his 101 rome ch 5 6 fall 2014
TRANSCRIPT
RomeChapters 5 & 6
Geography
3 Eras of Roman History 753-509 B.C. E. Struggle to dominate other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula
509 B.C.E. to 31 B.C.E. establishment of Roman Republic and domination of the Mediterranean Sea and Europe
31 B.C. E. to A.D. 476 Roman Empire
Greeks and Romans Romans had a sense of history
What could they do with Greek Culture and Roman might?
Greeks: virtuous citizenship focused on city-state
Hellenization: cosmopoli left Greeks at a loss to define virtue
Romans: might makes right, Stoicism and Epicureanism
Romans: virtue is in the “doing”
What Caused Rome to fail? Barbarian invasions?
Did it just get too big?
Disparity between rich and poor?
Christianity?
Lessons from Rome’s Triumph and Rome’s Fall? Are there lessons to be learned?
Titus Livius, or Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) admitted, “The study of history is the best medicine for a sick mind; for in history you have a record of the infinite variety of human experience plainly set out for all to see; and in that record you can find yourself and your country both examples and warnings; fine things to take as models, base things rotten through and through, to avoid."
Politicians, Preachers, Political philosophers often see Rome’s decline as a warning for every great civilization that has come after.
Roman History Livy was also careful to add that Roman legends depicted men and women
not as they were, but as they ought to be.
History for Livy is a moral story to instill common values
Early Romans and Etruscans 750 B.C.E.
Greek colonies in Southern Italy numbered about 50 Etruscan Confederacy dominated Northern Italy (Tuscany today)
Origins unknown Not Indo-European Similarities with Semitic peoples Perhaps Hittite origins
Etruscan Cultural Influences Etruscan alphabet (adapted from Greeks)
Fasces
Toga
Arch
Gladiatorial contests
Fasces Surprise
Assimilation: Resistance is Futile http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZEJ4OJTgg8
What happened to the Etruscans? Rather than simply conquer these people, the Romans assimilated them into the
Roman world. Livy “Events before Rome was born have come down to us in old tales with
more of the charm of poetry than of sound historical record, and such traditions I propose neither to affirm nor refute.“
Insight into Romulus and Remus? Virgil’s Aeneid
Aeneid by Virgil
He was to be ruler of Italy,Potential empire, armorer of war;To father men from Teucer's noble bloodAnd bring the whole world under law's domin
Lucretia and Tarquin the Proud
The Roman Republic
509 B.C.E. -31 B.C.E.
Early Roman Government Replaced the King with two consuls
Gave the Roman Senate control over public funds
One consul could veto the other consul’s decrees
In times of grave emergency the Senate could appoint a dictator who would rule for 6 months.
Cincinnatus
Struggle of the Orders 500-300 B.C.E.
Patricians = less than 10% of Rome’s population Defined in Roman Constitution as legally and socially superior to everybody else Perhaps old Etruscan families
Plebeians= everybody else Included everybody from landless peasant to wealthy merchants
Issue of Legality Constitution: Senate is only Patrician, Senate voted first Assembly of Centuries (comitia centuriata), conducted annual elections of
consuls, composed of all members of the army. In this assembly the wealthier citizen voted first with profound influence on voting.
Assembly of Tribes (comitia tributa), contained all citizens; approved or rejected laws and decided issues of war and peace.
Struggle of the Orders, continued 494 B.C. E., plebeians threatened to set up their own independent state
Patricians retained powers
Plebeians gained two representatives: the Tribunes (later there were ten tribunes). absolute veto power; could not be called to account for their actions; could not be harmed in any way or even touched. A tribune could not veto military commanders or dictators.
450 B.C.E. Law of the Twelve Tables codes specifying civic matters, crimes and the relations among citizens and
family members.
More Struggle of the Orders 445 B.C., plebeians won the right to inter-marry with the patricians (the Lex
Canuleia). allowed wealthy plebeians to become patricians themselves Wealthy could be elected to high positions within the Assembly or the Senate.
367 B.C., one consul every year must be a plebeian, law restricted amount of land held by any citizen.
287 B.C., decisions of the Assembly of Tribes binding on the whole state without action by
any other body
Why did the Struggle of the Orders not lead to Civil War?
Who got assimilated?
The Latin League 493 B.C., Romans established the Latin League to protect themselves from
rival neighbors such as the Etruscans.
396 B.C.E. Rome attacked the last Etruscan holdout: Veii and gave them privileges of Romans
Precedent: conquered communities were assimilated and made partners with Rome Some communities were granted full Roman citizenship. Some communities granted citizenship but could not vote in the Assembly Some communities received Rome's support in the event of an invasion.
Roman system of "confederating" states vs. Greek idea of domination and submission. Which was more pragmatic and successful?
“Latin Right” Intermediate Rights between full citizenship and non-citizen status
Commercium allowed Latins to own land in any of the Latin cities and to make legally enforceable contracts with their citizens.
Connubium permitted them to make a lawful marriage with a resident of any other Latin city.
Lus migrationis gave people with Latin status the capacity to acquire citizenship of another Latin state simply by taking up permanent residence there.
Roman Religion
Ancestor Worship: primary duty to honor one’s ancestors by his conduct and the greatest honor was to sacrifice oneself for Rome.
Roman Priests Guardians of sacred traditions. Prominent aristocrats rotated in and out of the priestly office while also
serving as leaders of the Roman state. Thus religion and politics were officially sanctioned as part of the state.
Roman polytheism: as long as the traditional gods were honored, new gods could be added and worshipped as well
Mystery religions: Mithraism
No known texts—mostly reliefs. Practiced primarily by Roman Soldiers.
7 Levels Corax, Corux or Corvex (raven or crow)
beaker Nymphus, Nymphobus (male bride)
lamp, bell, veil, circlet/crown Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance,
drum, belt, breast plate Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance,
drum, belt, breast plate Perses (Persian) Heliodromus (sun-runner) torch, Pater (father)
Civic and Religious Values Combined
Morality
Patriotism
Duty
Masculine self-control
Respect for authority and tradition
Roman Virtues Bravery Honor Self-discipline Loyalty to country and family
Punic Wars By 265 B.C.E. Romans controlled most of the Apennine Peninsula
Was further expansion deliberate, necessary or accidental?
First Punic War 264 B.C.E. Punic Wars begin
Punic Threat Carthage expands into Messina, an important port in Sicily near the mainland
Carthage Phoenician, Numidian and Libyan peoples,
Major city was Carthage (in modern day Tunisia)
Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries—Celts and Iberians
Light Cavalry: a significant part of it was composed of Numidian contingents and North African elephant corps The riders of these elephants were armed with a spike and hammer to kill the
elephants in case they charged toward their own army.
The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors
The trade of Carthaginian merchantmen was by land across the Sahara
And by sea throughout the Mediterranean and far into the Atlantic to the tin-rich islands of Britain and to West Africa.
How Rome Won
Captured Phoenician ship and copied its design Created a corvus device for boarding ships
Spoils of War 23 year war
Carthage ceded Sicily to Rome Carthage paid large indemnity (money to pay for the war)
Many Romans killed. Conservative Senators: Rome should have invaded Carthage rather than agree
to a peace treaty
Hannibal
Hannibal’s Invasion of Apennine Peninsula
2nd Punic War 218 B.C.E. Rome declared war on Carthage
Considered expansion by Carthage into Iberian Peninsula (Spain) as a commercial and military threat
2nd Punic War lasted 16 years
Hannibal’s Invasion
involved the mobilization of 60,000 to 100,000 troops
Training a war-elephant corps
all of which had to be provisioned along the way
Crossed the Alps
2nd Punic War was a world war in the sense that it involved about three-quarters of the population of the entire Punic-Greco-Roman world and few people living in the Mediterranean were able to escape it.
Virtually every family in Rome lost at least one member
Battle of Cannae: 215 B.C.E.
Battle of Cannae Estimates: 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured
Among the dead the Roman Consul Lucius Aurelius Paulus, 29 out of 48 military tribunes 80 Senators (about 30% of the Senate)
one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost within a single day)
Inexplicable Decisions In History Hall of Fame
Hannibal recalled to Carthage without marching on Rome scarcity of supplies, money, manpower? political components? Did Carthage think Rome would sue for peace?
Rome kept on fighting 201 B.C.E. Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded North Africa and defeated Hannibal at
Zama
Results of 2nd Punic War Carthage required to abandon all its possessions except city of Carthage
war indemnity 3X that of the 1st Punic War Estimate: 20,000 talents of silver(one talent= 71 pounds) over 50 years
In the 50 years between the 2nd and 3rd Punic wars: Rome invaded and conquered
former Macedonian empire Palestine Hispania
3rd Punic War By 151 B.C.E. Carthage repaid its war debt to Rome Carthage thought treaty was cancelled Rome decided on War
needed grain and area around Carthage was fertile Romans did not forget their losses at Battle of Cannae
149 B.C.E. war with Carthage again Demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and move 10 miles inland
Siege of Carthage: approximately 50,000 people died of starvation Six day battle
Rome made all inhabitants slaves and burned Carthage for 17 days
Carthage in Ruins
Consequences of Punic Wars
Millions of slaves from Carthaginian and Macedonian territories Most slaves were agricultural workers
Most economical use: work as hard as possible feed as little as possible, when one dies buy another very cheap because market was glutted
Extensive slave population: enabled large estates owned by wealthy aristocracy to force small
farmers to sell their land because they could not compete with the large agribusinesses
Plantation style economy
Former farmers became urban population of Rome Under-employment of free labor: slaves could do it more
cheaply Created a permanent urban under-class and political
instability
Rome failed to develop an industrial base that would have created jobs and opportunity for former farmers
Instability 146-30 B.C.E. Slave uprisings
134 B.C.E. 70,000 slaves revolt in Sicily 104 B.C.E. 2nd slave uprising in Sicily 73-71 B.C.E. Spartacus Rebellion
Trained to be a gladiator: certain death Escaped to Mount Vesuvius with a host of fugitive slaves Overran much of Southern Italy 6,000 slaves captured during the final battle were crucified along
the road between Capua and Rome (150 miles)
Barbarian Threats to Roman Power
Who is a “barbarian” Greeks: a barbarian is “anyone who is not Greek”
Romans:
“Barbarian” = anyone who did not live within the Roman empire and had no manners
“Barbar”: a Sanskrit word than means “dirty one” generally referring to a person who uses the same hand to eat as they use to wipe themselves after going to the bathroom
Throughout history the term “Barbarian” generally implies a person who lives outside of the boundaries of a particular territory/kingdom The Other who is “not like us”
Dynamic Roman Frontier Hispania: Iberian Peninsula and Western France
Cimbrians: Jutland Peninsula (modern Denmark)
Britannia (England) and Caledonia (Scotland)
Central Europe (East of Iberia) Celts Teutonnes/Germans Gaul Goths
Roman Empire
31 B.C.E. – A.D. 476
Julius Caesar July 13, 100 B.C.E. – March 15, 30 B.C.E.
Marius, Sulla & Caesar Marius:
a general in Roman Army elected as Consul by Plebian party reelected six times from 107 B.C.E. to 86 B.C.E.
eliminated the property qualification required to be a Roman soldier Provided opportunity for urban poor to gain political access through the military
Sulla : appointed dictator in 86 B.C.E. by the Senate curtailed the power of the Tribunes (Plebian leaders) assassinated any Senator who opposed him
Julius Caesar Marius’s nephew took his legions to the frontier to fight the Barbarians
political power and enrichment Hero of soldiers Demonized by Senators
The Triumvirate
Pompey: General who conquered Syria and Palestine
Julius Caesar: fought the Barbarians in Gaul and Britannia
Crassus: richest man in Rome, defeated Spartacus in the Battle of Siler River
Pompey, Caesar, Crassus
Breaking of the Triumvirate 52 B.C.E. : mob riots in Rome
Senate feared Caesar’s popularity among the Plebian class Convinced Pompey to declare Caesar who was in Gaul “an enemy of the state”
49 B.C.E. Caesar marched on Rome and Pompey fled to Syria Pompey defeated at Battle of Pharsalus in Greece and murdered by Caesar’s
supporters
Caesar becomes Emperor
Affair with Cleopatra left her pregnant with Caesar’s son Invaded Anatolia and victory was so swift that he declared “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)”
46 B.C.E. Senate named Caesar dictator for 10 years 44 B.C.E. named dictator for life Authority to make war and peace
Beware the Ides of March
Caesar assassinated on March 15 “The Ides of March” Conspiracy of Senators who wanted to return to Republic (power in hands of Aristocracy) included former supporter Brutus (some argue Marc Antony)
Brutus committed suicide following his defeat by Octavian (Caesar’s nephew) at the Battle of Philippi.
Marc Antony committed suicide after being defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium
Marc Antony and Brutus
The Principate 27 B.C.E. – 187 C.E.
Caesar Augustus (63-B.C.E. – 14 C.E.)
Adopted by Julius Caesar at age 18 as his heir Joined with Marc Antony and Lepidus to secure his succession Defeated all competitors to become Emperor
Pax Romana
Octavian returned from his victory at Actium and declared peace was restored Granted titles of Imperator (victorious general) and Augustus
(worthy of honor) by the Senate Octavian preferred title princeps (first citizen) PAX ROMANA: Relative peace i.e. no major wars
Octavian Reforms
New coinage
Introduced public services
Reorganized the army
Allowed cities and provinces rights of self-government
Appearance versus Reality Senate had no power
Augustus controlled the army
Reforms of traditional civic values were superficial Rebuilt temples Prohibited Romans from worshipping foreign gods Fined citizens who failed to marry Required widows to marry within 2 years Punished adultery (by women) Made divorce more difficult
Augustus himself had many affairs His daughter Julia had so many affairs that he was forced to banish her
Aristocrats still controlled large farming estates
Underemployment remained a serious problem
No industrial development
Pax Romana Lasted from 28 B.C.E. to 180 C.E.
Few powerful external enemies
Mediterranean Sea controlled by one military power: Rome
Land frontiers/borders– Scotland to Persia
Exceptions to peace were rebellions by Britannia and Hebrews.
Assimilation of residents along the frontier into the common cultural and political life of Rome
Juvenal’s Observance Though we hurry, we merely crawl;
We're blocked by a surging mass ahead, a pushing wallOf people behind. A man jabs me, elbowing through, one socksA chair pole against me, one cracks my skull with a beam, one knocksA wine cask against my ear. My legs are caked with splashingMud, from all sides the weight of enormous feet comes smashingOn mine, and a soldier stamps his hobnails through to my sole.
A Stroll at Night Look at other things, the various dangers
of nighttime.How high it is to the cornice that breaks, and a chunk beats my brains out,Or some slob heaves a jar, broken or cracked from a window.Bang! It comes down with a crash and proves its weight on the sidewalk.You are a thoughtless fool, unmindful of sudden disaster,If you don't make your will before you go out to have dinner.There are as many deaths in the night as there are open windowsWhere you pass by, if you're wise, you will pray, in your wretched devotions.People may be content with no more than emptying slop jars.
Bread and Circuses…with no vote to sell, their motto is "couldn't care less," Time was when their plebiscite elected generals, heads of state, commanders of legions: but now they've pulled in their horns, there's only two things than concern them: BREAD and CIRCUSES. –Juvenal
Aristocratic Women Owned property
Invested in commercial ventures
Made public contributions to particular causes
Priestesses & civic patrons
NO public office
Nominally under authority of nearest male relative (perpetual minority)
Educated to be accomplished wives and mothers
Certain sexual freedom
Plebian Women Little is known
Early marriage
Husband’s helpers
Engaged in shop keeping
Motherhood 3-4 children
Life expectancy 34 years
Roman Law Civil Law: applied to Roman citizens
Law of the Peoples: applied to everyone and supplemented civil law
Natural Law: founded on Stoic philosophy Natural order of nature Embodied justice and right All men are entitled to it Conceptual but not applied
Religions Roman gods
Judaism
Christianity
Mystic Religions
Christianity Jesus was a historical figure
Tacitus & Pliny the Younger Mention Jesus, confirm he was crucified by Pontius Pilate, identify Christians as a
religious sect (they don’t like them)
Josephus Jewish historian Wrote a Roman friendly history of the Jews
Mentions Jesus, John the Baptist and James Mentions Paul and the early church A confession that Jesus was the Christ in Josephus’s history is believed to have been
added by the Church
Christian Beliefs in the 1st Century
Based on Gospels: Matthew, Mark, & Luke John is believed to have been written as much as two decades after the other
three
Considerable disagreement among scholars as to dates of writing
Paul’s Letters to early churches Some believe written before the gospels—some after Paul and Peter killed during Nero persecution of Christians around 64 C.E.
according to Eusebius If Paul is the author of these letters then they must have been written before 64
C.E.
Hebrew Monotheism The belief that a single god is the creator and ruler of all things
Yahweh is transcendent: exists outside of time, nature, place and Kingship
Ethical monotheism: obligations owed by all human beings toward their creator, independent of place or political identity Yahweh created man in His image Yahweh is exclusively a god of righteousness Evil comes from man not Yahweh Micah 6:8 Yahweh requires man to live justly, love mercy and walk humbly
Christian Monotheism Adopted basic principles of Hebrew ethical monotheism
Rejected most ritual practices of Judaism for Gentile believers
Salvation offered to everyone without Jewish ritual observance based on faith in Jesus Practiced sacrament “means of grace” of Holy Baptism Practiced sacrament of Holy Communion
Sects developed and arguments arose over teachings of Jesus and Paul during the 1st and 2nd centuries and have continued to the present What is the meaning of Grace? Must gentile Christians observe Jewish religious practices? Ecstatic Utterances (speaking in tongues)? Apocalyptic writings and interpretations? Women’s role in the local Churches? Eating meat offered to idols?
Roman Issues with Christianity
Feared destabilization
Christianity recognized no other gods (Romans allowed other gods but expected people to show respect to theirs)
Christians refused to worship the emperor as a god
Despite growth of Christianity no more than 5 – 10% of people in Roman Empire were Christians before the 4th century
Crisis of the 3rd Century Nero and Caligula (poor emperors) succeeded by capable emperors who
ruled until 180 C.E.
After 182 C.E. Provincial armies engaged in civil war and victors ruled as military dictators From 235-284 C.E. 26 “barracks Emperors ruled Rome
Elements of the Crisis Civil War
Economic woes War ravaged agriculture Inflation Taxation
Plague Galen a Greek Physician
diarrhea, fever, inflamed throat with dry pustules appearing on the 9th day of illness
Modern historians conclude smallpox
Decimated population, economic crisis and ravages of civil war lead Roman armies to pull back from previous frontiers
Rome in Decline Rome recovered by 289 C.E. but never returned to its former glory
Roman rule continues for another 200 years in the West
Roman rule continues for another 1,000 years in the East
Some Causes of Decline argued by historians today
Barbarian attacks
No clear law of succession
Lack of constitutional means for reform
Allowed too much power to military
Slave system and failure to develop industrial economy led to unstable economy required dependence on taxes Required tribute from conquered lands
Declining population due to disease, civil war, constant foreign warfare
Aristocrats contributed very little to economy and relied on legislated privileges that exempted them from taxes
Local elite could not keep up with demands undermining urban basis of classical Roman civic ideals
Lack of interest in preserving Rome by its citizens
Diocletian
Diocletian Ruled from 284-305 C.E.
Autocrat Dominus (Lord)
Formal rules off succession Split empire into East & West: 2 augusti 2 Caesars Known as the Tetrarch
Moved capital from Rome to Nicomedia (in Turkey). Diocletian ruled from Nicomedia Senate remained in Rome
Constantine
Constantine Ruled from 312-337
Built a new capitol in the East: Constantinople
Abandoned Tetrarch in favor of dynasty
Eastern Empire Richer More populous More central to imperial policy
Western Empire Poorer Peripheral Not well defended
Legalized Christianity within Roman Empire
Popular Version of Constantine’s Conversion
Saw a Christian symbol while preparing to battle the “Barbarians” at Malian Bridge
Voice said, “In this sign, conquer”
Constantine ordered men to paint the symbol on their shields
He won Constructed churches Did not prohibit pagan worship Christianity became favored religion
MaxentiusWestern Roman Emperor. Defended Romeagainst various revolts. -Engaged in 5 year war with Constantine over who controlled the Western Roman Empire.-Army in the Eastern Empire declared Constantine, the son of the previous emperor Constantius to be Augustus.-Army in Western Empire favored Maxentius, the son of Constantius’s predecessor, Maximian as emperor. Constantine had Maximian executed.
Historical Accounts of Constantine’s Conversion Lactantius: North African Latin historian who tutored Constantine’s son:
The night before the Battle of Milvian Bridge against Maxentius (Western Roman Emperor) Constantine dreamed of being ordered to place a heavenly divine symbol upon his soldiers’ shields.
Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century Christian Bishop who wrote a history of the early church) Well before the battle, Constantine looked up at the sun and saw a cross of light
above it and the words “In this sign, conquer.” The next night Christ came to Constantine in a dream and told him to use the
sign against his enemies.
Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano (1520-1524) Fresco Apostolic Palace, Vatican City
Constantine’s Symbol: Chi Rho
Chi Rho Formed by imposing the 1st two capital letters of the Greek word for Christ
X and P
Not technically a cross, symbol invokes the crucifixion and the title “Christ”
Symbol was often used by ancient Greeks as a symbol for “good fortune”
Chi Rho became Constantine’s Labarum
Constantine’s Labarum
New Contours of 4th Century Christianity
Basic doctrinal disputes resolved Arianism vs. Athanasians Trinity Council of Nicea Clearly defined hierarchy
Patriarchs Bishops Primacy of Bishop of Rome: Pope
Spread of Monasticism
Western Christian Thought Saint Jerome (340-420)
Translated Bible into Latin (vulgate) Argued that classical learning was important for Christians
Saint Ambrose (340-397) Archbishop of Milan Argued that Emperor not above the Church Admired Cicero but said highest virtue is reverence for God
Saint Augustine Bishop of Hippo in North Africa
How could humans be so profoundly sinful when they were created by an all-powerful God whose nature is entirely good?
Augustine’s answer: all evils are result of the innate human propensity to place our own desires above God’s
No one has the grace necessary for salvation Grace is God’s gift: given in greater portion to some
Wrote City of God in response to those who blamed Christians for fall of Rome
Barbarians at the Gates Huns
Nomadic tribes from east of the Volga River Origins and language are subject of debate Mounted archers Atila the Hun
Repeatedly attacked Eastern Roman Empire forcing Theodosius to pay tribute The barbarian territory of the Huns, (in Thrace, became so great that more than a
hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers. (Callinicus, in Life of Saint Hypatius)
Died in
Borders of Thrace
Illustration from NuremburgChronicle
Statue of Unknown Origin c. 1800-1900
Germanic Invasions Germans were settled agriculturalists and sophisticated metalworkers
Traded with Romans Settled inside the empire Adopted Arian Christianity
Goths settled along Danube 378 Goths revolted Theodosius accommodated Goth demands for food and land Alaric invaded Rome in 410 476 last Roman Emperor toppled by army of Germans, Huns and
Roman soldiers
Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, J.N. Silvestre, 1890
Alaric
Causes of Collapse of Western Roman Empire
Military failure
Economic failure
Division of Empire
Invader Kingdoms collected taxes but did not pay them to Rome
People moved out
Roman Institutions Roman cities survived in Gaul and Spain
Roman agricultural patterns remained
Roman aristocrats dominated civic life
Roman law
Roman authority in the Christian Church
Justinian
Emperor of Byzantium Planned to re-conquer Western Roman Empire
Enormous cost Insufficient manpower Distracted attention from dangers in the east
Codified Roman Law
Late Antiquity Assimilation of Roman culture by Barbarians
Migrations caused frontiers of empire to be indistinguishable from interiors of Western Empire Learned culture of Greek and Roman world extended to larger numbers of people Increasingly Christian character of Roman world
Fusion of Christian culture and late Roman governance Still centered around Mediterranean Sea
Contours of the Roman Empire Between 285 and 475
Theodosius I
Emperor from 379-395
• Made Nicene Christianity the official religion within the Roman Empire.
• Persecuted non-Nicene Christian sects and traditional Roman and Pagan religious practitioners.
• Last emperor to rule over both eastern and Western Roman Empire. He divided the rule of the eastern and western empire to his two sons and it was never again united.
• Likely outlawed the Olympic games which ended in 393. They were not reinstated until 1896.
Bibliography http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/etruscans.htm
Virgil Reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia by Jean-Joseph Taillasson 1787 (National Gallery, London)
The Story of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli (1500-1501) Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston
Cincinnatus leaves the plow for the Roman dictatorship - Juan Antonio Ribera, c. 1806