "people to whom we owe honor" – parents, tutors,… Interesting Alciatus writes: eum quoque, a quo quis in armis eruditus fuerit, nefas est in id periculum trahere, cum magistro non minor reverentia quam patri debeatur ("It is also a crime to put this person, by whom one is trained in weapons, into this danger, because reverence is owed not less to a master than to a father.")


Recommendation to the noble art of wrestling/fighting, dedicated to the most illustrious Prince John, Duke of Mecklenburg, written by Gunterrodt NB: Poem written in dactylic hexameter (— U | — U| — U | — U | — u u | — X ) (U = two short (u) syllables which can be replaced by a long syllable) For noble people, fame comes from their blood, but when they double this with techniques, they surpass every glory of their origin. While what the origin brings, evokes ‐ as a faithful servant ‐ glorious bravery in lots of situations, while it brings its actions in the public to raise its noble family with new virtues and provides an immortal decoration through its deeds, noble blood equals these deeds to the famous Olympus. (But now) Your new glory appears because of this: it makes your arms ready to fight, it slings your strong upper arms in hasty battle, above shoulders and head it jumps towards the shining sword, and from a high position it shakes the agile pine branch. Because of this, HEINRICH, you make it possible for noble people to rise through famous techniques and you also let your own name rise with the starting virtues of your own glory and origin, a name you carry with your own origin and glory. Give your hopes to this pious Muse, give the greatest rewards for honors, because the dominator in arms flourishes gloriously! Cheeks turn red at the first youth, but arms turn full of power, all these things make fast movements possible. Sometimes it is decent to fight with the rapier, or to push a tireless chest against an enemy, and after the signs have been given for the battle to play, then the serious man brings his dignity to a maximum degree, he himself parries the blow. How nice it is to repeat the insults, but heavily he parries all insults. Glorious because of the wound afflicted to him, and when it was possible to go away, he persists against the roaring enemy with anger and hatred, just as with fast moving power and a swift right hand. Such a beautiful gift God gave to the Muses, and he conceded this favor to us, so the genius, ready to fight, can rise in a famous way, so that with famous powers it can flourish by fighting, so that it can be a solace for the Muses, when rough Fate makes people tired, when it pushes them from their place and competes to overcome them with weapons! The care of power is given to princes, the glory is given to the Muses, this comes and it affects your great name to start with it. Oh JOHN, let your name start new undertakings, and you who are prosperous by your virtue, accept with swift foot these works which are very well written, you who are illustrious by the gifts of your spirit, bring your name spontaneous to fame with excellent proof, which will come as a high glory. You are said to be born from the family of HENETUS, you are the light of powerful people, you are the beauty of leaders, fill your family and name with everlasting glory of your house, with virtues and with deeds. For your family the representation given here is exclusive, which strong hands make with deeds into monuments, while with famous deeds hands join their arms in virtue,


and manifold a spear is placed under strong arms to be stabbed. Because of this glory consists from its martial deeds, its power is a reference to an old family. // Oh glory of the world, for years a model to the memory of its virtue, which the Muse praises forever from the beginning towards everlasting honors in the coming time. As the influence of your origin, the brilliance of your family, the famous gifts of the gods lift you full of glory to stars and heaven, in this way a poem lifts your honor, famous duke, Oh John, because you will praise your family tree through your deeds. You will make it possible that it is for ever more perfect for the Empire, and with bright splendor for ever of your family. For this (family) the new fame of the writings of VON GUNTERRODT flourishes, this fame obtains praise from a strong hand, glory from its mind. It brings proofs of its important virtue, when an extraordinary young and powerful man does military exercises with remarkable wrestling exercises. May glorious preludes of Dukes be glorious fights, and may a fast fight encourage great deeds of divine people towards excellent deeds, by which the names and achievements of God stand high. This my wishes want, this my writings and the weapons of the wrestling school (Palaestra) bring by fate in a happy way, when glorious weapons make sounds through weapons, techniques support famous techniques, these techniques achieve a victory against important people and take all glory from them.


The True Principles Of The Art Of Combat19 B It is certainly not a surprise that the art of wrestling or combat is the most outstanding of all kinds of fighting which are undertaken to exercise the body. But this art has come to less frequent use, and is even held in contempt amongst the people of Germany20 – though they had in their possession the quality of fortitude. This is because most of the teachers in this art today listen too much – due to their loose way of living and the suspicious behavior of their ignorance – how one needs another Galenus,21who aimed his arrow against the vicious gymnastic arts or the arts of fighting. But in reality some of them refer to the pugilist Heraclides,22 about whom they say that he was capable of eating and drinking an almost enormous amount of food and drink. Not one person could be found who was equal to him in drinking. Other people he invited to have breakfast with, others to lunch, others to supper, the last ones he invited to the after‐dinner drinking bout. The second guests were already put aside, while the first people went away. He surpassed every one! // But, though many examples of fighters with excellent self‐control can be mentioned here, still many people see their opposite, and these fighters regard it as glorious when they can drink endlessly and when they can roll themselves in every filthy pleasure. In the fighting school23 there are many Chironomi and Acrochirstae (Guys Who Obey the Law of the Hands and Finger Guys24), this means, who make a presentation of movements and gestures. They do their best to show off their art and their body with a certain school‐like appearance of wrestling. They are only willing to boast, while they take care not to use any methodology during their performances. Even more, they themselves are neither instructed in certain rules nor bound by them, but when the hands must be brought together, then they want this to be a clear example of their art: that when they bring forth blows they do so without any notion of technique and sanity, with closed eyes in the way of fools, in the same way as is mentioned about the Andabatae.25 And because they mostly fight in public spectacles with weapons which are not sharp, but use blunt weapons, they only try to hit the heads of their opponents. They themselves only protect this part of their body, neglecting the other parts.

19 I translate ars dimicatoria with "art of combat", hereby using the same translation as Forgeng (2000). All references to the I:33 are taken from Forgeng. 20 The Holy Roman Empire. For the decline of the art of combat, see introduction. 21 This is a reference to Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) who wrote in his De arte gymnastica (p.66) about the vitiosa gymnastica sive athletica ("the vicious gymnastic arts" or "arts of fighting"), for Galenus see 144. 22 Von Gunterrodt refers to a champion who was well known for his glutony. No other information about this champion can be found in the classical sources. 23 Palaestra= Fechtschule 24 Von Gunterrodt uses a 16th-century neologism, based on Greek words, to describe a way of fighting: Cheir = hand, nomos= law my interpretation: the law of the hands, acrocheir: fingertip: He who uses fingertips / (Chironomi were persons who "lead by hands" and the word seems to have been used in ancient Greece for those who conducted music with the gestures of their hands. Acrochiristae are people who go out with their fingertips high, (in order tot grapple) In the name we find the Greek ‘Acrós (peak/what is above ). In addition, achrokeirismos’ or akrokeirismos were wrestling and boxing exercises in which combatants used their arms to engage a fight. Andrea Alciatus, o.c., Chapter 37 also refers to chironomi, qui rationem gesticulationis manuum tenebant ("who were masters of the way of moving the hands") and the acrochiristae, quorum cura fuit summis manibus pedibusque; agilitatem corporis ostentare ("under whose care it was with the tips of their hands and feet to show the agility of their body"). 25 The Andabata was a type of gladiator who fought "blind" because of his closed helmet.


And with their arms, though sometimes not without any danger, as it were a wall, they protect themselves.26 Meanwhile they don’t care // B2 whether their opponent hits with thrusts or with cuts to the other parts of their body. ‘Opponent’, meaning, he who fights from the other side [of the ring]. Because of this it seems that this kind of art is of minimal use in a real fight, and so it happens that many spectators are persuaded that knowledge of this art can’t bring any practical utility. And this is true about fighters who fight like this; they cannot be considered artfull. They judge it deprived of a foundations and have the opinion that only agility of the body and strength are the most important matters. In this matter they make no small mistake. For this art has not less than another very certain and very perfect fundamentals (though very few people know about this). I have decided to bring something about these foundations in our midst, indeed in brief and in this order that I don’t entirely omit the Greek and Roman antiquities, the inventors of the art of wrestling. The gymnastic games were first invented by Lycaon in Arcadia, as Plinius Maior27 has written in his book VII, chapter 56. Thus in Greece first the games were founded and were regarded as very famous: The Olympic, Phytian, Nemean, Isthmian games. Indeed Hercules // after having achieved a victory on Augeas, king of Elis, and having cleaned out his stable, established a sacred contest in the neighboring fields of Olympia. This contest is celebrated every four years (or every fiftieth month, as the translator of Lycophron asserts). This happened with this decree, that in this year the young people of Greece would exercise themselves in the Pentathlon (Five Games): running, jumping, discus throwing, boxing with gloves and wrestling. But they would also prepare for the contest with so called exercises in these games. On the fifth day an end was imposed to the contest and the victor (who is called Olympionices28) was crowned with a wreath of olives, who – as it pleases Aristoteles – was called Philostehpanos.29

26 This use of the arm to shield the head, when the head is the only viable target to win a fencing match, could be found in many European fencing sports, and was still found in English single-stick fencing at the turn of the 20th century. See, for example: C. Phillips-Wooley, Broad-Sword and Single-Stick, George Bells & Sons (1898). The practice is well-described in Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857):

"The weapon is a good stout ash-stick with a large basket-handle ... The players are called "old gamesters," -why, I can't tell you - and their object is simply to break one another's heads: for the moment that blood runs an inch anywhere above the eyebrow, the old gamester to whom it belongs is beaten, and has to stop. A very slight blow with the sticks will fetch blood, so that it is by no means a punishing pastime, if the men don't play on purpose, and savagely, at the body and arms of their adversaries. "The old gamester going into action only takes off his hat and coat, and arms himself with a stick: he then loops the fingers of his left hand in a handkerchief or strap which he fastens around his left leg, measuring the length, so that when he draws it tight with his left elbow in the air, the elbow shall just reach as high as his crown. Thus you see, as long as chooses to keep up his left elbow, regardless of cuts, he has a perfect guard for the left side of his head."

It is also notable that even at that late date many fencing instructors shared von Guterrodt's believe that these fencing games were very artificial and removed from actual swordsmanship. 27Plinius Maior (23-79 AD) was a Roman author, famous for his Naturalis Historia, one of the first encyclopaedia ever written. 28 Greek: "winner of the Olympic games" 29 Greek: "he who loves the wreath"


This glory was so highly esteemed, that it is certain most people died of happiness after hearing the news of their sons’ victory. The honor for the victor was so highly held that he was brought back to his fatherland seated high on a cart, not through the gates of the city but through the ruins of its walls. Because of this, Cicero said in his In defence of L. Flaccus:30 Acinas was a pugilist and winner in the Olympic games, which is of more importance in Greece and a more glorious thing than to have had a triumph in Rome. The Pythian games of Apollo were established in honor of Apollo, because of the killing of the very dangerous Python snake // B3 or as Strabo writes in his book IX, (the killing) of a very criminal man, with the nickname Draco. The victor of this contest obtained a wreath of laurels with apples. Therefore Ovidius seems tribute the victor of the Pythian games with a crown of oak in his 9th book of Metamorphoses, when he says: To make sure long time could not delete his efforts, he founded the sacred games, with celebrated contests, called Pythia, after the name of the serpent he killed. Here each of the young men who had won with hand or feet or wheel, took the honor of leaves of oak. That he did not write this from fantasy, but to make a more appropriate transition to the story of Daphne, is clear from what he added: it was not yet a laurel tree.31 The Nemean games, in which the victors are crowned with parsley, is so called after the Nemean forest in the Peloponessos. In this forest people used to come together in honor of Hercules, who is said to have killed a lion in that forest. Or they came together in honor of the child Archemoros, the child of Lycurgus who was killed in that forest by a snake. The Isthmian games, where he who has achieved victory obtains a crown from pine leaves, are called so from the Isthmos in the Peloponessos. In this land bridge the games are held, not far away from the temple of Neptune // These games were founded by Theseus32 in honor of Neptune, as Plutarchus33 thinks. Thus he writes about the foundation of these games in the life of Theseus: Theseus founded these first as a contest for Neptune. Olympia was used to praise Jupiter because of Hercules, and so because of himself [Theseus] Isthmia was used to glorify the honor of Neptune. Those [games] founded on the same place in the honor of Melicerta,34 happened at night more to bring forth religious initiation than the image of a spectacle. Or perhaps it is better to say, these games were in honor of Palaemon (whom the Latin people call Portunus, from which the name of the Portunalia is derived), as 30 Cicero was a Roman politician, philosopher and author who wrote many works on various subjects. Here von Gunterrodt refers to Cicero, Pro Flacco, 31 Atyanas pugil Olympionices hoc est apud Graecos, quoniam de eorum gravitate dicimus, prope maius et gloriosius quam Romae triumphasse. 31 Daphne tried to escape from the love of Apollo and was turned into a laurel bush. After this Apollo started wearing a laurel wreath. 32 Theseus was the fhe Greek hero, son of Aigeus of Athens, who defeated the Minotaur. 33 Plutarchus of Chaeronea (46-120 AD) was a Roman author who wrote in Greek about all kinds of topics. 34 Son of Athamas and Ino, god of the sea, worshipped under the name of Palaemon or Portunus.


one can conclude from a noble Greek epigram by the poet Archias, who has written about these four contests, which are even today spread amongst the people. These are the verses: Four holy contests are told to have existed amongst the Greeks, two for the children of men, two for the inhabitants of heaven. The trophy for Phoebus, Jupiter himself, Palaemon and Archemoros were apples, a wreath of olives, parsley and pine leaves. On this part it is worth writing that Lucianus,35 while describing how the lots were drawn for fighters and pancratiasts, reports that very small ballots were thrown together in a silver calpis – as he told – this is an urn; not bigger than a bean. This order was always kept in mind: The same letter of the alphabet had to be inscribed on two (beans), for the amount of fighters and in the same way for the amount of representative ballots. When the time for fighting was approaching, the athletes one by one went forward to draw the ballot. There was no right to watch the drawing, as long as the Mastigophorus,36 who assisted, forbade this. When a circle was drawn, the Alytarches37 inspected the ballots, while he was walking around and divided the fighters: The fighter who obtained alpha, was put together with he who had received the same letter, and so on. The ones with the same number then went forward to fight. This was the custom when an equal amount of people were there to fight. But when five or seven people had to fight, a single letter, which didn’t have a counter number, was thrown into the urn. The one who took it out, stood aside and waited, while the others were fighting. Soon he could go and fight with the ones who were tired, meanwhile keeping his power and remaining unscathed in his physical strength. Of course this was seen as something very desirous! Therefore he was called Efedros, this is efedros, this means (a word which is also used in Aiax Mastigophoros by Sophocles) ʺa very fresh person.ʺ (Caelius, Book XXII Chapter. 18, Ancient Lessons38)// In all these contests, fighting39 had the most important place, (consisting of) mainly three types which are summarized here. The first type of fighting is the palè – one who is able to push down or to lock his opponent – from which the word ‘wrestler’40 (palaisikos) comes. The Greeks tell the name comes from ʺshaking,ʺ41 while the Latin people tell the name comes from the style of movement, from which the word ʺto move with violenceʺ42 derives. We believe that this wrestling was invented by PHORBAS, the paidotribes43 of Theseus in Athens, but other people attribute this invention rather to Theseus himself. People absolutely didn’t

35 Lucianus of Samosate (125-180 AD) was a Roman satirist who wrote lots of works in Greek. 36 Greek: "he who carries the whip" 37 Overseer who helped to punish the athletes who didn’t follow the rules. 38 This is a reference to the Antiquarum Lectionum (ancient lessons), written by the Venetian professor Caelius Rhodiginus (1469-1525), published in 1516. In his books he collected curious and interesting facts from classical history. 39 My first translation for palaestra was wrestling, but after analysing the three types and looking at the way of wrestling, I thought a better translation would be "fighting". Von Gunterrod uses the word palaestra, which, as we have seen before (note 8) means "fighting school" and even more precise "wrestling school". Maybe he meant “In all these contests the palaestra was the most important place, since three types of fighting were practiced there…” 40 luctator 41 The Greek verb paioo literally means "to shake" 42 This is the translation of the verb luxare 43 trainer


wrestle in one way. Sometimes they fought from a mutual embrace, starting from the lower part of the body and the shoulders, sometimes with arms brought together, grabbed by a hand. They also fought with punches, leverage techniques, tricks, not to slay their rival, but to throw him down. The second type of fighting is the fist fight. In Greek a fist fighter44 is called puktès – one who can give blows with his fist45 – and with only one blow he can knowck down his opponent. The first contest was once fought with bare fists, thus by the Greeks called pux,46 by the Latin people it was called ‘fightʹ47 From that word derives the noun ‘fist’, because the loose hand48 has its origin from the word manè ‐ // C [and] is made firm puknè with closed fingers.49 *Leather straps were later put around the fist as protection, because when bare fists hit, they sometimes received more damage than they themselves caused. These leather straps were called with a Greek word: caestus. In the beginning they were small, later, to make sure they did not come loose during the blows, they were not only attached to the elbow but also to the shoulder. Finally iron and lead was sewn onto them to create a more savage spectacle, for they could easily kick out the brain and intestines. For that reason they wore ear protection: amfootidas. The entire art was about avoiding a blow, not by fleeing from it, but by moving and dodging. In that time one could parry a blow with a blow, if he was stronger. Finally, to make sure they did not give a blow without reason, lest, set in movement by the weight of the lead they fall down face down, the whip was used when they fought too intensely.50 The third kind of fighting is the Pancration: it is composed of both wrestling and fist fighting. A pancratiast is he who fights with the effort of his entire body, with each drive of his power. For this reason he is also called pammachos.51 As Aulus Gellius52 witnessed when called to fight, he stands with the hands brought forward and high. With his hands moved in position, he protects his head and face as if with a wall. // Once the fighting started, he seemed on one hand to wrestle while trying to grab (the opponent), on the other to act as a fist fighter while he was punching. We believe that Theseus has invented this kind of fighting when he fought swordless against the Minotaur in Crete (Caelius Book XIII Ancient Lessons53). He also invented the entire art of fighting: from him the theoretical knowledge of fighting originated; from the masters of this knowledge it started to be practiced, while people before only fought with the size and power of their body. With this art he achieved a victory on Cercio,54 who had killed all people who fought him, as Pausanias55 writes in [his book about] Attica. 44 pugil 45 pugnus 46 This Greek word is not a noun, but an adverb meaning "with the fist" 47 pugna 48 manus 49 Von Gunterrodt derives the Latin manus and pugnus respectively from manè (loose) and puknè (firm). 50 This entire section (indicated by *) is copied from the Poetices libri septem (Seven Books on Poetry) by Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484-1554). His work was published in Lyon in 1561 and 20 years later in Leiden. 51 Greek: "he who fights with everything" 52 Aulus Gellius (130-180 AD) was a Roman author who wrote the famous Noctes Atticae (Athenian Nights), a compillation of all kinds of interesting matter concerning literature, history, nature,… 53 Cfr. note 37. 54 Cercyon, who challenged passengers to wrestle with them.


Nevertheless it seems that this art (at least from evidence of the Greeks) was invented much earlier: With this art Antaeus was defeated by Hercules, as it is certain from an epigram by Dyothimus,56 which is translated into Latin by Andreas Alciatus,57 a very scholarly jurist: The son of Neptune58 and the proud offspring of Jupiter59 maintained their courage in the contest of a strong wrestling match. Their prizes were no wash dishes made from shining bronze, it was said: the life or death of the other! Antaeus fell down. The victory of the Greeks was beautiful, because Greece was the inventor of wrestling, not Lybia.60 Amongst others in the Pancration is recorded the famous Sostratus of Sycion, // C2 who was surnamed Acrochersites.61 It is told that he used this strategy: having caught the fingers of his opponent he crushed them and he didn’t loosen his grip until he felt that his opponent had lost his power. In wrestling, the fighter Leontiscus of Sicily62 defeated his opponents with exactly the same method as Sostratus. For he didn’t throw down (his opponents) with wrestling, but wrenched out victory by crushing the fingertips. Suidas63 tells us that this method started by Clearchus,64 the student of Euchirus of Corinth65 and Chilon of Patras.66 To continue, because of the highest practice and the greatest prize, it is very certain that this art was very popular amongst the Romans. Not only did they have their own gladiators,67 but even free men gave up their name for these games, to prove their virtue, typical for their own soul. (Gladiators with bought blood fought in the arena – prepared out of a choice of slaves and freed men by masters and trainers with the name Lanista.68 Four69 types of

55 Pausanias was a geographer and traveller who lived in the 2nd century AD. He wrote the Description of Greece. 56 Lesser known Greek poet 57 Cfr. note 32. 58 Antaeus 59 Theseus (who had two fathers: Aigeus and Zeus!) 60 Antaeus lived in Lybia. 61 Greek: "He who uses fingertips" Pausanias (see note 54) writes: Next to the statue of Lysander is an Ephesian boxer who beat the other boys, his competitors -- his name was Athenaeus, -- and also a man of Sicyon who was a pancratiast, Sostratus surnamed Acrochersites. For he used to grip his antagonist by the fingers and bend them, and would not let go until he saw that his opponent had given in. He won at the Nemean and Isthmian games combined twelve victories, three victories at Olympia and two at Pytho. The hundred and fourth Festival, when Sostratus won his first victory, is not reckoned by the Eleans, because the games were held by the Pisans and Arcadians and not by themselves (VI,4,1, translated by W. H. S. Jones (1918) 62 Also mentioned by Pausanias (VI,4,3) 63 Suidas is the alleged name of the Greek author of the medieval encyclopaedia Suda. 64 Clearchus of Soli 65 Not much is known about him, except that he lived in the 7th century BC. 66 Chilon was a famous wrestler. 67 In the Latin text a long description – in brackets – about gladiators starts here. To make this text more intellegible, I have put this digression in brackets after this sentence. 68 A lanista is responsible for the training in a school of gladiators, the trainer was actually called doctor.


gladiators existed: Retiarii,70 Secutores,71 Myrmillones72 and Hoplomachi.73 They were used to risking their lives in these games, mainly to make sure that the tyrones,74 were accustomed to this spectacle and would not be afraid of their bloody enemy. // Later, we can even find many emperors who were instructed in this art, famous men and leaders, who were used to exercise in single combat. They were not afraid to fight with their physical strength against any opponent, as we have heard about Nero,75 Trajan,76 Antonius77 and Severus.78 It is told that these emperors, maintained their health with only this art, evolving to be very strong men. Because of this reason it seemed that they have made it appropriate to a truthful life to invite other people to this kind of exercise, by means of their own example. It is also (so) certain that it doesn’t need proof, that the ancient Germans – who were always so bright with their virtue and the undefeated power of their soul – didn’t hold this art in any lesser estimation. Saxo79 writes in his sixth book: amongst the Saxons, Hama80 had a very famous fighting technique81 with bare hands. So he was brought by means of a weapon dance and with a great military parade to fight with Starcatherus,82 the strongest amongst the Danes – but he was about to die.// C3 They both went into the fight, and everywhere huge crowds of spectators stood by to congratulate their champion. In the fight, Starcatherus almost fell on his back first because of his weak(er) physical strength. But then, as if he wanted to clear away the shame, he regained his strength, came back to himself and broke the body of Hama in the middle. But let me now go to our own time. And because very famous fighters from foreign nations are completely unknown to me, and because I only have seen and known students of some of them, I don’t want to make a judgment of these people. But because of this, let us turn to Germany,83 where two groups have arisen. From one part, they consist habitually of tanners and other craftsmen who are allied with them.84 Certain of them want to be considered masters in the art, mainly in the art of using the sword. For they believe, based on a special

69 Actually more types existed, but von Gunterrodt only mentions the most popular gladiators. Since he spoke earlier about the andabata, our author clearly knew of more than these four types! 70 Gladiator who fought with a net and trident. 71 Gladiator who fought with a shield and short sword, he was the traditional opponent of the retiarius. 72 Gladiator who fought with a large shield and sword. 73 Gladiator who fought with a small shield, dagger and spear. He was the traditional opponent of the myrmillo. 74 A tyro (or tiro) is a gladiator without any experience, a trainee. 75 Emperor from 56-68. 76 Emperor from 98-117. 77 Antoninus Pius, emperor from 138-161. 78 Alexander Severus, emperor from 222-235. 79 Saxo Grammaticus (1150-1208) was a Danish author who wrote the Gesta Danaorum (Deeds of the Danish People); itself an important source for the play Hamlet. 80 Hama was the powerful opponent of Starkad, a legendary hero in Norse mythology. 81 My translation of the Latin word habitus, which has this sense in I:33 and De arte Athletica of H.P. Mair (Codex Icon 393) 82 Cfr. note 79. 83 The Holy Roman Empire, not the present day Germany. 84 This is probably a reference to the Marxbrüder.


privilege given by the Roman Emperors and Kings,85 that they excel in this art, (dwelling) on the markets of Frankfurt. And some people in their group want to declare this under oath and they distinguish themselves based on the same title.86 Others87 are usually opposed against them, studying the good sciences and other arts but less experienced in dirty professions. // Certainly they are superior in the art of fighting than the others, though very few people can be found amongst them, who have a certain fundamental [knowledge] and who are able to teach their students with clear insights. A few years ago a certain man from Strassburg, known as Joachim Meyer,88 tried to show certain rules and even published a big volume in German language about this art. And though he seemed to have understood a little bit, he didn’t make clear the practical use of the fundamentals. Therefore I have decided to explain something about the true principles, which I can do – as I hope – so much better and more easily because I have acquired a very old book,89 written by monks of noble birth.90 (In this way many very famous emperors and leaders in war used to withdraw themselves to monasteries after they had finished their active life. Here, in this life free from their former duties,91 they often thought about the battles in which they had played an important role, and when they were defeated they thought about the reasons [for this defeat] and how they could have prevailed. With their writings they could speak to the future generation. So, in the past, people from noble birth, who usually were brave and very experienced not only in mounted but also in combat on foot, // chose the life of a monk. But because of the work they were used to doing, they could not live a lazy life. Therefore, at certain hours they did these exercises to maintain their physical condition. Finally it is not strange that these people have discovered a reliable foundation [for the art of combat].) I want to explain and analyze this book, that I have obtained from Johannes Herwart of Würtzburg,92 a girdle maker and famous sword fighter, with whom I have a great friendship. For the moment he is a fencing master93 for the very famous Prince Friedrich Wilhem, duke of Saxonia. He told me that he had found this book, in a monastery in Franconia when he was soldier under Markgraf Albert. As instructor94 in this art I used the help of the very loyal Balthasar Cramonius of Pommern in Poland.95 He is studying the art of medicine, a student of this Herwart and not less famous in this art, especially when a fight has to be started under the clashing of arms. Because of this he has indisputable principles of the art, so that he will never fear anyone.

85 The Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and the kings in this empire 86 Master in fighting (magister in arte gladium tractandi: master in the art of using the sword) 87 These are probably the Federfechter, though there is no reference to their name. 88 Joachim Meyer (who died in 1571) was a federfechter, for his work see note 14. 89 Von Gunterrodt is referring to Ms. I:33 90 In the Latin text a long description – in brackets - about monks who had a combattive life, starts here. To make this text more understandable, I have put this digression in brackets after this sentence 91 Otium: free time, or study, I interpreted this as a new phase in their life, a life free from political or military duties 92 http://freywild.ch/i33/i33en.html 93 Von Gunterrodt uses the word lanista here, which is actually the person in charge of the training of fighters, which can be translated as "fencing master". See also Alciatus, o.c. chapter 37 for the same use of the word lanista. 94 Von Gunterrodt uses the neologism informator (<informare,o: to shape, to teach) so "teacher" or "instructor" 95 No information about this person can be found.


But a semester ago he was wounded in a very cruel way by the worst criminals and his left arm was mutilated, so today he uses his right hand // In these types of weapons where it is necessary to have the support of two hands when executing them, he is a very good theoretical expert and he can satisfy his students enough with his demonstrations. For these two people the definition of ʺtrainersʺ96 written by Ravisius,97 is right, when he says: These people are called lanistae and gladiators, who don’t make the true art of (sword) fighting something bookish, but they are those who teach their students all registers of attacking, cutting, causing and avoiding wounds and even where one has to hit using the point or the edge of the weapon. As a result of this, whenever these students have to engage in battle, they can protect themselves better and with more care as they approach their enemies. Their art rests on such a steady foundation, that their students – even with the decline and deterioration of their body, today are instructed in the right way and experienced by their scrupulousness; they move with caution and have no effort at all to avoid blows. (The very skilled master and powerful fighter Johan Wilhelm Neunobel of Jena98 showed not seldomly an example of this [quality]. I was his comrade, and – so to say – his second Pyrrithous,99 and more or less equal in his interests. But correctly I give to him the palm of victory, because I can’t bring forward any resemblance of his remarkable fortitude.// D Ah, could I be helped by this Theseus in these writings of mine! Though this way (of fighting) is very common to foreign nations, we may absolutely not reject this, but may in this place this agility (theirs) be worth the highest glory! But to return to the matter itself, let me at least give a definition of the art of wrestling, or better: a definition of the art of combat. In the explanation of this (in explaning this) I will already mention a little bit about the fundamentals (of the art). Let it be this description: Combat100 is an honest, male and very noble physical101 art, which is proven by principles of nature, by very certain and most perfect foundations and forms. (The art of combat) is advantageous for a fencer, a soldier, in the end even for every person, to defend himself with courage in wrestling, pitched battles, duels, with every type of hand weapon, but certainly also in fights with bare hands. (It is also advantageous) to bring victory against your opponent, enemy or adversary. The matter of fighting has to be practiced to maintain good health and to achieve the building of a strong body, also because of glory and virtue. I call this ʺ[the art of] combatʺ. Usually ʺcombatingʺ is accepted instead of ʺbattlingʺ, which is decent to this matter and because very reliable monks, writers of this art, called it thus. They defined this art as follows: 96 Gymnasta < from the Greek gumnastès: "trainer" (in physical activities). 97 Johannes Ravisius (1480-1525) was a French humanist, famous for his encyclopaedia Officinae Epitome, published in 1560, from which this text is taken (p.315). 98Johann Wilhelm Neunobel was a jurist working for the duke of Lower Saxony, no information is found confirming him in his role of fencing master. 99 Pyrrithous or Pirithous was the mythical friend of the Athenian hero Theseus. 100 Dimicatio, later von Gunterrodt explains why he uses this word. 101 Cfr. 81.


Combat is the disposition of various blows.102 For I say that this kind [of fighting], which is art, consists out of a collection of rules and with these applied into the most detail, we can summarize it. I say honest, because it can’t be reckoned amongst the liberal arts, which are executed only with the help of the intellect and not with the help of hands, because for this art the disposition of the body is more required than that of the mind.103 But because it is really founded on very firm principles and the most perfect and intelligent rules, it obtains this title rightfully. It can’t be reckoned amongst the mechanical or unfree arts, because the (famous) jurist104 says the following in his fourth book about these infamous jobs; Julius and Cassius have agreed on this:105 Athletes don’t make any money at all from their art. I also say (a) male (art), because it is most decent to powerful men and it multiplies not a small fortitude in them. I add (a) very noble physical (art), following Plato, who estimated it so highly, that he has put to attack and simultaneously defend before all other kinds of physical exercises. And he wanted it not to be less than any other exercise, or less heavy. D2 (Here after) follows by principles of nature: this is very clear from a visual demonstration, which is so certain that no person who has unbiased insights,106 or who is gifted with a natural reason can deny this. Especially when every intuitive knowledge is the best definition and can be proven by reality itself and is shown with blows, when people have no faith in words. (I say) by most perfect foundations: this is very clear on the one hand from the human body, and from the other hand from common weapons, as we can see in this short poem: Every person fighting in a Pancration must know to distinguish his body and also his weapons with a right division. Who wants to fight and wrestle right, must divide the man but also the blades. He will win with wrestling and fighting,

when he can use this well against a man.107

102 I:33, fol. 1 r., translated by Forgeng (2000) 20. 103 This is why von Gunterrodt doesn’t call combat a liberal art (ars libera). The 7 liberal arts are: retorica, dialectica, grammatica, aritmetica, geometria, astronomia and musica. They are free because they are aspired to for the knowledge itself, without any other purpose (e.g. financial). 104 Ulpianus (Roman jurist 170-223) who had a huge influence on the Digesta. 105 Julius Sabinus and Cassius were two Roman jurists living in the first century AD. 106 Von Gunterrodt uses two Greek words here: koinas ennoias 107 Wer recht wil fechten und Ringen / Der teil den Man und auch die Klingen / Wird er mit ringen und fechtn bestan / So ers vom Man wol brauchen kan.

Concerning the body, it is divided into weaker and stronger parts, also in close and remote parts, which are or become subject to injuries. Where this is taught, how every person can make effort to have power, Cicero108 says something about this in his second book of Tusculanae Disputationes:109 Athletes shout as loudly as they can, when they are doing exercises. But fist fighters, even when they hit their adversary, sigh while they are dealing blows, not because they would have pain, or would collapse with their soul, but, by emitting their voice, their entire body comes under tension and the blow comes heavier. There are many kinds of common weapons: of these I will enumerate the most important names, as well as I can. The first weapon in use is the Dussacken, it is also possible to call this kind of weapon Acinaces110 or Harpes,111 because the form matches with these weapons. Further, it seems that the German name of this weapon is transferred from the Thyssagetae112 people, who lived in Scythia beyond the Sauromates. In the same way as the Persians, these people used such small, curved swords. To look at the exercise itself, or the execution or the way of fighting itself, it doesn’t seem to differ much from fighting with boxing straps.113 At least if we consider the boxing straps as a sort of club, as certain people want it to be. But the very learned Hieronymus Mercurialis114 describes this in another way and shows images115 in the second book of his On the gymnastic Art in chapter 9. D3 Secondly: the gladius,116 machaera,117 xyphomachaera,118 romphaia119 or sword.120 The inventors were the Curetae.121

108 Cfr. note 29. 109 Tusculanae Disputationes II,56. 110 This is also the word H.P. Mair uses in his De arte Athletica. The name comes from the Geek akinakès: a Persian sword. 111 From the Greek arpè: sickle 112 The Thyssagetae are described by Herodotus (485-425 BC) a famous Greek traveller and historiographer. Histories, IV22. "after the desert, if one inclines somewhat to the east, the Thyssagetae are reached, a numerous nation quite distinct from any other, and living by the chase," translated by Rawlinson (2009). 113 caestus 114 Cfr. note 21. 115 Cfr. Appendix 1 116 The typical double-edged, single-handed Roman sword. 117 Greek curved sword. 118 Double-edged, single-handed Greek sword. 119 Thracian curved sword. 120 ensis: the word used by H.P. Mair to describe the longsword 121 The Curetes (or Curetae) were an ancient people living in Crete, who worshipped Zeus witth the clashing of their shields and with war dances.

Division of the body in strong and weak, in close and remote openings

Broadsword/ Longsword (with) both fists

Dussacken/ Sabre

Thirdly: the spear which the Spartans have invented, and these people are rather preferred to be called good sword fighters than strong soldiers. Fourthly: the throwing spear,122 or hunting spear, which was invented by Piscus.123 Fifthly: the double axe,124 a sacred spear; a Roman or Amazonian axe. For it is told that Penthesilea,125 the Queen of the Amazons, was the inventor (of this weapon). Sixthly: the cestra:126 this weapon is used a lot in mounted combat. Seventhly: the dagger,127 and curved dagger:128 a sacrificial knife; a long triangular dagger. Eighthly: the rapier129 Ninthly: the rapier with an iron hand protector made from mail added to the left hand. This kind of protection is very common in use amongst the Italians. Tenthly: the rapier with a cloak added to it. It is told that this is used by the Spanish people above all others. Eleventhly: the rapier in the right hand and the dagger in the left hand // Amongst the French and almost all other foreign nations this is the kind of weapon most used. Twelfthly: the rapier with a shield, small shield, round shield130 (PROETUS and ACRISIUS131 have invented this when they were fighting with each other, or Chalcus, son of Athamas,132 large shield (Herodotus thinks in his fourth book that this is instructed by Egyptian Greeks). Today this is in use amongst Scottish and English people. Concerning this kind of armament,

122 hastile or hastula (H.P. Mair). 123 unknown. 124 bipennis (H.P. Mair). 125 Queen of the Amazons, killed by Achilles in the Trojan War. 126 This word has originated from the Greek kestros: a pointed tool used in encaustic painting. H.P. Mair uses the word cestum for this kind of mace. 127 pugio (H.P. Mair). 128 sica. 129framea, while H.P. Mair speaks about the ensis Hispanus, framea is a German word, actually meaning "throwing spear." 130 Clipeus/clypeus (H.P. Mair) 131 Acrisius was a mythical king of Argos, who quarreled with his twin brother Proetus even in the womb of their mother. 132 Athamas was a mythical king of Boeotia. Although he doesn’t refer to his source, von Gunterrodt has taken most information about the origin of weapons from Plinius Maior, Naturalis Historia VII, 200-202.

Halberd

Warhammer/ Hammer used on horseback Dagger/ Hitting knife/Stabber Rapier and armoured glove Rapier and cloak Rapier and dagger Rapier & buckler/Shield/ Tartsche (big shield)

Long pike Half pike

Pyttacus the philosopher133 from Mytilene, one of the wise people in the time of king Croesus,134 invented something new. For when the Athenians and the people of Mytilene were fighting with each other, he wanted to fight against Phiro, the leader of the Athenians, because of the border disputes. He killed him in a single fight. (From this story it is clear that not only common soldiers came forward in duels and were excellent in this art). With a net,135 secretly bound under his shield, he hindered his adversary and wrapped him in it. It is presumed that the name of Retiarii136 and the origins of this way of fighting originates from that event. Remember also that famous fist fighter Johann Herwart once spoke about a net of this kind that had to be attached under the shield // and was fit to wrap the opponent. Thirteenthly and finally: two gladii, two swords, or a rapier as well in the left and as well in the right hand, which is the most important kind of armament and also the most excellent. Concerning the dagger and the Dussack, because of the shorter length, a division doesn’t have a place in these weapons, but the description can only be deduced from the parts of the body. In these weapons the fighting usually verges towards wrestling or the art of throwing, where people search embola,137 parembola,138 paratheses139 and systases,140 they also search for methods of twisting and gripping the limbs. About these strategies, without following in the footsteps of another person was the very noble Fabian of Auwerswaldt,141 who published a book in the year 1539, under the name and patronage of the very famous Elector Duke Johann of Saxony.142 In the other weapons the distinction of the weapons as well as the section of the body obtain the most important benefit. //

Firstly, weapons are divided as follows: in the grip or the hilt,143 the point and the blade, which is again divided in two different edges and in two important parts: the strong and the weak; in between these is the middle part. These parts are again divided in two. From here follows – after the three

133 Pyttacus of Mytilene (640-568 BC) was one of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece. He was also famous as a general. 134 Croesus (595-547 BC) was a Lydian king who was proverbially rich. 135 Rete. 136 Cfr. note 69. 137 Greek: embolon:"ram" (on a ship): a wrestling technique with a pushing movement. 138 Greek: parembolè parembolh: a wrestling technique of lifting the opponent's leg. 139 Greek word derived from paratithèmi: a wrestling technique of throwing the other on the ground 140 Greek: sustasis: a wrestling technique of clashing against each other 141 Fabian von Auerswaldt (1454-1540) became famous for his treatise on wrestling: Ringer kunst: funf und achtzig stücke zu ehren Kurfürstlichen gnaden zu Sachssen. (Wittemberg, 1539) http://www.klocktower.org/ringen/auerswald/Auerswald.pdf 142 John Fredrick I Elector Duke of Saxony (1504-1554) or John the Magnanimous. 143 capulus (H.P. Mair).

Division of the blade: In long and short edge In strong and weak In the middle of the strong and in the middle of the weak

Two rapiers at the same time Wrestling and throwing

parts144 have been defined in two ‐ necessarily that four extreme parts are determined.145 From these the most solid foundation is deduced and almost the entire heart of the art lies in this.146 Thus this small verse is of great benefit.

Happy are those people who have maintained vice (sic!) in the middle of extremes. In my definition I have added proven by the most perfect forms. This has to be understood about the circle, drawn before you.147 For the proof of this is deduced from the circumference of the circle: As in shadow fighting, the point may not dwell out of the circumference of the circle, in the same way in real fighting the point always has to be pointed towards the space of the the opponentʹs body.

But on the other hand, as the point has to stay inside of the circle and the body of the opponent, in the same way the control of the hand – so to say ‐ has to be kept out of the circle and near the own body, sometimes other parts become delivered to injury //

E because the body is logically the centre and stays more or less immobile, it controls all blows, from this point other demonstrations (of the art) also come, but it is not a part of this work to describe them. The heavier blows are taught from diameters, against which the monks also want defenses, or as they call ‘guards’.148 (Generally all combatants, or even all people who hold a sword in their hands, even those who have no clue at all about the art of combat necessarily use guards.149) About these guards the monks have composed these verses: The seven guards should begin with Underarm The Second is given to the right shoulder, the Third to the left. Give the Fourth to the head, give the fifth to the right side. Give the Sixth to the breast, finally you should have Langort.150 These seven parts are used by ordinary combatants.

There are three that take the fore, the rest then flee.151

144 After Di Grassi, who published his Ragione di adoprar sicuramente l'Arme, si da offesa come da difesa (Venice, 1570) the sword is devided in three parts and the point (See appendix 2). An English translation can be found here: http://www.cs.unc.edu/~hudson/digrassi/sword.html 145 The point can't be devided in two parts, the four other parts are extreme (outside the guard) 146 I:33, fol. 1 v.: totus nucleus artis dimicatorie consistit, translated by Forgeng (2000) 2. In the I:33 the entire heart lies in the final guard, called Longpoint. 147 This is my interpretation of the word praefixus < praefigere,o: pierce, to fix something before you. The idea of using geometrical figures in the art of combat was introduced by Camillo Agrippa who published his Trattato Di Scientia d’ Arme,con un Dialogo di Filosofia (Rome, 1553). Agrippa had a huge influence on the use of the rapier. See also appendix 3. His text can be found here: http://mac9.ucc.nau.edu/manuscripts/agrippa.pdf , 148 Custodia (I:33). 149 I:33, see Forgeng (2000) 1. 150 Cfr. note 101, but slightly adapted 151 Cfr. note 146, but slightly adapted (cfr. supra).

Driving the cut towards the man

Thrusts and also cuts are demonstrated from the same diametrical lines. Firstly (these cuts) are taught from the semi diameter coming from the circumference to the centre of the circle: the cuts which are more true, the protective cuts and the master cuts. These are executed with the true edge, // and the edges are recognized by their diversity, when fighters are mostly wonderful, especially, as is the case in the use of rapier in this matter, because they only use one edge, though the other edge is certainly not forged for the sake of APPEARANCES.152

Secondly, we have the high and the low thrusts, the middle and those which have to be executed from each side, and redoubled thrusts: with and without protection. Very intelligent thrusts are demonstrated from a special form, therefore this form is placed outside the circle, to make sure not to confuse this circle. Sometimes these thrusts can also be shown coming from a semi diameter. A triangle is used to demonstrate defenses against all blows or cuts; it is important that these happen with counter cuts; certainly thrusts and cuts are necessary that strive to avoid (counter)attacks. From a half circle we have parryies against thrusts, or stabs,153 as our monks call it. When two types of weapons are combined, a demonstration of defenses and parries is derived, coming from half circles divided in a circle, in another part they even come from a triangle.// E2 The inner circles are made with small lines, as is the case with two circles who form a complete circle when they are joined; they indicate three midpoint, about which was already spoken in the division of weapons.

The things which are further put forward, concern the benefit and the purpose: no person, who has seen modern teachers of this art, will deny that fighting in such way, in which people use wooden weapons, provides the greatest experience for war and employment in self‐defense when one is confronted with danger. Even Cicero confirms in his On the Orator that the entertaining art of weapons is of use for soldiers and gladiators.154 From this it is clear that, when duels155 were once permitted, they were especially useful. So Emperor Frederick II156 didn’t want single combat, in popular speech called ‘dueling’, to take place anymore, except in a very few cases. He was moved to do this because he said that rarely or never are two fighters found who are so equal, that one fighter isn’t stronger than the other in total, or that one fighter exceeds the other in another part: with his greater strength, more powerful virtue or even intelligence. //

152 It is unclear why von Gunterrodt uses capitals for the Latin word DICIS ("you say"). 153 I:33 fixura 154 De Oratore II, 20,84 ac tamen ars ipsa ludicra armorum et gladiatori et militi prodest aliquid ("but the entertaining art itself of weapons is in a certain way useful for a gladiator and a soldier") 155 Greek: monomachia. 156 Frederick II (1194-1250) was one of the most powerful emperors of the Holy Roman Empire.

Thrusts and cuts on each other Half cut before the man near the blade

Thrust with opening, thrust with parry wonderful thrust Blocking a cut Counter thrust Counter cut

Blocking a thrust

Above this, there was another argument: because these duels occurred in the tradition of the Longobards,157 many people died under the shield of Justice. For this reason, duels are forbidden to us Christians, but fighting is often still the greatest benefit for solving quarrels. At least, a person can not remain peaceful, unless his neighbor desires the same, as it is said in the vernacular and amongst the people with this very well known proverb.158 Also in the case of insults, when it is sometimes necessary to turn to arms, this to defend fame, honor and reputation. As a matter of fact, in all of these events is this art of benefit, at least if no one abuses it, but only uses it for legal self‐defense, in which case, no one is obliged to wait for the first blow. See law 3 §2 On violence and armed violence,159 law 2‐3‐4160 in the commentary of Angelus de Ubaldis161 On killers.162 Jason de Mayno,163 after Baldus of Ubaldis164 in law 3, marginal number 11,12,13 in the Digests: On the just and the law:165 For in the eyes of legislators it is better to forestall than to be forestalled, and it is also better to keep your rights intact, than to look for a solution after your case has been damaged. In which cases it is not necessary166... // E3 No person is obliged to flee because of a dangerous situation, because this is something dishonorable, especially when the insulted person is someone of noble birth. Bartolus of Saxoferato,167 law 9, marginal number 8, according to Baldus168 number 12, commentary on the Codex: Where violence comes from169 and in the law On violence where Jason de Mayno170 in number 38 says How it is common in the Digests: On the just and the law.171 Tiraquellus,172 On nobility, chapter 20, marginal number 64, and in the Counsils of Wesenbecius,173 without any doubt the prince of jurists in Germany and my own incomparable professor. All of this is true with with hand weapons, the different kinds of which I have already spoken of above, but certainly also in fights with bare hands. When one person doesn’t want to yield to another person, but when they both stand against each other and close, then there is absolutely no benefit in weapons, especially not in the longer weapons. But wrestling starts, when one person tries to push or throw down another person or tries to wound or surpass him with various techniques.

157 German tribe, who put a great emphasis on the duel. defeated by Charlemagne in 774, 158 Probably a reference to this German proverb: Du lebst so lang in Frieden, als es den Nachbarn gefällt. . 159 Digesta 43,16,3,5. 160 Digesta 43,13,3,2-4. 161 Angelus of Ubaldis (1328-1400) was an Italian jurist. 162 Codex 9,16,2. 163 Jason de Mayno (1435-1519) was the last of the great commentators on the Roman law. 164 Baldus of Ubaldis (1317-1400), brother of Angelus, was also an Italian jurist. 165 Digesta 1,1,3. 166 Codex, 2,40,50. 167 Bartolus of Saxoferrato (1313-1357) was a brilliant Italian jurist with huge influence on the interpretation of ancient Roman law. His students were Baldus and Angelus of Ubaldis. 168 Cfr. 150. 169 Codex 8,4. 170 Cfr. note 163. 171 Digesta 1,1,3. 172 André Tiraqueau (1448-1558) was a French jurist. 173 Mattheus Wesenbeeck (1531-1586) was a Belgian jurist, who was teaching at Wittenberg. He was without any doubt the professor in Law of von Gunterrodt.

Running in


Finally these words are added: the matter of fighting has to be practiced to maintain good health. For example, based on this text one can understand the great profit this exercise can bring for good health: in Plautus and other authors (the expression) is used “to be as fit as a fist fighter, pancratiast or athlete,”174 to this which means “to benefit from a very good health”. Galenus175 even demonstrates very clearly in his second book How to keep good health that gymnasts practice fighting with weapons as well as fighting with an imaginary opponent176 who is in outstanding physical condition. Galenus even recommends shadow fighting to exercise the arms and the legs. (Glaucus of Carystus177 was very famous in this art; he was as excellent at shadow fighting as he was a strong athlete in fist fighting. Therefore a statue with his shape and fighting position was erected in the shadow of the fighters, as Pausanias178 narrates). Galenus tells that fighting with weapons, which was invented by Dameas,179 contributes to the best physical condition of many body parts. For in Galenusʹ opinion, the gymnastic art is absolutely the best known medicine to maintain your health; it is even the most excellent and outstanding part, even surpassing the healing part of medicine in such a great way as medicines are exceeded by physical exercise. But the art of fighting, as Plato180 testifies, easily obtains the first place amongst physical exercises. No person will doubt that it brings an incredible benefit to avoid future illnesses, to protect your present health and to make ill people feel better (these three things bring a complete preservation of the physical health.) // In his books On the gymnastic art, the very famous Hieronymus Mercurialis,181 an excellent doctor and philosopher, professor of Padua, showed these and other effects of the art of fighting and the entire gymnastic art. He also did this as the first of all people in a very elaborated and erudite way. To achieve the building of a strong body. For Plato says in his Laches:182 for a young man it is very useful to learn how to fight with weapons, because that is how one can achieve a robust body. And Aristoteles183 gives advice in Book VIII of his Politics: adolescents have to devote their time to gymnastic exercises to become trained and stronger. Concerning gymnastics Plato teaches in Book VII of his On Laws: “All exercises in war are the essence,” and he divides the art in dancing and fighting.

174 Titus Maccius Plautus (254-184 BC) was a Roman playwright, well-known for his comedies. Here von Gunterrodt refers to the Epidicus, 20: EP. Quid erilis noster filius? TH. Valet pugilice atque athletice. ("EP. How is the son of our master doing? TH. He is as fit as a fist fighter and an athlete.") 175 Claudius Galenus or Galenus of Pergamon (129-200) was one of the most famous Roman doctors, who wrote a huge corpus of medical works, which had a huge influence on medicine for more than 1500 years. Here von Gunterrodt refers to De tuenda valetudine. 176 Sciomachia or shadow fighting is fighting with an imaginary adversary. 177 Glaucus of Carystus won the fist fight at the Olympic Games of 520 BC. 178 Cfr. note 54. 179 Dameas of Mantinea was the legendary inventor of the hoplomachia, the fighting with weapons. 180 Cfr. note 101. 181 Cfr. note 21. 182 Laches 179 e. 183 Aristoteles (384-322) was a very famous Greek philosopher who wrote lots of works, e.g. Metafysics, Retorics…


Also because of glory and virtue. These are the words of the jurist184 in book IV and further about these people who are seen as infamous. Generally all people think that athletes do their profession because of glory and virtue and this seems useful, so that they aren’t considered as dishonored xystici.185 In spite of this law certain sword fighters in our time are not arrested at all, even though they make money from their body and hasten fight for profit in public games. For xystici were athletes who ere trained during the winter under a roof in a big gallery. Their lanistae trained them to achieve fortitude and a nice build, though they were still meant to descend into the arena and show an example of their virtue. The last thing they did not because they hoped for money, but because they wanted to achieve glory alone. In this way Herodianus and Julius Capitolinus186 write that Emperor Commodus187 was a brilliant gladiator. He scorned the imperial dignity and played the part of a gladiator. To conclude with these words: because Sallustius188writes Yet for a long time mortal men have discussed the question whether success in arms depends more on strength of body or excellence of mind,189 even today we have a great difference of opinion whether natural power or art makes the difference in a fight. In this discussion I would like to add these ancient rhymes:

THE BEST THEORY IS THE MOST EXERCISE F POWER WITH THE BUILD OF YOUR BODY IS A MATTER THAT HELPS! COWARD, KEEP AWAY! Art is very well, but more exercise makes the difference A strong and robust body, help greatly in this matter.190 If you are easily frightened, then don’t learn how to fight.191

184 Cfr. note 103. 185 Here von Gunterrodt uses the word xysticus instead of the proper athleta. A xysticus is an athlete who trains in a custoj, which is a gallery open on one side where athletes train during wintertime. 186 Herodianus and Julius Capitolinus were two of the (fictional) authors of the so called Historiae Augusta, a collection of (sometimes historically doubtful) biographies of Roman emperors (from 117-284) written in the fourth century. 187 Emperor from 164-192. 188 Sallustius (86-35 BC) was a Roman historian who wrote De Bello Catilinae and De Bello Jugurthino 189 De Bello Catilinae 1,5 190 Kunst ist sehr gut mehr ubung thut Starck und geradt hilfft viel zur that. 191 Erschrictst du gern, kein fechten lern. These last two verses are from Johannes Liechtenauer, the legendary 14th-century fencing master.


Therefore, noble and free young men, you must act very generously, behaving as determined and excellent devotees in this most excellent art, which is suited to a free mind. Save this art from contempt and dishonoring by people who don’t understand it, especially when Belisarius Acquaviva,192 the leader of the people of Nardo, thinks that weapons have to be preferred to letters: Book On the Final Battle, letter to the Galatean.193 Vvery important men affirm the contrary of this idea, as when Cicero194 shouts out in Book I of On Duties: Let arms yield to the toga, let laurels yield to language195 May this chapter in the Codex: On the complete abolition of gladiator games not be an obstacle; for although though spectacles with gladiators are already completely abolished, by this is meant spectacles with condemned men in the game of gladiators; the public spectacle196 of gladiators is not abolished. This is very well and very rightly interpreted by the star of our Law, Jacobus Cuiacus197 in book XIII of his Observations, chapter 10. Even the constitutions or articles, promulgated by the most illustrious and most clement prince and our Master, sir August,198 Elector Duke of Saxonia, which are added to the laws of this famous and very well known Academy of Wittenberg,199 don’t reject the profession of this art and the public performance of it, but only prohibit its abuse. Thus, accept my observations with a sincere and grateful heart and the result itself will teach you how necessary and how useful the knowledge of this art is. Because no state can exist for a long time without the protection of weapons, it is decent for noble people, and especially for heroic youths, to excel in the use and knowledge of weapons, so that they can safeguard their fatherland and the Christian state from impious military power and defend good and innocent people courageously with martial virtue! Glory to God!200

192 Belisarius Acquaviva/Aquivivus (1464-1528) was an Italian author. 193 I have not been able to locate this work. 194 Cfr. note 29. 195 Cicero, De officiis I,77, in the original text laudi is read instead of linguae, translated as "praise". 196 Von Gunterrodt makes a pun on munus and ludus gladiatorum: the game and the public spectacle or school 197 Jacobus Cuiacus (1522-1590) was a very famous French jurist who wrote Observationes et Emendationes. (published between 1556-1595) . He was an excellent interpreter of Roman law with an international fame. 198 August (1526-1586) was Elector of Saxony from 1553-1586. 199 The university of Wittenberg (founded in 1502) , which also had a department of law. 200 Greek text


You bring forward famous monuments of your fathers with your coat of arms, and what you carry from your origin, you bring forward with art in a noble way. Because of this, the noble bird201 shines with a flight of other birds, his brilliance doesn’t permit another bird to be there, terror doesn’t permit this. Under it’s paw shines an old trunk, but a young star gets bigger with its glow to shine as a friend with its beams. For this coat of arms marks your family, and this crown achieves a new decoration with a new flower. Glory and glance to the house of Saxony! These turbans202 which are your examples of faith and virtue, shine. Because, what the unfair fleeing of the time takes, noble fame and glance brings higher with his deeds. The trunk refers to the origin, the night bird to the brilliance, the star to the fame, the brave crown to the hands, the turban to your faith. While your family and virtue brings these things through your famous deeds, you bring the noble trunk forward from your family and deeds. Henricus Bolchenius

TO THE HONORABLE FAMILY OF THE NOBLE and famous young man, sir. Heinrich von Gunterrodt.

201 The noble bird is the owl, bird of Pallas Athena, goddess of wisdom. It is also the bird in the coat of arms of von Gunterrodt. 202 On the helmet in the coat of arms lies a turban.

Appendix 1

Hieronymus Mercurialis, De arte gymnastica, p. 113‐114.

Appendix 2

FOR as much as the Effects which procede from the length of the sword, are not in everie part thereof equall or of like force: It stands with reson besides the declaration of the cause, that I find out also the propertie and name of ech part, to the end everie man may understand, which are the parts of the length wherewith he ought to strike, and which the parts, wherewith he must defend.

I have said elswhere, that the sword in strikinge frameth either a Circle, either a part of a Circle, of which the hand is the center. And it is manifest that a wheel, which moveth circulerly, is more forcible and swift in the circumference then towards the Center: The which wheel ech sworde resembleth in striking. Whereuppon it seemeth convenient, that I divide the sworde into fower equal parts: Of the which that which is most neerest the hand, as most nigh to the cause, I will call the first part: the next, I wil terme the second, then the third, and so the fourth: which fowerth conteineth the point of the sword. Of which fower partes, the third and fowerth are to be used to strike withal. For seeing they are neerest to the circumference, they are most swift. And the fowerth part (I mean not the tip of the point, but fower fingers more within it) is the swiftest and strongest of all the rest: for besides that it is in the circumference, which causeth it to be most swift, it hath also fower fingers of counterpeize therby making the motion more forcible. The other two partes, to wit, the first and second are to be used to warde withall, because in striking they draw litle compas, and therefore carrie with them but smal force And for that their place is neere the hande, they are for this cause strong to resist anie violence. (Translation: Thomas Churchyard)

Di Grassi, Ragione di adoprar sicuramente lʹArme, si da offesa come da difesa


Appendix 3

Camillo Agrippa, Trattato Di Scientia d’ Arme,con un Dialogo di Filosofia

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