history 1st cse

IES COMPLUTENSE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY Jorge-Elías de la Peña y Montes de Oca

1st CSE YEAR UNIT 1. PREHISTORY

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Social Science 1st CSE History

Jorge Elías de la Peña y Montes de Oca

Teacher at the Bilingual Section Department of Geography and History

IES Complutense. Alcalá de Henares



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Social Science 1st CSE

UNIT 1: Prehistory



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UNIT 1: PREHISTORY

1. PREHISTORY’S GENERAL OUTLINE

Prehistory is the oldest period in human History and lasted between the

appearance of mankind (ca. 5,000,000 years ago) and first written documents

(ca. 3500 BC).

The only data we have about Prehistory are obtained through archaeology and

art.

Prehistory is divided into several periods with outstanding characteristics:

o Stone Age (5000000-4000 BC):

Palaeolithic (ca. 5000000-10000 BC). Mankind emerges and first

stone tools are produced.

Lower Palaeolithic (ca. 5000000-400000 BC).

Middle Palaeolithic (ca. 400000-40000 BC).

Upper Palaeolithic (ca. 40000-10000 BC).

Mesolithic (10000-7000 BC). First sedentary settlements.

Neolithic (7000-4000 BC). Mankind develops agriculture and

cattle raising.

o Metal Ages (4000-1000 BC). This period forms a period called

Protohistory (it is between Prehistory and History itself, first urban

civilisations developed then):

Copper Age or Chalcolithic (4000-3500 BC).

Bronze Age (3500-1500 BC).

Iron Age (1500-1000 BC).

2. OUR ANCESTORS

Charles Darwin set out the theory of evolution on his book On the origin of

species, through which he stated that mankind had developed from apes, hence

there are mankind and monkeys’ common ancestors.



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People who were part of precedent species to ours are called hominids and they

evolved. Only our species has survived, the other ones are extinct.

o Australopithecus (5,000,000-2,000,000 years ago).

It was similar to chimpanzee.

Its cranial capacity was between 400 and 500 cm3.

It was around 1.30 metre tall.

It was a herbivore species.

It used non-elaborated tools.

This species has only been found in Africa (Kenya, Ethiopia,

Tanzania and South Africa).

o Homo habilis, Handy Man (2,300,000-1,500,000 years ago).

His cranial capacity was around 650-700 cm3.

He was circa 1.50 metre tall.



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He was herbivore like Australopithecus.

He hunted animals and gathered fruits.

He made the first cut stone tools.

We have first news about life in group.

They also lived only in Africa, where the main sites are (Olduvai

in Tanzania, and Koobi Fora in Kenya, and Sterkfontein in South

Africa).

o Homo erectus (1,500,000-300,000 years ago):

He was completely bipedal.

His cranial capacity was bigger (800-1,200 cm3).

He was around 1.70 metre tall.

He perfected technology making better tools.

He discovered fire and could keep it lit.

He pronounced the first logical words.

He began to be a carnivore man.

It was the first species that was not only in Africa. Erectus’ fossils

have been found in the main sites of Choukoutien (China), and

Trinil (Java).



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o Homo antecessor (800,000-600,000 years ago).

He is considered to be a Pre-Sapiens.

He was around 1.70-1.80 metre tall.

His brain size was 1,000-1,150 cm3.

He is thought to be the first human fossil in Europe. There are

remains at Atapuerca (Spain) and Suffolk (England).

o Homo sapiens (Neanderthal man, 400,000-30,000 years ago).

He was very similar to us but much stronger.

His brain size was between 1,500 and 1,600 cm3.

He was around 1.60 metre tall.

His legs were short and arch-shaped.

They made the first burials in history.

His tools were really accurate.

He could light fire.

There are fossils of Neanderthal man in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

o Homo sapiens sapiens (Cro-Magnon Man, 35,000 years ago to present

day).

It is our species.

Our cranial capacity is around 1,400-1,500 cm3.



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Our height stretches from 1.65 to 1.80 metres.

It is the only species that can be found in all continents.

Man’s characteristics that differ from animals’ are:

o Brain development.

o We have chin and forehead.

o We are bipedal.

o Our thumb can be opposed.

o We have a long childhood.

o We are the only species with a symbolic language.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeOTZaTDFQT0QyM3c

3. PALAEOLITHIC

Palaeolithic was the first period of Prehistory. It is divided into several periods:

o Lower Palaeolithic (5000000-400000).

o Middle Palaeolithic (400000-40000).

o Upper Palaeolithic (40000-10000).

It begins at the appearance of first hominids and ends after the last glaciations.

Four major glaciations took place during this age:

o Günz.

o Mindel.

o Riss.

o Würm.

3.1. Way of life in the Palaeolithic

Palaeolithic people practised several activities to survive:

o Hunting (they got food and hides):

Mammoths.

Bears.

Bisons.

o Fishing.

o Gathering of fruits and nuts.

Palaeolithic people were nomads and lived in caves.

Their society was very simple and non hierarchical.

o They composed tribes or clans with people that belonged to the same

family.

o The eldest person had the main authority of the group.

Palaeolithic man did not live longer than 35 years old due to severe cold and bad

life conditions.

They had magical-religious beliefs around nature:

o In Upper Palaeolithic can be found the oldest burials of human beings.

3.2. Techniques and art

Homo habilis was the first hominid that made his own tools:

o Most of tools were made out of flint (silex) by hitting stones with which

they lithic flakes (chips) that were the basis for future tools:

Hammerstones.

Bifaces.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeOTZaTDFQT0QyM3c



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Knives.

Racloirs.

Burins.

Arrowheads.

o Wood and bone was also a raw material for these tools:



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Spears.

Needles.

Harpoons.

Hooks.

o Bow (made out of wood and tendons) and arrow (shaft out of wood and

arrowhead out of stone) were also invented in this period.

Fire was discovered 500,000 years ago and was really useful in order to heat the

food, caves and to get light.

The first artistic evidences date from the Upper Palaeolithic:

o Cave painting.

Painting appeared 20,000 years ago.

They painted animals on the walls and ceilings of the caves.

The typical colours are black and ochre.

The best examples are in the North of Spain (Altamira) and South

of France (Lascaux), hence its name, French-Cantabrian painting.

o Portable art.

Most of the figurines depict women with really marked features.

They were used to propitiate fertility.

These figurines are called Venus (Willendorf, Lespugue,

Lausell).



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4. NEOLITHIC

Glaciations ended 10,000 years ago, which permitted the growth of population

and cultural evolution.

First revolution took place in the “Fertile Crescent” (Middle and Near East),

from where it expanded towards the Mediterranean Sea.

Neolithic man developed new techniques to survive and became a producer:

o Agriculture appeared in several parts of the world 10,000 years ago:

Wheat in Near East.

Rice in China.

Maize in Mesoamerica.

Potato in Andes (South America).

Some tools were produced to ease agriculture:

Hoe.

Sickle.

Scythe.



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Hand mill.

o Neolithic man began to raise cattle:

Cow.

Pig.

Horse.

Dog.

Goat.



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Sheep.

Ox.

Animals were important for food, hides, and dung to manure.

People became sedentary and settled next to the rivers.

o Main cities have been found in Near East: Jericho (Israel), Jarmo (Iraq)

and Çatal Höyük (Turkey).

Textiles began to be produced from animal and vegetal elements (wool, flax,

hemp, and esparto grass).

o Spindles and looms were invented to produce fibres.

Pottery was invented and was very useful to store materials and to cook:

o It was handmade and baked on a bonfire.

Trade was developed though barter or exchange.

Neolithic art was much more schematic than Palaeolithic:

o There are scenes of people hunting, farming or feasting...

o It appears in the East of Spain: Valltorta, Cogull...



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5. METAL AGES

Metals were discovered in Caucasus area around 4000 BC.

o Copper was the first metal to be used, but it was fragile and cracked

easily.

o Bronze was an alloy produced out of copper and tin that was much more

resistant.

o Iron was discovered by the Hittites around 1500 BC and they kept the

secret due to its extraordinary qualities compared to bronze.

Metals were used to produce new tools, arms, jewels, and statues.

During the Metal Ages new inventions appeared:

o Wheel. It was essential to transportation and to potter’s wheels.

o Sail. It eased sailing thanks to wind and promoted commerce.

o Plough. Land could be farmed more easily and faster.

First organised cities appeared during Metal Ages:

o They were founded on hills (defence) or next to water flows.

o They grew owing to farming development.

o They used to be surrounded with walls.

o There were different buildings according to their functions.



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o Houses were small, made out of adobe or stone and with thatch roofs.

Society was really complex during these ages since metal became a symbol of

wealth.

During Metal Ages appeared megaliths, monuments built out of giant stones:

o Menhirs. Vertical stones with no clear function.

o Dolmens. Funerary monuments with a chamber and a corridor.

o Alignments. Parallel rows of menhirs. The best one is in Carnac (France)

o Cromlech. Circular alignment of menhirs. It is typical in England, such

as Stonehenge.



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Unit 1. Prehistory

Exercises

1. How can we know what happened during the Prehistory?

2. Why do historians say that Africa is the cradle of mankind?

3. Who was more intelligent: Homo habilis or Homo erectus? Why?

4. How many species of hominids lived during the Lower Palaeolithic? Which ones?

5. Which is the only species that has lived in every continent of the world? Where did

the other species live?

6. Answer if they are true or false. Correct the wrong ones:

a. The most recent hominid is Homo habilis.

b. Australopithecus was able to make bifaces.

c. Human beings today are hominids.

d. Homo erectus lived in Europe.

e. Homo Neanderthalensis’ skull was 1,000 cm3.

7. Copy and complete the following chart comparing the physical features, tools, and

skills of Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens neanderthalensis:

Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo neanderthalensis

Physical features

Tools

Skills

8. Use these words below to complete in sentences:

Bronze, Neolithic, 3500 BC, Palaeolithic, five.

a. The Stone Age was divided into the ______________ Age (‘Old stone’)

and the Neolithic Age (‘New stone’). The Palaeolithic Age started

around ____________ million years ago and lasted until the beginning of

the ________________. The Neolithic Age lasted from about 7000 BC

until ___________.

b. The Metal Ages consisted of Copper Age, the ___________ Age and the

Iron Age.

9. How did humans spend their time during the Palaeolithic?

10. Why is fire one of the most important discoveries in the history of mankind?

11. During the Palaeolithic, which materials were used to produce garments? Where

were they got?

12. Could Prehistoric man sew? What was used as thread? And as needle?

13. Match the verbs and nouns to describe the different activities people did.

Gather animals

Make the fire

Rub the tribe

Hunt tools



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Tend sticks

Defend wild fruits

14. Use the following verbs to complete the sentences:

Carved, painted, moved, gathered, used, shared, hunted,

buried, defended.

a. People _______________ from one place to another.

b. The women ____________ fruit.

c. The men ______________ the tribe and ______________ animals.

d. They _______________ their dead.

e. They ____________ stone axes to cut meat.

f. They ____________ animal on rocks and caves.

g. They ____________ animal heads out of bone and horn.

h. They ____________ the tasks between men and women.

15. Answer the following questions:

a. What was climate like in the Palaeolithic Age?

b. What did people use to carry food and liquid?

c. What did they fear and admire?

d. Who were the most important people in the group?

16. What is a nomad? Find out about a nomadic tribe in the world today.

17. Match each noun with its right description:

Altamira cave little statues of women made of stone, ivory

or bone

Chips groups of 20 or 30 individuals who lived

together

Venus cave painting

Horde used as knives to cut and clean animal hides

18. Classify the following words into ‘Tools’, ‘Materials’, and ‘Cereals’:

Plough, millet, loom, barley, wheat, scythe, granite,

marble, cotton, axe, maize, wool

19. What is the Fertile Crescent? Where is it located?

20. Identify the tool in the photo. What was it used for? Which tools were used for the

other activities?

a. Digging

b. Cutting grass and crops

c. Cutting wood



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21. Find three major differences between life in Neolithic and Palaeolithic.

22. Match the question with the right answer:

a. What changes took place in the landscape during the Neolithic?

b. What does a division of labour consist of?

c. What was a necropolis?

It was a kind of cemetery.

There were more plants and forests because of the warmer climate.

Everyone had a particular job to do.

23. Correct the sentences about the Neolithic Age:

a. The Neolithic Age began around 3500 BC.

b. Human beings went from being producers to predators.

c. With the discovery of agriculture and livestock, human became nomads.

d. They buried their dead without their personal belongings.

24. Match each term with the correct description:

Necropolis groups of permanent dwellings

Bartering image of a worshipped god

Idol exchange of products among different

groups

Settlement place where the dead were buried

25. Define the following terms:

a. Nomad

b. Horde

c. Bartering

d. Sedentary

e. Dwelling

26. Why is Neolithic considered a revolution? What new skills did people learn during

this era and what was each of them used for?

27. True or false? Correct the wrong sentences.

a. The paintings in the Altamira cave belong to the Neolithic Age.

b. Human beings in the Neolithic Age lived together in hordes.

c. Ceramic pots were made in the Palaeolithic.



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d. During the Neolithic Age, people went from being nomad to being

sedentary.

e. Palaeolithic painting was schematic.

f. Humans in the Palaeolithic lived from hunting.

g. The first hominid who knew about fire was Homo habilis.

h. Venus statues represented figures of men.

28. Match the questions and the answers:

a. What are the three stages of the Metal Ages?

b. What is metallurgy?

c. What did they make with bronze?

d. When did the Prehistory finish?

Hard, resistant objects like swords, and knives.

The Copper Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age.

Around 3500 BC.

It’s the extraction of metal from ores.

29. What economic activities were carried out during the Metal Ages?

30. Where did iron appear? Why did its discoverers keep the secret?

31. Indicate which of the following words are related to the Metal Ages:

Bronze tools, stone tools, caves, wheels, nomadic life, social differences, swords,

ploughs, Venus figurines.

32. Match each object in English with its correct Spanish translation. Then guess what

they were used for.

Sword casco

Hammer martillo

Hoe espada

Helmet azada

Biface bifaz

Dagger arado

Plough puñal

33. Which one of the previous tools were typical from the Metal Ages? Which ones

from the Stone Age?

34. Match each picture to the correct definition:

a. Menhir: large stone pushed into the ground.

b. Dolmen: several vertical stones forming walls and another horizontal

stone making a roof.

c. Cromlech: group of several menhirs forming a circle.



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a. Alloy

b. Megalith

c. Dolmen

d. Iron Age

e. Menhir

36. Are they true or false? Correct those ones which are wrong.

a. In the Metal Age people lived from hunting.

b. The Iron Age is the last prehistoric age.

c. Copper was the first metal that people used.

d. Megaliths were used for burials and sanctuaries.


1st CSE YEAR UNIT 2. EARLY CIVILISATIONS: MESOPOTAMIA AND EGYPT

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UNIT 2: Early civilisations: Mesopotamia and Egypt



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UNIT 2: EARLY CIVILISATIONS:

MESOPOTAMIA AND EGYPT

1. BEGINNING OF HISTORY: RIVER CIVILISATIONS

History began once writing appeared in Mesopotamia around 3500 BC in order

to control what happened in the cities and to account resources.

o Numbers were also appeared in that moment.

o Mesopotamian writing was called cuneiform.

o Egyptians used hieroglyphic writing.

The first historical civilisations grew around major rivers, since they provided

water and they were trade and communication routes:

o Mesopotamia developed between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.

o Egypt grew around the river Nile.

o China’s first evidences were between the rivers Yangtze (Blue) and

Huang He (Yellow).

o India grew around the river Indus.

All these civilisations had similar characteristics:

o Strong political power:

A king ruled over the whole country and controlled over

everything. He also held religious charges.

The first codes of laws were passed in these civilisations.

A strong army supported the king and his actions.

There were many civil servants to control the Administration.

o Hierarchical society:

There was a minority of privileged people that owned lands, held

main charges and were wealthy.

Most of the population was humble and was composed of

peasants and craftsmen.

o Economy based on irrigated agriculture and trade of surplus products.

o Art was promoted by the king as a means of exaltation.

o Religion developed as a control of power and it had an official nature.



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2. MESOPOTAMIA

2.1. Location of Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia never existed as a single country; it was a historical region in the

Middle East whose name was given by the Greeks.

o It is located between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, hence its name

(όςός: between rivers).

o Taurus Mountains were the northernmost limit of Mesopotamia; instead

Zagros Mountains were the eastern limit.

o Syria and Arabia deserts are the western and southern limits of

Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamia’s situation marked its history:

o It was an open land and that permitted continuous invasions by several

peoples.

o Mesopotamia was an arid region with those two major rivers that allowed

irrigation.

o It was a strategic region that eased trade with Syria, Asia Minor and the

Mediterranean Sea.

Mesopotamia was divided into several regions:

o Lower Mesopotamia, so-called Sumer or Chaldea. It is a marshy land at

the former mouths of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.

o Middle Mesopotamia, so-called Akkad. It was located at the centre of

Mesopotamia.

o Upper Mesopotamia, widely known as Assyria. It is a mountainous

region that developed much later than the other parts of Mesopotamia.



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2.2. Mesopotamian history

Sumerian period (3500-2350 BC):

o There were many city-states that rivalled among them (Ur, Lagash,

Uruk, Eridu, Nippur,...).

o Sumerians drained marshy lands by building dikes and canals in order to

farm lands.

o Sumerians invented cuneiform writing, which was a syllabic alphabet

expressed through pictographs written on clay tablets with a stylus.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeckNNYjRuRjlSLU0

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeY2dFeUFiUlJUQjQ

Akkadian Empire (2350-2200 BC):

o Sargon I of Akkad conquered all Sumer and founded the Akkadian

Empire.

o Naram-Sin was the last major Akkadian king and during his reign the

Empire reached its maximal expansion and growth.

o It split around 2200 BC due to internal struggles.

o Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East until

circa 500 BC.

Sumerian renaissance (2200-1800 BC):

o Major dynasties controlled the region after the collapse of the Akkadian

Empire.

o The most known king was Gudea, who ruled Lagash at the end of the 3rd

millennium BC.

o During this period emerged the 3rd

Dynasty of Ur, which managed to

rule over Sumer and Akkad.

Babylonian Empire (1800-1300 BC):

o Babylonia managed to reunify the zone around 1800 BC.

o The king Hammurabi compiled the first ever code of laws (c. 1750 BC).

o Another well known king was Nebuchadnezzar.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeckNNYjRuRjlSLU0

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeY2dFeUFiUlJUQjQ



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Assyrian Empire (1300-600 BC):

o Assyrians defeated Babylonians around 1300 BC.

o They used new weapons: iron weapons, and chariots.

o The Assyrian capital was Nineveh.

o Assurbanipal II was the main king in Assyria (7th

century).

o Assyrians were mostly warriors and they conquered Egypt in the 7th

century.



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Persian conquest (600-332 BC):

o Cyrus II the Great, the Persian king of kings, conquered all

Mesopotamia and he managed to rule Egypt.

o Mesopotamia became a Persian satrapy (province).

Alexander the Great’s conquest and Seleucid Empire (332 BC-AD 110):

o After the battle of Gaugamela, Mesopotamia and the whole Persian

Empire fell under Alexander the Great’s control.

o After Alexander’s death, his empire was divided and Mesopotamia was a

part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire ruled by Seleucus.

2.3. Society in Mesopotamia

2.3.1. Mesopotamian society

The highest position in the society was the aristocracy (awillum):

o There used to be a king (patesi) that ruled each city or kingdom, who

linked gods and subjects. His family also belonged to the aristocracy.

o Noblemen owned lands and held major ruling charges in government and

army.

Priests were also privileged among Mesopotamians:

o They lived in temples.

o They were in charge of religious rituals.

o Priests owned many lands and workshops.

Scribes were major civil servants:

o They came from important families.

o They had much power due to the fact that they were the only people who

could write, read, and count.

Most of the population belonged to the group of mushkenu:

o Peasants rented lands to the king, nobility or to the priests.

They grew cereals (wheat, barley), legumes (lentils), vegetables

and fruit trees.



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Their ploughs were really rude but they irrigated the lands.

o Craftsmen had diverse jobs (weavers, carpenters, potters,...) and worked

in workshops.

o Women were a man’s property. In case they worked, they got half of a

man’s wage.

Slaves (wardum) were common in Mesopotamia. They were considered as

things, not as people. They were usually prisoners of war or people who had not

paid their debts.

2.3.2. Mesopotamian cities

These cities were surrounded with walls made out of adobe.

The temple (ziggurat) and palace were the main buildings in Mesopotamian

cities.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeTkp4WW5iTXJ0OGc

There were different quarters according to the jobs and social classes:

o Rich people lived in major and wide streets.

o Poor people were crowded in flat-roofed houses made out of adobe.

The market was the social place where peasants and craftsmen sold their

products.

Trade developed in order to provide products to the cities.

o They bartered, since there was not any currency.

2.4. Culture and religion in Mesopotamia

2.4.1. Mesopotamian religion

Mesopotamians were polytheistic.

Depending on the regions, their religion varied:

o Sumer and Akkad had similar deities:

Their gods were sons and daughters of Enlil and Nilil:

Marduk (god of creation).

Sin (god of the moon).

Shamash (god of sun and justice).

Ishtar (goddess of war and love).

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeTkp4WW5iTXJ0OGc



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o Assyrians believed in many gods, among which Assur or Ashur (god of

war) was the main one.

Gods appeared in forces of nature or dreams.

o They had human shape and passions, but they were immortal.

Mesopotamians thought that their gods lived in the temples (ziggurat).

They did not believe in afterlife like Egyptians.

2.4.2. Culture in Mesopotamia

They invented the first writing in history: Cuneiform:

o It was written with a stylus on clay tablets.

o The writing was wedge-shaped, hence its name.

o At the beginning it was pictographic, but later it evolved in an

ideographic writing.



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Mesopotamians founded the first ever schools:

o At the beginning they were used only by scribes-to-be, but later they

helped spread culture.

o They had two learning cycles:

Beginners: they learned how to read and write.

Advanced: students perfected arts.

o Students belonged to rich families and could only be male.

Mesopotamians developed new techniques:

o They invented the sexagesimal system to measure time.

o They elaborated the first calendar.

o Arithmetic and geometry developed in Mesopotamia, although they did

not know number zero.

In literature we have some works like epic poems, such as Epic of Creation and

Epic of Gilgamesh.

2.4.3. Mesopotamian art

Architecture: o They mostly used adobe and brick.

o They invented the round arch and the barrel vault.

o There are several Mesopotamian buildings:

Palaces, Khorsabad’s in Assyria in one of the best palaces.

Gates, Ishtar’s in Babylon was the best evidence.



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Ziggurats, they were the Mesopotamian temples, they were

stepped and Ur and Babylon’s have been partly preserved.

o These buildings were decorated with tiles and frescoes.

Sculpture:

o They used stone for sculpture.

o In Sumer and Akkad they carved gods and kings with a 4-head canon.

o Assyrians carved great human-head bulls and superb reliefs with hunting

and war scenes.



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3. EGYPT

3.1. Location of Egypt

Egypt grew around the river Nile. It was known by Herodotus as the gift of the

Nile.

o The banks of the river Nile were the only fertile lands of Egypt.

o The river flooded every summer its banks and fertilised the lands with

mud that remained once waters decreased.

o Many ditches and dikes were built to take profit of all that water for

agriculture and human settlements.

o The Nile was the main route in Egypt.

Egypt had two major regions:

o Upper Egypt (in the south). It was at middle course of the river Nile. It

was a narrow valley surrounded by the desert. Its capital was Thebes.

o Lower Egypt (in the north). It was the delta of the river Nile. Its lands

were marshy and low. Its main city was Memphis.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeSlhGSy1YOGRtczA

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeSlhGSy1YOGRtczA



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3.2. History of Egypt

Early dynastic period (3100-2700 BC):

o The Egyptian city-states were unified by the mythical pharaoh Menes

around 3100 BC under a single crown.

o First dynasties ruled the country.

Old Kingdom (2700-2150 BC):

o The capital of Egypt was fixed in Memphis.

o Pharaoh’s power strengthened thanks to the support of the priests.

o The most known pharaohs belonged to the 4th

dynasty and they were

Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos, who built the Pyramids of Giza

(2600-2500 BC).

o Around 2500 BC Egyptians began to worship Ra, the god of the sun. Its

major cult centre was Heliopolis (close to present-day Cairo).

First Intermediate Period (2150-2000 BC):

o Pharaoh’s power weakened and new city-states grew as independent

entities.

Middle Kingdom (2000-1650 BC):

o Thebes’ princes of the 11th

dynasty managed to reunify all Egypt under

their crown.

o New pharaohs conquered Nubia, a region in the south of the country.



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Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BC):

o Hyksos, a people that came from Asia, conquered Egypt and ruled it

during the 15th

and 16th

dynasties.

New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC):

o The princes of Thebes managed to oust Hyksos from the power.

o During this period Egypt lived its maximal expansion:

There were campaigns eastwards and southwards.

Thutmose III (18th

dynasty: 1479-1425 BC) was the pharaoh that

obtained major victories.



13

o Amenhotep IV (18th

dynasty: 1353-1336 BC) promoted the religious

revolution by adopting a single god: Aton, hence his new name

Akhenaten.

He founded a new capital: Akhenaten, now known as Tell-el-

Amarna.

His new religion did not survive him.

o Tutankhamun (18

th dynasty: 1336-1323 BC) restored the religious

orthodoxy and he is widely known due to his tomb, which was

discovered unplundered in 1922 by Howard Carter.

o The main Egyptian pharaoh of this period was Ramesses II the Great

(19th

dynasty: 1279-1213 BC):

He fought against Hittites in the battle of Kadesh (1274 BC).

Ramesses managed to control the lands in the Near East (Syria

and Palestine).

Major monuments were built by Ramesses: Abu Simbel.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54Dkeb1FURjJ1U3JSdmM

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54Dkeb1FURjJ1U3JSdmM



14

Third Intermediate Period (1070-670 BC):

o Weak pharaohs ruled Egypt.

o Nubians took profit of this weakness, so they invaded the country and

held the crown during the 25th

dynasty.

Late period (670-30 BC):

o Assyrian invasion (670-650 BC)

o Saite period (650-525 BC):

The princes of Sais managed to control over all Egypt.

o Persian invasion (525-332 BC):

Cambyses, Persian King of Kings, conquered Egypt.

Some riots took place during the 4th

century but Persians

recovered power.

o Alexander the Great’s invasion and Ptolemaic Egypt (332-30 BC):

Alexander the Great invaded Egypt after taking the city of Tyre.

A new capital was founded at the delta: Alexandria.

Once Alexander died, Egypt would be ruled by his general

Ptolemy, who inaugurated the 32nd

dynasty.

The Ptolemaic dynasty promoted culture and they founded the

Great Library of Alexandria.

Cleopatra VII was the last pharaoh of Egypt. After her death, the

country was conquered by Rome (30 BC).



15

3.3. Egyptian society

The pharaoh (King) concentrated all the powers in Egypt:

o He was the person who dictated and passed the laws that ruled the

country.

o The pharaoh reigned and governed over Egypt.

o He owned every land in Egypt and controlled trade.

o He had powers over the Army.

o He was deified as a reincarnation of the god Ra.

People could not either look at his face or touch him.

People knelt once he passed over.

He was thought to have magical powers.

o The pharaoh was succeeded by his son or person he appointed.

32 dynasties ruled Egypt between 3100 and 30 BC.

There was a minority that belonged to a privileged class:

o Nobility: They belonged to the family of the pharaoh.

They held main charges of the Administration: prime minister

(vizier), governors, mayors of palace...

They also had major posts in the Army.

They lived in large palaces with impressive gardens.

o Priests: They controlled religious rituals and lived in temples.

Priests raised taxes for the temples.

They owned lands, cattle and were really wealthy.

Thousands of people worked for them.

o Scribes: They were the civil servants of the Egyptian administration.

They could read, write and count.

They wrote official documents and kept track of accounts and

taxes.

They had a high prestige and economic position since only they

and the priests could read and write.

Most of the population belonged to lower level social classes:

o Peasants: They were almost 90% of the total population of Egypt.

They farmed pharaoh, noblemen or temples’ lands in exchange

for a part of the crop for the owner or the pharaoh.

Men used to plough the lands, whilst women sowed seeds. Both

of them gathered the crop in.

They grew cereals in winter and the rest of the year they grew

lentils, peas, beans, vine, olives, and figs.

Bread and beer were basic in their diet.

Peasants also bred different animals like oxen, donkeys, pigs,

poultry, and sheep.

They had to participate in the construction of the buildings

committed by the pharaoh or in other public works during the

floods.

o Merchants:

They traded with different regions in the East Mediterranean Sea,

Mesopotamia and valley of the Nile.

They used to import perfumes, wood and metals (gold from

Nubia).

They bartered since there was no currency yet.



16

o Craftsmen:

There were many kinds of jobs in this sector: potters, carpenters,

blacksmiths, weavers, goldsmiths...

Sculptors on stone were really appreciated by the privileged

classes since they could decorate their buildings.

Another major sector was related to the production of papyrus,

which was essential for writing.

There was a small group of slaves that were part of the Egyptian society:

o They were not too many.

o Most of them were war prisoners and belonged to the pharaoh, noblemen

and priests.

o They had no rights.

o They worked in the construction of great monuments, exploited the

mines and served in the army. Some of them did housework.

3.4. Egyptian culture

Egyptians invented their own writing: Hieroglyphics:

o The main material on which it was written was the papyrus, a plant that

only grows by the Nile.

o Moreover, they used to be painted on tombs and walls.

o It was a pictographic writing based on symbols that did not have to do

with phonetics.

o Hieroglyphic writing was deciphered by Jean François Champollion in

1822 after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone (1799), which had texts

written in Hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek alphabets.



17

Mathematics and Astronomy were developed by Egyptian scientists:

o They created a calendar that predicted the rises in the level of the Nile. It

was divided into 365 days of 24 hours each.

Medicine was really advanced and they practised surgery.

Literature was based on religious works (The Book of the Dead) or literacy

works (Tale of Sinuhe).

3.5. Egyptian religion

Egyptians were polytheistic and its pantheon was quite large:

o At the beginning each city had its own god, but there was a religious and

political unification at the same time.

o Amun was the king of the gods. Its main cult centre was in Karnak

(Thebes). He was identified with the god Ra, who represented the sun

and whose worship began around 2500 BC.

o Osiris was Isis’ husband and was the god of afterlife and Lord of the

Dead. He represented resurrection after death and was associated to

cycles of nature.

o Isis was the goddess of magic and nature. She was married to Osiris and

represented the perfect woman. She was widely worshipped during

Roman times.

o Horus was Isis and Osiris’ son. He was the Falcon and god of war, sky

and protection. He is one of the oldest worshipped gods.



18

o Anubis was the jackal-headed god that represented mummification and

afterlife. He ushered dead to their judgment in the afterlife.

o Maat was the justice and cosmic balance. She was completely linked to

the pharaoh.

o Thoth was the god of writing, science and was ibis-headed. He arbitrated

godly disputes.



19

o They also believed in other gods related to nature and different animals

or people such as the crocodile (Sobek), bull (Apis), cow (Hathor), cat

(Bastet), dung beetle (Khepri) the river Nile or the pharaoh himself,

who was Ra’s reincarnation.

Akhenaten tried to make a religious revolution by imposing monotheism

through the worship of the solar disc of Aton. He found the opposition of the

clergy and this cult once he died and was succeeded by Tutankhamun, who

restored the previous polytheism.

These gods were worshipped in temples of different shapes and sizes.

Egyptians believed in afterlife as a major part of their religion:

o Osiris judged dead and weighed on a balance their good and evil actions

in life. He decided about eternal life.

o Only the ka (soul) survives the body.

o Bodies were embalmed and mummified to preserve them for afterlife:

Their entrails were extracted and kept in special receptacles for

them (canopic jars).



20

The bodies were dried once submerged in a salty liquid (natron)

and stuffed with aromatic herbs.

After all these operations they were wrapped with strips of white

linen and different amulets.

They were finally covered with a funeral mask on their faces and

buried in sarcophagi that were put in tombs with many treasures,

which were essential for their second life.

3.6. Egyptian art

Architecture: There are two major evidences of Egyptian architecture:

o Temples: They were the place in which the religious cult was held. The

statue of the god used to be in the sanctuary, where only the priests and

the pharaoh could enter.

Open-air temples: They had different parts with varied sizes and

heights: pylons, peristyle, hypostyle hall, and sanctuary. Karnak,

Luxor, and Edfu are the best preserved temples.

Semi-speos: They were partly excavated and partly outdoor.

Hatshepsut’s temple in Thebes is the main monument.

Speos: They were excavated in the rock and had only a façade

outside. Abu Simbel is the main example.

o Tombs: According to the time there were different kinds:



21

Mastaba: It was the oldest kind of burial and it was mostly

subterranean with few chambers above.

Pyramid: It was typical in the Old and Middle Kingdom. They

were major tombs that began with the pharaoh Djoser and whose

main evidences are Giza’s (Cheops, Chefren, and Mykerinos).

Hypogaeum: It is completely subterranean and it is formed by a

narrow and deep corridor. It is typical of the New Kingdom and

the Valley of the Kings is the main example.

o Egyptian architecture was made out of stone and used lintels. They

invented capitals for the columns that based on vegetal shapes.

Sculpture and Painting were related to the buildings and were part of their

decoration.

o There was very little naturalism and most the images were quite rigid.

o Most of sculpture is carved on the buildings and there are few examples

of free-standing sculpture.

o Some paintings have been preserved on the walls of the tombs and on

papyrus, such as the Book of the Dead.

o Colours are really bright and plain.



22

Unit 2. Early civilisations:

Mesopotamia and Egypt

Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer to the questions:

a. Why did people settle near the great rivers?

1. They wanted to live near the water.

2. The land was very fertile.

b. Why did new social groups emerge?

1. Because of the different jobs people did.

2. Because there was an aristocracy.

c. Why did trade develop?

1. People wanted to have more things.

2. They wanted to travel to other places.

2. What event marks the beginning of history?

3. What materials from before the invention of writing give us information about

prehistoric life?

4. Why was the invention of writing so important? What consequences did it have?

5. Complete the following table:

Civilisation Rivers that favoured their

development

Egyptian Nile

Indian

Huang He

6. Why do we call the first civilisations river civilisations?

7. Use the map and an atlas to find out which modern countries correspond to the

territories of the river civilisations and complete this table with the information:

Civilisation Modern countries

Mesopotamian

Egyptian

Indian

Chinese



23

8. Rearrange the following words to make a sentence. Begin with Mesopotamia:

Mesopotamia, means, between the rivers, the Euphrates, located, land,

because, between, the Tigris, it is, and.

9. Copy a map of Mesopotamia an follow the instructions:

a. Write the names of the two rivers around which grew Mesopotamia.

b. Colour in the regions that correspond to Akkad, Sumer, and Assyria.

c. Find where the cities of Babylon, Ur, Nineveh, and Lagash were located.

Write their names in the correct place.

10. Put the following periods in the right chronological order:

Babylonia, Sumerian, Assyrian, Akkadian.

11. Match each king to the correct nation:

Sargon I Babylonia

Ashurbanipal Persia

Nebuchadnezzar Greece

Cyrus II Akkad

Alexander the Great Assyria

12. Choose the correct verb to complete the sentences about life in Mesopotamia:

a. They made/didn’t make crafts.

b. The king was/wasn’t considered a god.

c. The law was/wasn’t equal for men and woman.

d. People believed/didn’t believe in afterlife.

e. The Mesopotamians practiced/didn’t practice medicine.

13. State whether the following sentences are true or false and correct the false ones:

a. Mesopotamian script is called hieroglyphics.

b. The most important buildings in Mesopotamia were the palaces and the

storehouses.

14. What type of building does the illustration belong to? What was its function?



24

15. Draw a map of Egypt and locate the following places:

Thebes, Giza, Memphis, Abu Simbel, Alexandria.

Say if they are connected to the Old, Middle or New Kingdom or to the

Ptolemaic Empire.

16. What happened to the Nile in June? How did the Egyptians use this to their

advantage?

17. Rearrange the following words to make a sentence. Begin with Egyptian:

Egyptian, a narrow fringe, civilisation, on the banks, originated along, of the

fertile, river Nile.

18. Find the answers to the following questions:

a. In which period were the pyramids of Cheops, Chephren and Mykerinos

built?

b. When did the Middle Kingdom begin and end?

c. Who ruled Egypt after Cleopatra’s death?

19. Complete the table:

Period Chronology

Old Kingdom

2000-1650 BC

New Kingdom

670-30 BC

20. Match each fact to the correct period.

Old Kingdom Invasion of the Hyksos

Middle Kingdom Pharaohs: Thutmose III, Akhenaten,

Tutankhamun, Ramesses II,

New Kingdom Capital: Thebes

Late period Egypt conquered by Alexander the Great

Capital: Memphis

Pharaohs: Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos

21. Find out if the following sentences about Tutankhamun are true or false:

a. He became a pharaoh when he was a boy.

b. He died when he was an old man.

c. His tomb was discovered in 1956.

d. His tomb was full of treasure.

e. His funeral mask was made of gold.



25

22. Find out about the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb (when it took place, who did

it, what they found, where it was, where the pieces are exhibited,...).

23. Classify the following words into ‘Crops’, ‘Crafts’, ‘Society’:

Soldier, lentils, priest, metalwork, pottery, vines, jewellery, slave.

24. List the different social groups of Egyptian society.

25. State whether the following sentences are true or false and correct the wrong ones:

a. The pharaoh was a king that shared his power with the priests.

b. The priests were the owners of all lands.

c. The scribes were not important and occupied the lowest level of the social

pyramid.

d. The Egyptian economy was based on trade.

26. Match the following definitions with their concepts:

a. Technique to preserve a corpse.

b. It contains the information to pass Osiris’s Judgment.

c. Script with symbols and pictures.

d. The belief in the existence of several gods.

Mummification

Hieroglyphic

Polytheism

Book of the Dead

27. How many days did the Egyptian calendar have?

28. How many hours did the Egyptian day have?

29. Look for information about the following Egyptian gods and write their names:

a. This god had a cow’s head and a woman’s body.

b. This god had a falcon’s head and a man’s body.

c. This god had a bull’s head and a man’s body

30. Explain the process of mummification.

31. Match the names to the descriptions:

Osiris Goddess of fertility

Thoth God of war

Isis God of the dead

Horus God of the sun

Ra God of wisdom

32. Put the following actions in chronological order.

a. The dead presented themselves for the Judgment of Osiris.

b. Offerings and statues were placed in the tombs of the dead.

c. The body was mummified.

d. The soul passed into the afterlife.

33. Are the following statements true or false? Correct the false ones:

a. The Red Sea flooded Egyptian land once a year and made it very fertile.

b. Different social groups didn’t mix together.

c. The vizier was more important than the pharaoh.

d. The Egyptians were polytheists but they didn’t believe in afterlife.



26

34. Find the words or names for the following sentences about Egypt:

a. Two pharaohs from the New Kingdom.

b. Two Egyptian capitals.

c. Two famous Egyptian temples.

d. Three words for tombs.

e. Three major gods.

35. Look at the illustration and list the names of the parts of the temple in order of

importance.

36. Match each term with the right definition:

Pharaoh a tomb carved from rock

Mummification a high, tiered tower

Hypogaeum the king and god of Egypt

Sumerians a person who believed in many gods

Hieroglyphics Egyptian writing

Polytheist the process of preserving a body

Ziggurat some inhabitants of Mesopotamia

37. Classify the following people in ‘Mesopotamia’ or in ‘Egypt’.

Sargon I, Nebuchadnezzar, Mykerinos, Tutankhamun, Cheops, Hammurabi,

Assurbanipal.

38. Answer the following questions:

a. Which nations existed in Mesopotamia during the Egyptian Old Kingdom?

b. How much time passed between the start of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom

and the beginning of the Late period?

c. When was the Babylonian Empire founded?

d. When did Cyrus II of Persia conquer Mesopotamia?



27

39. Copy and complete the sentences using the correct past participle:

Organised, divided, built, based, irrigated, held.

a. The Egyptian economy was ____________ on agriculture.

b. The Nile crops were _____________ by river water.

c. Society was _______________ into cities.

d. Ceremonies were ___________ to honour the gods.

e. Ancient Egypt was _____________ into two areas.

f. The pyramids were _____________ during the period of the Old Kingdom.

40. Match the information to the correct civilisation:

Egypt Hammurabi

Mesopotamia Hypogaeum

Ramesses II

Epic of Gilgamesh

Memphis

Ziggurat

The Book of the Dead

41. Identify the similarities between Egypt and Mesopotamia by completing the

sentences:

a. Both civilisations developed near _____________.

b. Both civilisations invented a system of ______________ that has left a

legacy of their history.

c. Their religion was ___________________.

d. In both civilisations society was very _______________.

e. Their economy was based on _____________________.


1st CSE YEAR UNIT 3. ANCIENT GREECE

1


UNIT 3: Ancient Greece

IES COMPLUTENSE 1ST YEAR CSE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY ANCIENT GREECE

1 1

UNIT 3: ANCIENT GREECE

1. GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL SCENE

Greece never existed as a single country. They founded city-states (polis) and

formed a civilisation linked through three elements:

o Language.

o Religion.

o Culture.

Greeks occupied some territories around the Mediterranean Sea which they called

Hellas:

o Continental Greece: Part of the Balkan Peninsula and the main cities lay

there (Peloponnese included).

o Aegean islands.

o West of the Anatolian Peninsula (Ionia).

o South of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily: Magna Graecia.

Greece was a mountainous land that made communications and agriculture difficult:

o However fishing and trade developed due to the geographic conditions.

o The sea is not farther than 150 kilometres from any Greek land.

Greek history can be divided into several periods:

o Pre-Hellenic cultures:

Minoan or Cretan civilisation (c. 2600-1400 BC).

Mycenaean civilisation (c. 1600-1100 BC).

o Dark Age (1100-776 BC).

o Hellenic culture:

Archaic Age (776-499 BC).

Classical Age (499-338 BC).

Hellenistic Age (338-30 BC).



2 2

2. PRE-HELLENIC CIVILISATIONS

2.1. Minoan civilisation (c. 2600-1400 BC)

Minoan civilisation developed on the island of Crete.

Monarchy was the political system they had.

o Minos is considered the most important king in Minoan history, hence its

name.

Thalassocracy developed during this period due to the importance of the sea for

Cretans. They ruled the sea and got their power thanks to the sea.

o Trade was the main economic activity of Cretans (ceramics, textiles and

bronze objects).

o They built a major navy to rule the surrounding seas.

City-palaces were common in Crete:

o Knossos was the capital of the civilisation.

o Hagia Triada and Phaistos are other major palaces.

Cretans knew about writing (Linear A), but it has not been deciphered yet.

Crete was invaded by the Mycenaeans at the 15

th century and it became a part of

the other civilisation.

2.2. Mycenaean civilisation (c. 1600-1100 BC)

It grew in continental Greece.

The origin of this civilisation began with the invasion of the Achaeans (they came

from East Europe), who finished with the Minoan civilisation.

It was a warlike society:

o Agriculture and cattle raising were major economic activities.

o Trade was not as important as in Crete.

Mycenaeans lived in walled cities:

o Mycenae was the main city, hence the name of the civilisation.

o Other major fortresses were Tiryns and Argos.

Mycenaeans also had writing (Linear B), which was deciphered in the 1950s.



3 3

The mythical Trojan War took place close to the end of this period.

The Mycenaean civilisation ended with the invasion of the unknown Peoples of the

Sea. The Dorians were one of those peoples, who were the basis for future Greeks.

2.3. Dark Age (1100-776 BC)

There is very little news about this period.

There was no writing. That is why we have no documents from this historical stage.

It is a long historic phase that permits the birth of the Greek culture.

3. GREEK HISTORY

3.1. Archaic Age (776-499 BC)

This period began with the foundation of the Olympic Games (776 BC), which

marks the beginning of the Greek calendar.

During this period the poleis (city-states) were created (more than 200):



4 4

o Each polis had its own independent government and economy.

o Laws were different in every city-state.

o There were armies in every single polis.

o The polis occupied the city and the surrounding lands (demos) with pastures,

forests, and farming land.

o Attica (Athens) and Lacedaemonia or Laconia (Sparta) became the most

important poleis in Greece.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeZzhZUnN5TW9iclU

Many Greeks had to leave Greece and they founded colonies throughout the

Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea from 770 BC due to several reasons:

o Population grew a lot during the 8th

and the 7th

centuries.

o It was impossible to feed everybody.

o People had to emigrate to find new fertile lands.

o These colonies were completely independent from their cities of origin

(metropolis) and favoured trade with indigenous population.

The political systems that were usual in this period were monarchy, oligarchy, and

tyranny.

Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and they adapted it into the Greek

language.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeZzhZUnN5TW9iclU



5 5

Homer composed his famous epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, which tell of

the deeds of Achilles and the Trojan War and Odysseus’ (Ulysses) adventures.

3.2. Classical Age (499-338 BC)

Poleis strengthened their power in Greece.

The army of hoplites developed during this period.

Athens and Sparta were the most important poleis in Greece during this historical

stage.

Major wars took place during the Classical Age:

o Persian Wars (499-479 BC):

Persians had invaded Ionia and its coastal islands (save Samos) in the 6th

century.

With the help of Athens, Ionian Greeks rebelled against the Persians in

499 BC.

The Persian King of Kings, Darius I, decided to attack all Greece:

Greeks joined and defeated Persians in the battle of Marathon (490

BC).

Persians left Greece and went back to Asia.

That was the First Persian War (499-490 BC).

The Persian King of Kings, Xerxes I, wanted to revenge his father and

undertook the second invasion of Greece. That is why the Second

Persian War began (480-479 BC):

Persians advanced firmly through continental Greece.

300 Spartans led by their king Leonidas fought against Persians in

the battle of Thermopylae, where the Greeks were defeated.

The Athenian Themistocles recruited a navy to fight against

Persians. The naval battle of Salamis meant the Greek victory.

Finally Greeks defeated Persians at the land battle of Plataea (479

BC).

Athens and Sparta became the most important cities in Greece thanks to

their actions in these wars.



6 6

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeSXFEaUhfYnlaeDg

o Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC):

There were continuous struggles between Athens and Sparta in order to

impose their supremacy over all the Greeks:

Athens founded the Delian League with many other allies throughout

Greece.

Sparta created the Peloponnesian League with major military poleis

to avoid the growth of Athens.

The rivalry between both cities meant the beginning of the civil war once

Athens established an alliance against Sparta with the island of Corfu.

The Athenian army was defeated by the Spartan hoplites.

Sparta managed to control all the Greek poleis in an oppressive way.

Athenians rebelled against Spartan hegemony in 403 BC. That is the beginning of

the continuous fights among the Greek city-states which led into the crisis of the

poleis in the 4th

century BC.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeSXFEaUhfYnlaeDg



7 7

3.3. Hellenistic Age (338-30 BC)

Philip II of Macedonia took profit of the crisis of the poleis and he conquered all

Greece (but Sparta) after winning in the battle of Chaeronea (338 BC).

Philip II created a new army of hoplites called phalanx, which was almost

unbeatable.

Philip II was assassinated and was succeeded by his son Alexander the Great.

Alexander went on with this father's project of conquering the Persian empire:

o Battle of Granicus (334 BC). It was the first battle once he crossed to Asia,

and he won it.

o Once conquered the Anatolian peninsula, Alexander won the battle of Issos

(333 BC).

o He followed the Mediterranean Asian coast and he besieged Tyre (332 BC),

the main Phoenician city under Persian rule.

o After conquering Tyre, he entered Egypt and founded Alexandria.

o He went back to Asia and fought against the Persian emperor in the final

battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), where he managed to conquer Mesopotamia

and the whole Persian Empire.

o After wandering around the former Persian Empire, he arrived in India, from

where he went to back to Babylonia, where he died in 323 BC.

The empire that Alexander created ranged from Greece to the river Indus.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeMGxpY0NqbkU4Mlk

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeMGxpY0NqbkU4Mlk



8 8

Once Alexander died, his empire was divided into different Hellenistic kingdoms

ruled by the diadochi (generals of Alexander's army):

o Cassander (Greece and Macedonia)

o Seleucus (Asia)

o Lysimachus (Asia Minor and Thrace)

o Ptolemy (Egypt)

These Hellenistic kingdoms helped expand the Greek culture (language, religion)

throughout Asia and Egypt:

o These kingdoms preserved their original social divisions and customs.

o Absolute monarchs ruled these kingdoms.

4. GREEK SOCIETY

4.1. Social divisions

The society was divided between citizens and non-citizens.

Each polis established its conditions to become a citizen.

o Most of them marked that citizens had to be male, older than a determinate

age and sons of both two parents from that polis.

o They had the rights in their polis.

o They were a minority.

Non-citizens were the majority of the population and there were many groups

among them:

o Foreigners (metics in Athens, periecoi in Sparta):

They were free people.

They used to be merchants or craftsmen.

They came from other Greek poleis (non-Greek people were

Barbarians, not foreigners).

o Slaves (called helots in Sparta):

They were not free people.

They were many in the Greek poleis.

A person became a slave being a war prisoner or because of not

paying debts.

They were in charge of agriculture or domestic works.

o Women:

They could be free or slaves.

Anyway, they did not have any right or power.



9 9

They were controlled by their husbands or fathers or brothers.

4.2. Political Systems

In Greece it was common to find diverse political systems. None the less, the most

known ones were the systems that were adopted in the main poleis: Athens and

Sparta.

4.2.1. Athenian democracy

Before the democracy, in Athens there was a tyranny (dictatorship) ruled by

Peisistratus and his family, but they were assassinated.

Solon the Lawmaker created the democratic basis but it was Cleisthenes who

finally established democracy in Athens at the end of the 6th

century BC.

There were several institutions that ruled the power of democracy:

o Assembly or Ekklesia:

Every Athenian citizen attended the Ekklesia.

Citizens had to be over 18 years of age.

They had to be male.

Both of their parents had to be Athenian.

The citizens were organised in 10 tribes.

The Assembly gathered at least 4 times per month.

This institution had many functions:

They voted on the laws.

They decided about war and peace.

They also chose the rulers of Athens.

They voted on the ostracism of people they thought

dangerous for Athens (they would be exiled).

o Boule or Council of the 500.

In this institution 500 citizens prepared the laws to be voted on by the

Ekklesia.

People who were part of the Boule were chosen out of a draw among

all the citizens.

o Justice court or Heliaia.

They were composed by 6,000 Athenian citizens who were in charge

of judging every crime committed in Athens.

These people were chosen after a draw among all citizens older than

30.

o Magistrates:



10 10

They were civil servants that executed the decisions of the Assembly

and that were elected by it.

Strategos:

o They were 10 people.

o They were in charge of the army and navy.

Archons:

o They were 10 people too.

o They presided over the trials and over the religious

events.

Among all Athenian rulers, Pericles was the most important one, who ruled during

the third quarter of the 5th

century BC.

4.2.2. Spartan oligarchy

It was a political system where very few people had power in the polis of Sparta.

Tradition says that Lycurgus the Lawmaker wrote the laws that ruled Sparta.

Two kings of different families ruled the city and they were assisted by other

institutions:

o Assembly of Warriors or Apella.

People who belonged to it were male, older than 30, sons of Spartans.

They were called spartiates or citizens.

They voted the laws that had been prepared by the Gerousia.

o Council or Gerousia.

It was composed by two kings and 28 aristocrats older than 60.

They occupied that post for life.

They were in charge of preparing the laws to be voted on by the

Assembly of Warriors.

o Ephors:

They were 5 magistrates.

They controlled the kings, the army and education.

They occupied that post for one year.

4.3. Greek cities

Greek cities were quite similar among them and they used to have two major parts:



11 11

o Lower part or Agora. It used to be market square and used to be surrounded

by a quarter inhabited by craftsmen and merchants.

o Upper part or Acropolis. It was a walled precinct built on a hill.

They grew as defensive points of the cities.

Most of them had religious functions (such as Athens’).

In event of a war people took refuge in it.

Greek cities used to have narrow and winding streets.

Greek houses were very simple:

o They used to be one or two-storied houses built around a courtyard.

o They were built out of wood, brick or stone.

o They used to have flat roofs.

o There was very little decoration and furniture.

o The gynaeceum was a room was reserved for women, whilst the andron

was exclusive for men.

During the Hellenism, cities changed and became better planned:



12 12

o Hippodamus of Miletus designed new cities following the grid plan.

o Streets were wide, long and straight. Thus there were square blocks of

buildings.

o There were new buildings, such as libraries, museums and gardens.

o Pergamum, Antioch, and Alexandria were the cities that best represented

that new model of urban layout.

5. GREEK ECONOMY

The main activity was agriculture:

o They sowed the Mediterranean triad:

Vines.

Olives.

Wheat.

Livestock farming was also common in Greece. Normally, they bred goats and

sheep.

Fishing was another important part of economy due to their contact with the sea.

Trade was developed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, for which they invented

the currency (drachma):

o They traded with indigenous people of those places where there were Greek

colonies.

o They obtained many raw materials and they sold many manufactured

products.

o Some crops were introduced in other countries thanks to the Greek trade

(such as olive and vines).



13 13

There were many craftsmen in Greek poleis: they made pottery, textiles, jewels,

leather, weapons...

o They used to sell their products in their workshops or in the stoa

(marketplace) in the agora.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeOFBrcm5pVm95NUU

6. GREEK CULTURE

Culture was a major element in Greek life. It has become the basis of the current

Western culture.

Philosophy was invented in Greece. Main philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and

Aristotle. They made theories about what the world should be like.

Literature:

o Theatre was a discipline loved by Greeks.

Plays were performed at open-air theatres.

There two theatrical genres:

Tragedy. Its main playwrights were Aeschylus, Sophocles

(Oedipus rex, Antigone, or Electra) and Euripides.

Comedy. Its main writer was Aristophanes.

o Homer composed the two major epic poems: Iliad, Odyssey.

o Aesop wrote many well-known fables.

Mathematics and Physics developed during Greek times:

o Pythagoras was the main mathematician in Greece.

o Euclid was a very important geometrician.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeOFBrcm5pVm95NUU



14 14

o Archimedes was the main physicist in those times.

Medicine was widely studied by Hippocrates. He formulated the oath about how to

act every physician must take.

Geography was a main subject in Greece thanks to Eratosthenes (he made a map

of the known world) and Ptolemy.

History was first studied in Greece:

o Herodotus was the first known historian. He spoke about the Persian Wars.

o Thucydides told of the Peloponnesian War.

Education was essential in Greece:

o They learned how to read and how to write when they were 7. Moreover,

they learnt music and arithmetic. In Sparta they also learnt war techniques.

o Once children were 14 they went to the gymnasium, academy or lyceum.

o Girls did not go to school.

7. GREEK RELIGION

Greek religion was polytheistic.

Gods had human qualities and defects but they were immortal and had exceptional

powers.

They lived on Mount Olympus.

Gods represented natural forces:

o Zeus (thunder)

o Hera (family)

o Hermes (trade)

o Aphrodite (love)

o Athena (wisdom)

o Apollo (beauty)

o Ares (war)

o Artemis (hunting)

o Poseidon (sea)

o Hephaestus (fire)

o Dionysus (wine)

o Demeter (agriculture)

o Hestia (hearth)

o Hades (underworld)



15 15

There were many heroes that were sons of deities and mortals.

o They could do incredible deeds.

o They were the founders of cities or families.

o The most known ones were Jason, Heracles, Achilles and Theseus.

All the stories of gods are known as myths.

Gods’ will was expressed through oracles:

o Delphi was the main oracle in Greece:

The Pythia transmitted Apollo’s prophecies through cryptic

messages.

Most of the Greeks went to Delphi before a major event to get the

prophecy.



16 16

There were some other kinds of worships:

o Sanctuaries:

There used to be common Pan-Hellenic rites.

There could be sport competitions where victory was sought by the

competitors:

Olympic Games at Olympia to honour Zeus.

Pythic Games at Delphi to honour Apollo.

Isthmic Games at Corinth to honour Poseidon.

There were also theatre competitions:

Epidaurus to honour Asclepius.

Athens to honour Dionysus.

o Cities:

Priests and magistrates presided over the official worships.

Prayers, offerings and animal sacrifices were common.

Processions were held in many cities. Athens held the Panathenaic



17 17

procession every July.

o Mysteries:

They were secret worships whose actions are not well known.

Most of them promised soul’s immortality.

The Eleusinian Mysteries were held in Eleusis to honour the

goddess Demeter and Persephone.

o Houses:

People used to have an altar to the domestic gods and the dead of the

family.

There used to be religious feasts for every single aspect of their lives.

8. GREEK ART

Greeks loved art and were very good at every artistic discipline:

Architecture:

o They built their buildings at human scale following proportion and harmony.

o They used to work with stone, mostly marble.

o Their architecture does not use any arch or vault, it just uses architraves.

Roofs are double-sloped.

o They invented classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

o There were many kinds of buildings:

Temple: they were religious buildings with similar characteristics.

The Parthenon of Athens in the main example.

Theatre: plays were performed in them. They used to be at open-air.

Delphi and Epidaurus have the best preserved theatres.

Stoa: it was a commercial building with external galleries, such as

the stoa of Athens.



18 18

Sculpture:

o Greeks idealised beauty and represented humans.

o There were three different stages with different characteristics:

Archaic:

It used to be static and schematic.

It was common the statues of kouroi (male nude athletes) and

korai (dressed women).

Classical:

Figures used to have much more movement.

Statues were realistic, although quite idealised.

There were famous sculptors in this period:

o Myron: Discobolus.

o Phidias: Reliefs of the Parthenon.

o Polykleitos: Doryphoros.

o Praxiteles: Hermes and the infant Dionysus.



19 19

Hellenistic:

There was a lot of tension in the figures.

Feelings and passions are expressed in these statues.

There were four major schools:

o Pergamum: reliefs of the Great Altar of Zeus.

o Rhodes: Victory of Samothrace, Laocoon and his

sons.

o Alexandria: Group of the Nile.

o Athens: Venus of Milo.

Painting:

o Greek painting is mostly preserved on pottery.

o They usually represent mythological episodes or sport competitions.

o There are several stages in painting:

Geometric style.

Black-figure style.

Red-figure style.

Hellenistic style.



20 20

Unit 3. Ancient Greece

Exercises

1. Where was settled the Minoan civilisation?

2. What was the basis of the Minoan economy?

3. What did Mycenaeans live from?

4. Why did Mycenaeans wall their cities?

5. In Ancient Greece a Sicilian was as Greek as an Athenian, could you say why?

6. Where was Ancient Greece located?

7. Complete the map indicating on it:

a. Five Greek poleis.

b. The Peloponnese.

c. Aegean Sea.

d. Asia Minor.

e. Two Hellenistic cities

f. Macedonia

g. Ionian Sea

h. Crete

i. Bosphorus

j. Gulf of Corinth

8. What was Greek landscape like? Which were the most important Greek islands?

9. What was a polis?

10. Which were the main Greek poleis? Where were they?

11. Indicate the causes of the colonisation.

12. Helped by the map shown, answer the following questions:

a. List some of those colonies in current Italy, France and Spain.

b. Which Greek cities founded colonies?

c. Which seas did Greeks found colonies through?



21 21

13. Were there other people who established colonies throughout the Mediterranean

Sea? If yes, say who they were.

14. Who fought in the Persian Wars and why? List the main battles that took place in it.

15. Why was the battle of Marathon so important?

16. Visit the website http://www.purposegames.com/game/battles-of-ancient-greece-

quiz and play the game. Note your scores and say which battles they ask for.

17. What was the Delian League? Who ruled it?

18. Who fought in the Peloponnesian War? Indicate its consequences.

19. Look at the map of the Peloponnesian War and answer:

a. Which cities supported Athens?

b. Which cities supported Sparta?

c. Which side ruled over the Aegean Sea?

d. Which side ruled over the Peloponnese peninsula?

http://www.purposegames.com/game/battles-of-ancient-greece-quiz

http://www.purposegames.com/game/battles-of-ancient-greece-quiz



22 22

20. Who was the traditional enemy of Greece?

21. List the main institutions of Athenian democracy.

22. Explain the way the Ekklesia worked and which its powers were.

23. What was the ostracism?

24. Write a short biography of Pericles of Athens.

25. What continent did Alexander the Great expand through?

26. List some of the lands Alexander conquered.

27. What three battles were won by Alexander to the Persians?

28. Write a short biography of Philip II of Macedonia, Alexander the Great and Darius

of Persia.

29. Who were the diadochi? Which kingdoms did they rule over?

30. Comment the following historic map answering the questions:

a. Which regions does the empire occupy?

b. Which are the natural limits of the empire?

c. Helped by an atlas, list the current states that empire occupied.

d. Helped by the scale, calculate the dimensions the empire had.

e. Look at the route followed by Alexander the Great and his troops. Where does it

begin? And where does it finish? Which were the main battles held?

f. How long did the conquest last? Dou you think it was a quick conquest or not?

Justify your answer.

31. Look at the map and answer the questions:

a. How many kingdoms were born from Alexander’s empire?

b. Which one was bigger?

c. Who ruled over them?

d. Who were they?



23 23

32. Which are the stages of the Greek history?

33. Acropolis and Agora are terms that are only related to Athens or to the whole Greek

civilisation?

34. What is mythology? What does it mean that Greeks were polytheistic?

35. List the most important Greek gods, their symbols and their attributions.

36. What were Olympus and Olympia? Are they the same or not?

37. Which were the Pan-Hellenic Games? What does it mean?

38. Write a short biography of three of the following characters: Socrates, Plato,

Aristotle, Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus, Aristophanes, Pythagoras, Archimedes,

and Hippocrates.

39. Look at the map Eratosthenes drew around 200 BC. Answer the questions:

a. Which were the parts of the world known by Greeks?

b. Which parts of the world did Greeks not know?

c. Which part of the map is more similar to the actual limits of the continents?

d. Lands are surrounded by what?

e. Search for information related to Eratosthenes and write a short biography of his

life.

40. Complete the chart:



24 24

Archaic age Classical age Hellenistic age

Date of beginning

Date of end

Years it lasted

41. Draw a line time that shows the evolution of Greek history:

a. List the name of each period

b. Write on it the main events of Greek history

42. Draw a chart with the main Greek characters:

Names

Politicians

Philosophers

Writers

Historians

Mathematicians

Physicists


a. Polis.

b. Colony.

c. Democracy.

d. Oligarchy.

e. Philosophy.

f. Agora.

g. Acropolis.

h. Citizen.

i. Hellenism.

j. Myth.

k. Hero.

44. Write the century in which the following events happened:

a. First Olympiad.

b. Egypt: Roman province.

c. Second Persian War.

d. Philip II of Macedonia conquers all the poleis.

45. Match the following events with their age:

a. Appearance of Greek poleis.

b. Persian Wars.

c. Greek colonisation of the Mediterranean.



25 25

d. Peloponnesian Wars.

e. Expansion of Greek civilisation in the East.

Archaic age Classical age Hellenistic age

46. Match the pairs:

1. Socrates

2. Phidias

3. Hippocrates

4. Archimedes

5. Sophocles

6. Aristophanes

7. Euclid

8. Eratosthenes

a. Geometrician

b. Sculptor

c. Physician

d. Philosopher

e. Comedy writer

f. Tragedy writer

g. Physicist and mathematician

h. Astronomer

47. Look at the plan of the Acropolis of Athens. Answer the questions:

a. What is the meaning of the word acropolis?

b. Which buildings does the acropolis shelter? List them.

c. Describe what the Parthenon was like.

d. What is the name given to the woman-shaped columns that sustain a portico of

the Erechtheum?

e. What was the original function of the Athenian Acropolis?

f. Why was the Acropolis renewed under Pericles’ rule?

48. Identify the capitals shown. Which is the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian capital?



26 26

49. True or False, correct the wrong sentences:

a. Greek civilisation finished when Philip II of Macedonia controlled all the poleis.

b. Greek civilisation grew around the Ionian Sea.

c. During the Persian Wars poleis fought against each other.

d. Married women accessed to citizenship in Athens.

50. Put the following terms in chronological order:

a. Mediterranean colonisation

b. Alexander the Great.

c. Peloponnesian War.

d. Battle of Marathon.

e. Rise of poleis.


1st CSE YEAR UNIT 4. ANCIENT ROME

1


UNIT 4: Ancient Rome


DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY ANCIENT ROME

1

UNIT 4: ANCIENT ROME

1. GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL SCENE

Roman Empire grew around the Mediterranean Sea, so-called Mare Nostrum by

them.

At the beginning of the 8th

century BC Italy was inhabited by different peoples:

o Etruscans in the north and centre.

o Latins in Latium (centre).

o Greeks in the south (Magna Graecia).

Rome was the city that controlled over the whole Empire:

o Rome was mythically founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus.



2

o Rome was built on seven hills, which actually had independent hamlets that

were unified around the 8th

-7th

centuries BC.

o It was located on a strategic point in the Italian peninsula by the last pass of

the river Tiber before its mouth.

o Etruscans conquered the zone in the 7th

century and the actual city of Rome

began to exist.

Roman history is divided into 3 different stages:

o Monarchy (753-509 BC).

o Republic (509-27 BC).

o Empire (27 BC-AD 476).

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeVkZPcFJ0ZERrQjg

2. ROMAN HISTORY

2.1. Roman monarchy (753-509 BC)

The tradition has fixed that Rome was ruled by seven kings:

o Mythological kings:

Romulus (753-717 BC).

Numa Pompilius (716-673 BC).

Tullus Hostilius (672-641 BC).

Ancus Marcius (639-616 BC).

o Etruscan kings:

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquin the Elder (616-579 BC).

Servius Tullius (578-535 BC).

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus or Tarquin the Proud (534-509 BC).

These kings were assisted by the Senate, which was an assembly composed by

noble families. Actually, these kings acted like despots with absolute powers.

Rome became a great city during the monarchy:

o Servius Tullius built the first city walls of Rome.

o The first sewerage system (Cloaca Maxima) was commanded by the kings.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeVkZPcFJ0ZERrQjg



3

Romans did not accept the kings because they represented the Etruscan authority:

o Romans declared a war on Etruscans.

o Lucius Junius Brutus dethroned the last king and the Republic was

proclaimed (509 BC). Hence Etruscans were expelled from Rome.

2.2. Roman Republic (509-27 BC)

After Brutus’ uprising, there was not any king to rule Rome.

Patricians created several institutions to control Rome, such as the Senate, which

was the most important ruling organ.

o It was an assembly composed by 300 members that belonged to the Patrician

families.

o Once senators were chosen, they held the charge for life.

o They advised and controlled magistrates.

o The Senate had powers to decide about war and peace.

Citizens gathered in popular assemblies or comitia:

o They passed some laws.

o They elected the magistrates.

o They decided about external policy (foreign affairs).

Many magistrates were appointed to administer the city in several fields:

o They were elected annually.

o There were several kinds of magistrates:



4

Superior magistrates:

Censors, they made the census.

Praetors, they had to judge crimes.

Consuls. They were the most important magistrates in Rome.

They were only two and they presided over the Senate and

ruled the army.

Dictator. It was an exceptional charge that was appointed

when there was a situation of national emergency. Once that

situation ended, the dictator left his charge.

Inferior magistrates:

Quaestors, they were in charge of administering public

money.

Aediles, they were in charge of ruling towns.

Plebeian tribunes, they had to defend the interests of the

plebs.

During the Republic, Rome expanded and created an empire:

o The Italian peninsula was conquered between 509 and 274 BC after

fighting against Latins, Greeks, Gauls, Sabines, and Etruscans.

o Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica were occupied after the I Punic War (264-

241 BC) against the Carthaginians.

o Spanish Mediterranean coasts (Hispania) were conquered, after winning

the II Punic War (218-202 BC) and defeating the Carthaginian leader,

Hannibal.



5

o Tunisia and Carthage were occupied after winning Carthaginians in the III

Punic War (149-146 BC).

o Central part of Spain was conquered after the Lusitanian and Celtiberian

Wars (155-133 BC).

o East Mediterranean Sea: Greece, Anatolian peninsula, Near East... (2nd

century BC).

o Gaul was conquered by Julius Caesar around 50 BC.

The Republic suffered a severe crisis in the 1

st century BC:

o It was a period in which corruption extended.

o Social inequality was common and social struggles were usual.

o There were internal struggles that led to Civil Wars.



6

o Generals got more influence in politics. That let them get political charges:

Triumvirates were instituted in order to control the situation:

1st triumvirate was composed by Julius Caesar, Crassus

and Pompey:

o There were many conflicts with Julius Caesar since he

accumulated powers and was appointed as a dictator

in 51 BC.

o Julius Caesar was finally assassinated in 44 BC by

Brutus. A new Civil War broke out.

2

nd triumvirate was composed by Lepidus, Octavian and

Mark Antony:

o A war began between Octavian and Mark Antony that

finished after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), in which

Mark Antony was defeated.

o Therefore, the Empire was established.



7

2.3. Roman Empire (27 BC-AD 476)

After the battle of Actium Octavian obtained many powers from the Senate to

acknowledge him for ending the Civil Wars:

o He was proclaimed the perpetual consul.

o He was appointed as the prince (princeps).

o The Senate granted him the name of Augustus (chosen by the gods).

o He was named the Pontifex Maximus, so he was the main priest of the

Roman religion.

o To control the army, he was named the imperator (emperor).

o He managed to occupy military, political and religious powers.

He passed laws.

He established taxes.

He decided about war and peace.

Augustus established the Pax Romana (Roman peace), which lasted for more than

100 years.

Augustus’ successors had absolute powers:

o Several dynasties were established:

Julio-Claudian dynasty: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

Flavian dynasty: Vespasian, and Titus.

Nerva-Antonine dynasty: Nerva, Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian,

Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus.

Severan dynasty: Septimius Severus, Caracalla...

o The most important emperors were Trajan and Marcus Aurelius.

During the Empire Roman lands grew:

o Augustus conquered Egypt and the north of Spain, and zones around the

river Rhine.

o Claudius conquered Britain.

o Trajan conquered Dacia, Armenia, Cappadocia, and Mesopotamia.



8

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeQ1dBT0ZEMHMtdHM

The empire was organised in provinces, which were ruled by governors, who raised

taxes and defended the boundaries (limes).

Rome suffered another major crisis in the 3rd

century owing to several reasons:

o Military crisis:

Roman conquests had ended 100 years before.

Germans attacked Romans in the northern limits.

Persians also attacked from the east.

o Political crisis:

Emperor’s power weakened, which involved that emperors were

assassinated or deposed.

There were continuous coups d’état.

o Economic crisis:

Less wealth due to the end of the conquests.

Taxes had to be increased to pay soldiers.

People left cities and went to the countryside in order to pay less

taxes.

4th

century was a difficult period too:

o Some emperors took measures to end with that critical situation:

Constantine (312-337) tolerated Christianity to promote internal

unity. He founded a new capital: Constantinople.

Theodosius (346-395) divided the empire between his two sons to

defend it better:

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeQ1dBT0ZEMHMtdHM



9

Honorius received the Western Roman Empire. Rome was

its capital.

Arcadius inherited the Eastern Roman Empire.

Constantinople was its capital.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeQXotd0RxLUNOalk

5th

century involved the Fall of the Western Roman Empire:

o Huns led by Attila pressed Germans into the Empire:

Suebi established in the northwest of Spain.

Vandals and Alans settled in the southeast of Spain and later they

moved to North Africa.

Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved from Denmark and north of

Germany to Britain.

Franks conquered the north of Gaul.

Visigoths attacked the Eastern Roman Empire, sacked Rome (AD

410) and finally settled in Spain.

Ostrogoths moved to Italy at the end of the 5th

century.

o Germans created some independent kingdoms within the Western Empire.

o Odoacer, king of the Heruli, dethroned the last emperor, Romulus

Augustulus, in AD 476.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeQXotd0RxLUNOalk



10

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeLXV2cTJ6YkdSbFU

3. ROMAN SOCIETY

3.1. Social division

Roman society was divided into strict groups:

o Citizens:

Patricians:

Patricians were a very small minority that lived in luxurious

houses (domus).

They were Roman noblemen that were considered to be

descendents of Rome’s founders, patres (Fathers).

They owned all the lands during the Republic.

They were a part of the Senate and held the most important

military and administrative posts.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeLXV2cTJ6YkdSbFU



11

Plebeians:

Most of Romans belonged to this social group.

This social class was composed by small farmers, peasants and

craftsmen.

They could not participate in politics but they managed to vote.

They had continuous struggles with Patricians, who had to pass

the Law of the Twelve Tables (451 BC) to have Plebeians’

support.

Due to the previous law the Senate created three kinds of charges

of magistrates that were reserved to the Plebeians:

o Plebeian Tribune: They defended Plebeians’ rights. They

could veto laws.

o Aediles. Posts of municipal administration.

o From 350 BC onwards, one of the two consuls should be a

Plebeian.

o Non citizens:

Conquered populations:

They did not have the same rights as the Roman citizens.

In AD 212 Caracalla issued an edict (Constitutio Antoniana or

Edict of Caracalla) by which every free man who lived in the

Roman Empire would be given the full Roman citizenship. Free

women may have the same rights as Roman women.

Foreigners:

They came from outside the Roman borders.

They were usually craftsmen or merchants.

Freedmen:

Slaves had the chance of being free.

o Either they could buy their freedom, or it was granted by

their master (manumission).

o In any case they became freedmen (libertus).

Women:

They had very few rights (they could not vote). However, they

could manage their own businesses and own properties.

Their main function was to have children and to help their

husbands, fathers of brothers.

Unlike Greek women, they did not live in separate areas of the

house.

Slaves:

They were either prisoners of war or they were born in a slave

family or they had debts.

They did not have any right and were owned by their masters.

Society was organised in families:

o Patrician families joint to form a gens.

o These families attracted many people that worked for them in exchange for

favours.

3.2. Roman cities and way of life

Roman cities were very well planned:



12

o They had straight and parallel streets with a grid layout.

o Streets that ran north to south were called Cardo.

o Streets that ran east to west were called Decumanus.

o The place where those main streets crossed was the Forum, a kind of main

square where the main buildings of the city stood: Capitol, Basilica,

Marketplace, Temple, Baths,...

Some other buildings were made in Roman cities for leisure:

o Theatres: places to perform plays. They were outdoor facilities.

o Amphitheatres: facilities to hold gladiator fights.

o Circus: buildings for chariot races. They used to be outside cities.

To commemorate some events triumphal arches were built.

To supply water some aqueducts were built from the sources to the cities.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeeWhvZVVfOVpVXzg

Rich Romans lived in domus, one-floor houses that were built around courtyards

(atrium) with several major rooms such as the tablinum and the triclinium.

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54DkeeWhvZVVfOVpVXzg



13

Common people lived in insula, blocks with several floors with small houses.

In the countryside villas were built for agricultural exploitations.

4. ROMAN ECONOMY

Roman economy was based on four sectors:

o Agriculture.

There were small exploitations owned by former soldiers who were paid

by being given these lands. The owners used to work their own lands.

Large exploitations (latifundia) were owned by Patricians and were

worked by Plebeians or slaves.

Agricultural production was based on three kinds of crops:

Wheat, it was produced in the provinces.

Vines, it was usually grown in Italy and wine was made with their

grapes.

Olives. It was typical from Italy too. Oil was got from olives.

Tools were quite rudimentary, although Roman plough (aratrum) was

invented and they used fertilisers.

Some lands were irrigated to obtain better results.

o Crafts.

Workshops were owned by free people that had slaves working for them.

Each city was specialised for a product.



14

There were many kinds of craftsmen: Blacksmiths, tanners, weavers...

o Mining.

Slaves worked getting the minerals in gallery or open air mines.

Gold and salt mines were owned by the state during the Republic and by

the emperor during the Empire.

Other mines were rented to other people so that they exploited them.

Mercury, iron, copper, tin, silver, and lead were other minerals obtained

in the mines.

o Trade.

There was a huge network of roads that linked the whole empire.

Many harbours were built. Ostia was Rome’s.

Basic products came from western provinces (oil, wine, wheat, garum).

Luxurious products were imported from eastern empires and China and

India (perfumes, ivory, gold, jewels, silk, spices).

There were contacts with foreign peoples to trade, like China and Persia.

They got spices, perfumes, cotton, and silks from them.

To ease trade, a single imperial currency was used:

Aureus (gold).

Sesterce or sertertium (silver).

Denarius (silver).

As (bronze).



15

5. ROMAN CULTURE AND RELIGION

5.1. Culture

Roman culture spread through the Empire thanks to the conquests in a process that

has been called Romanisation.

Romans spoke Latin, which is the origin of the Romance languages such as

Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, Galician...

Romans made major contributions in several areas:

o Legislation. Roman law was essential in the Empire and it is the basis of

many modern western laws.

o Philosophy. Cicero was the most important Roman philosopher during the

Republic and was a senator. Seneca was born in Corduba (Spain) and

managed to be Nero’s private tutor.

o Literature. Romans loved poetry and theatre:

Virgil was the main Roman poet and he composed the Aeneid, an

epic poem which told of the mythical origins of Rome.

Martial wrote the Epigrams in which he satirised everyday life.

Plautus and Terence were famous for their plays.

Quintilian was essential in rhetoric.

o History. It was one the main disciplines among Romans. There are many

books written by historians such as Julius Caesar, Tacitus, Plutarch,

Polybius, or Livy (Titus Livius).

o Science. They made important advances in several areas:

Medicine. Galen wrote many medical treatises.

Calendar. Julius Caesar fixed the Julian calendar in 45 BC, which

was in use until the 16th

century.

5.2. Traditional Roman religion

Romans were polytheistic:

o Their gods were human shaped.

o Roman gods are similar to Greek ones:

Jupiter was the main god and it was assimilated to Greek Zeus.

Juno was like Greek Hera and Minerva like Athena. Both three gods

formed the Capitoline Triad.

Other assimilations to Greek gods were:



16

Venus (Aphrodite).

Mercury (Hermes).

Mars (Ares).

Neptune (Poseidon).

Diana (Artemis).

Ceres (Demeter).

Vulcan (Hephaestus).

Pluto (Hades).

Vesta (Hestia).

Bacchus (Dionysus).

Apollo (Apollo).

o They also adopted foreign gods, mostly Egyptian and Persian:

Isis.

Cybele.

Mithras.

o Some emperors were deified and an Imperial cult was established.

Romans also had private worships:

o Household and guardian deities:

Lares, they protected their home.

Penates, they protected their lives.

o Manes, they were ancestors’ gods.



17

They consulted oracles to foresee the future.

Romans prayed to their gods and made them sacrifices to obtain favours.

5.3. Christianity

Religion founded by Jesus of Nazareth, who preached it in Judaea with his apostles

from AD 30 onwards.

o Jesus was crucified under Pontius Pilate’s rule in Jerusalem.

Christianity’s main pillars are collected in the Gospels (St. John, St. Matthew, St.

Luke, and St. Mark’s):

o Monotheistic religion: only God is God (with three shapes: God Father,

Jesus Christ or God Son, and the Holy Spirit).

o Love and forgiveness is the basis of human relationships.

o Eternal life in the kingdom of God for those ones who follow Christian laws.

First Christian communities were organised by Jesus’ apostles:

o St. Paul extended Christ’s doctrine in Near East, were it was adopted by

humbles classes.

o St. Peter preached in the western part of the Roman Empire.

o Christianity spread after Titus’ destruction of Jerusalem (AD 70) and the

beginning of the Diaspora.

o Christians gathered in churches to pray and to hold the Eucharist. These

meetings were presided over by a pastor or bishop.

o Their symbols were the cross, the chrismon, and the fish.



18

Christians were considered a threat for Roman stability due to several reasons:

o They did not worship the emperor.

o Social classes mixed in the churches.

o They rejected polytheism.

o Christians were persecuted under some emperors’ rule:

Main persecutions were Nero’s (AD 64-68), Domitian’s (AD 81-96),

Trajan’s (AD 109-111), and Diocletian’s (AD 303-313).

They sheltered in catacombs, subterranean galleries outside Rome.

Christianity was officialised by Constantine through the Edict of Milan (AD 313):

o Religious freedom was declared in the Roman Empire.

o Public worships could be held by Christians.

o Christianity spread throughout the empire.

o Basilicas were built to host the religious services.

Theodosius declared Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire

through the Edict of Thessalonica (AD 380):

o Other religions were banned.

o Non-Christian people were called pagans.

At early Christian times heresies grew and the official Christian doctrine was fixed

in Councils, where bishops met (the first one was the Council of Nicaea in AD

325).

6. ROMAN ART

Romans took many characteristics from Greeks and Etruscans.

Architecture:

o Functional aspects were more important than aesthetic aspects:

They used rough materials (concrete) coated with marble or other

stones.

o They copied the Greek classical orders, but they created two new models:

Tuscan order. It is like the Greek Doric order, but its shaft has a

base and it is plain (it has no flutes).

Composite order. It mixes the Greek Ionic and Corinthian orders.

Therefore the capitals have volutes and acanthus leaves.

o They used the round arch, the barrel vault and the domes.



19

o There was a wide range of buildings made by the Romans such as the

temple, baths, theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, triumphal arches,

commemorative columns, aqueducts, bridges, houses...

Sculpture:

o Romans were strongly influenced by Greeks but they were more realistic.

o Portrait was the main genre they developed in several ways:

Busts.

Equestrian statues.

Painting:

o The Roman paintings we preserve are wall paintings.



20

o The technique they used was the fresco.

o There were four different styles that represented everyday life, landscapes

and different scenes.

o Colours were really vivid.

o The best examples are preserved in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Mosaic:

o Most of the Roman houses had their floors covered with mosaics.

o They are made through small pieces of marble (tessera).

o They depicted geometric and figurative designs.



21

Unit 4. Ancient Rome

Exercises

1. When was Rome founded according to the legend? Who did it?

2. List the periods in which Roman history is divided. When did they take place?

3. Describe the map of Rome and its physiognomy.

4. Visit the website http://www.purposegames.com/game/1059 and play the game.

Note your scores and say which hills they ask for.

5. Who were the Etruscans? Which was their relationship with Rome?

6. Explain the first kind of government Romans had.

7. List the kings that ruled Rome and the period in which they reigned.

8. When was proclaimed the Roman Republic?

9. During the Republic, which magistrates existed? Explain the functions of each of

them.

10. Which was the most powerful assembly in Rome? Who controlled it?

11. Who composed the Senate? And the comitia? Which were their functions?

12. Match the pairs:

1. Plebeian tribune

2. Dictator

3. Praetor

4. Patrician

5. Freedmen

a. Magistrate with absolute powers

named by the Senate in cases of

national emergency.

b. Defender of plebeians’ rights

c. Descendants of Rome’s first

inhabitants.

d. Slave freed by his lord.

e. Magistrate that administered

justice.

http://www.purposegames.com/game/1059



22

13. Identify the regions that were conquered by Romans during the Republic.

14. To conquer the Italian peninsula, who did Romans fight against?

15. Look at the map and answer:

a. Why did the II Punic War begin?

b. Who was the Carthaginian leader?

c. How did Carthaginians reach to attack Rome?

d. Which were the main battles of the war? Who won them?

e. When did the II Punic War begin? When did it finish?

16. List the causes of the crisis of the Roman Republic in the 1

st century BC.

17. Who was Julius Caesar? Why was he assassinated? Who assassinated him?



23


a. Which lands were occupied during Augustus’ reign?

b. Did he control the whole Mediterranean Sea? If not, say which regions he

didn’t control.

19. Why did Romans call the Mediterranean Sea Mare Nostrum?

20. What was the pax romana? Who established it?

21. Assisted by an atlas, out of the following countries, say which ones belonged to the

Roman Empire:

United Kingdom, France, Spain, Finland, Portugal, Italy, Tunisia, Egypt,

Lebanon, Denmark.

22. Which were the causes of the crisis of the 3rd

century AD?

23. List the dynasties and the emperors that reigned over the Roman Empire between

the 1st century BC and the 2

nd century AD.

24. Which city was founded by Constantine? Where was it?

25. Who was Theodosius? Which was his will once he died? What happened to the

Roman Empire?

26. Who were known as Barbarians by Romans?

27. Who were the Huns? Who led them?


a. Which Germanic peoples invaded the Roman Empire?

b. When did they invade it?

c. Where did they settle?



24

29. Were any of the Germanic peoples an ally or federated state of Rome?

30. Who was Western Roman Empire’s last emperor? When was he dethroned?

31. What happened to the Eastern Roman Empire?

32. Match each event with the period:

a. Division of the Empire.

b. Conquest of Rome by Etruscans.

c. Conquest of the Mediterranean Sea.

d. Tolerance of Christianity.

e. Punic Wars.

f. Fall of Western Roman Empire.

g. Persecution to Christians.

Monarchy Republic Empire

33. Explain the differences between Patricians and Plebeians.



25

34. Describe the structure of a Roman city. What was the name of the main streets?

What was the name of the main square in those cities?

35. Look at the image that shows the plan of the Roman forum. Later, visit the website

http://www.purposegames.com/game/forum-of-ancient-rome-quiz and try to find

the buildings they ask for. Which are those buildings?

36. What were the baths? Describe their structure.

37. What is a domus? Which were their parts?

38. What was an insula?

39. Look at the map an answer the following questions:

a. List the main commercial routes in the empire.

b. List the main products that were traded.

c. Where did the most luxurious products come from?

d. Did they trade with foreign peoples?

e. Which sea did Romans trade through?

f. Which was Rome’s harbour?

http://www.purposegames.com/game/forum-of-ancient-rome-quiz



26

40. Match the pairs between Greek and Roman gods:

1. Zeus

2. Hera

3. Cronus

4. Poseidon

5. Athena

6. Apollo

7. Artemis

8. Ares

9. Aphrodite

10. Hephaestus

11. Hermes

12. Dionysus

13. Hestia

14. Demeter

a. Saturn

b. Juno

c. Neptune

d. Diana

e. Apollo

f. Vesta

g. Vulcan

h. Ceres

i. Venus

j. Jupiter

k. Minerva

l. Mercury

m. Mars

n. Bacchus

41. Look at the map and answer the following questions:

a. Where was Christianity born?

b. Which regions were the first ones to be Christianised?

c. Which were the main Christian focuses?

d. Where were the Patriarchates established?



27

42. Which are Christianity’s new doctrines?

43. What were the persecutions? Which emperors were the main persecutors of

Christianity?

44. How were first Christian communities organised?

45. When was Christianity legalised? Who did it?

46. When was Christianity declared the official Roman religion? Who established it?

47. Why are 313 AD and 380 AD important dates for Christianity?

48. Match each holiday with the feasted event:

1. Christmas

2. Good Friday

3. Easter

4. Ascension

5. Whitsun/Pentecost

6. Epiphany

a. Jesus’ crucifixion

b. Rise of Jesus to Heaven

c. Descent of the Holy Spirit on the

Apostles

d. Jesus’ birth

e. Jesus’ Resurrection

f. Magi visit Jesus at a manger at

Bethlehem

49. Identify the concepts stated with the following terms:

Forum, Messiah, Tessera, Triclinium, Villa, Aqueduct.

a. Centre of a Roman city where cardo and decumanus join.

b. Engineer work that transported and supplied water.

c. Dining room of a Roman house, where people ate reclined on a sofa.

d. Agricultural Roman exploitations that had a great manor and working

lands.

e. Small pieces used to make mosaics.

f. Saviour sent by God to help Hebrews re-establish the Kingdom of Israel.

50. Which language was spoken by Romans? Is it spoken yet? Are there any languages

that come from it? If yes, which ones?

51. Look at the photographs and match them with their name:

a. Amphitheatre

b. Theatre



28

c. Circus

d. Aqueduct

e. Baths

f. Temple

g. Triumphal Arch

h. Brigde

52. Write in Roman numbers the following figures:



29

a. 1248

b. 895

c. 1999

d. 49

e. 449


1st CSE YEAR UNIT 5. SPAIN IN ANCIENT TIMES

1


UNIT 5: Spain in ancient times


DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY SPAIN IN ANCIENT TIMES

1

UNIT 5: SPAIN IN ANCIENT TIMES

1. PRE-ROMAN SPAIN

1.1. Iberians

They were located in the Mediterranean coast between the 6th

and 1st centuries BC.

Their hamlets were built on hills next to rivers to defend themselves.

Iberians were organised in tribes where noblemen owned lands and warriors had a

special status.

Iberian economy was based on five sectors:

o Agriculture. They grew wheat, vine and olive.

o Livestock farming. They mostly bred sheep and cows.

o Mining. It was a major sector based on gold, and silver.

o Crafts. They made iron works (swords), pottery and textiles.

o Trade. They traded either with Phoenician or with Greek colonies.

Iberians minted their own currency and had a writing system due to Greek

influences.

They had a polytheistic religion with female goddesses. They incinerated their dead.

Their art was influenced by the Greeks and major examples are the damas such as

the Dama de Elche or Dama de Baza.

1.2. Celts

They were Indo-Europeans that occupied the central Plateau and the Atlantic coast

between the 5th

and 3rd

centuries BC.

Celts cohabitated with native peoples like Cantabri and Vascones.

They lived in castros, which were walled and high hamlets whose houses were

circular and thatch-roofed.



2

Celtic economy was based on several sectors depending on the area:

o Sheepherding (northwest).

o Agriculture of cereals (centre and west).

o Hunting.

o Iron and Bronze work.

Celts lived in tribes and very few families owned the lands.

They did not have either currency or writing system.

They had a polytheistic religion that worshipped stars and natural elements or

animals. They incinerated their dead. The main gods were Endovelicus and

Ataegina.

1.3. Tartessos

It was a mysterious civilization that grew in the Guadalquivir valley.

Their society was very hierarchical with powerful kings such as Arganthonios.

Tartessian economy had several sectors:



3

o Advanced agriculture.

o They dominated the work of metal and extracted silver, tin, and copper.

This civilization disappeared around 500 BC, maybe due to the Carthaginian

invasion.

1.4. Coloniser peoples

1.4.1. Phoenician colonisation

Phoenicians came from Eastern Mediterranean Sea, throughout which they founded

several colonies.

In the Iberian Peninsula they founded Gadir (Cádiz, 1100 BC), Malaka (Málaga),

Sexi (Almuñécar), and Abdera (Adra).

Phoenicians arrived in Spain due to the importance of Tartessos.

They were major traders and got raw materials in Spain to take them to the East.

They developed salting factories in their colonies.

Phoenicians introduced the alphabet in Spain.

1.4.2. Greek colonisation

Greeks came to Spain due to trade, since they were interested in metals and salt.

They founded several colonies from the 6th

century onwards:

o Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Rosas) in Catalonia.

o Hemeroskopeion (Denia), Akra Leuke (Alicante), and Saguntum

(Sagunto) in Valencia.

o Mainake (Torre del Mar) in Málaga, which was attacked by the

Phoenicians.

1.4.3. Carthaginian invasion

Carthaginians succeeded Phoenicians in their colonies.

They founded new colonies in Spain:

o Qart Hadash (Cartagena)

o Ebyssos (Ibiza)

They controlled metal trade and recruited soldiers for their military campaigns.



4

Carthaginians controlled trade in Western Mediterranean Sea after defeating Greeks

in the battle of Alalia (540 BC).

Hamilcar Barca and Hasdrubal tried to establish an empire in the Iberian

peninsula:

o They had to fight against Romans.

o Hannibal followed his family’s objectives but he was finally defeated by the

Romans in the II Punic War (218-202 BC) and Carthaginians had to leave

Spain.

2. ROMAN SPAIN

2.1. Roman conquest of Spain

Romans fought against Carthaginians due to the siege of the city of Saguntum,

which was an ally city of Rome:

o The II Punic War broke out in 218 BC.

o Scipio Africanus disembarked in Emporion (henceforth Ampuriae) and

attacked the Carthaginian fortresses in Spain.

o During the campaigns the Romans were attracted by Spain’s mineral wealth.

o Carthaginians were finally defeated in 202 BC and the Spanish

Mediterranean coast and Andalusia were conquered by the Romans.

The conquest of Aragon took place at the beginning of the 2nd

century BC.

To conquer the plateau Romans had several problems due to the continuous

struggles with the indigenous population such as the Lusitanians, Arevaci, and

Vaccaei:

o Lusitanian Wars (155-139 BC):

Viriathus declared the war on Rome and organised many guerrillas

to attack Romans.

Romans finally conquered the area after bribing two men in order to

kill Viriathus.

o Celtiberian Wars (143-133 BC):

Romans besieged the city of Numantia, which resisted for a long

time.

Scipio the Younger was sent to stop the Celtiberian rebellion.

Numantines committed suicide instead of surrendering to Romans

and set the city on fire.

The Balearic Islands were conquered around 125 BC.

The north of Spain was much harder to conquer than the rest of the peninsula:

o Cantabrian Wars took place at the mid 1st century BC (29-19 BC) against

Cantabri and Astures.

o Augustus himself and Agrippa came to Spain to direct to conquest.

o The region was occupied by Romans but their culture did not influence over

the local population.



5

2.2. Organisation of Roman Spain

When Romans arrived in Spain they called it Hispania.

At the beginning of the 2nd

century BC the new territories were divided into two

provinces:

o Hispania Citerior. It stretched from the Pyrenees until Carthago Nova

(former Carthaginian Qart Hadash). Its capital was Tarraco (Tarragona).

o Hispania Ulterior. It occupied all the south of Spain. Its capital was

Corduba (Cordova).

Once the Cantabrian Wars ended Augustus divided Spain into three provinces:

o Tarraconensis. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic

Ocean and the Balearic Islands. It was the largest province of Spain and its

capital was Tarraco.

o Lusitania. It occupied part of present-day Portugal and Extremadura and

part of the west of Castilla y León. Its capital was Emerita Augusta

(Mérida).

o Baetica. It was the former province of Hispania Ulterior and its capital went

on being Corduba.

Finally, the emperor Diocletian made a new division and decreed that the Diocese

of Hispania would be a part of the Prefecture of Gaul:

o There were two provinces that remained as Augustus had fixed:

Lusitania.

Baetica.

o Four new provinces were created out of the former Tarraconensis:

Gallaecia. It was the northwest of the peninsula and its capital was

Bracara Augusta (Braga).

Carthaginensis. It was the southern part of the former

Tarraconensis. Its capital was Carthago Nova (Cartagena).

Tarraconensis. It was just the north part of the former province. Its

capital was still Tarraco.

Ballearica. It was only the Balearic Islands. Its capital was

established in Pollentia (Alcudia). Actually it was created in the mid

4th

century.



6

o A new province was added to Spain in the 4th

century:

Mauritania Tingitana. It was in the north of Morocco and its capital

was Tingis (Tangier).

All the provinces were ruled by governors appointed by the emperor, save Baetica,

which was directly governed by a propraetor or proconsul appointed by the Senate

(it was a senatorial province).

Cities were governed by an assembly of 100 members and several magistrates.

Roman law was the legal and juridical basis for the government of the provinces.

2.3. Spanish Roman society

Most of the population were free people:

o There were Patricians and people that came from Rome.

o Native nobility preserved some privileges.

o Most of the people were Plebeians.

o All the Spanish Roman people became citizens after the issue of the

Constitutio Antoniana (Edict of Caracalla, AD 212).

Slaves were common in Roman Spain and they had no rights. They could also be

freed by their masters and they became liberti.

2.4. Spanish Roman economy

The main economic activities were similar to the rest of the Empire:

Agriculture:

o The main crops were the Mediterranean triad: wheat, vines, and olive trees.

o These products were mainly exported to the city of Rome.

Mining:

o Spain was rich in minerals and that fact attracted Romans.

o Mines were owned by the Senate or the emperor.

o Gold, silver, lead, mercury, copper and iron were the main minerals that

were extracted in Spanish mines.

Crafts industries:

o They were not as rich as in the Eastern provinces.



7

o They produced pottery (amphorae) and oil, wine, salted fishes, and garum, a

really appreciated sauce.

Trade:

o It was important in Spanish Roman economy.

o Most of the products that were traded were raw materials that were taken to

Rome.

o Luxury products were imported from Rome and other Eastern provinces.

o There was a dense network of roads to enhance trade.

o Major harbours were built in some Spanish Roman cities such as Gades

(Cádiz), Tarraco (Tarragona), and Carthago Nova (Cartagena).

2.5. Romanisation of Spain

It was the process of adopting the Roman culture by the native population.

Spain became one of the most Romanised provinces of the Empire.

o Andalusia and the Mediterranean coast were more romanised than the other

parts of Spain.

o The north of the peninsula was scarcely romanised.

Cities were the best way to romanise people. Many new cities were founded over

the native settlements.

Some emperors were born in Spain such as Trajan (born in Italica), Hadrian (born

in Italica too), and Theodosius (born in Cauca, Coca).

Roman culture spread throughout Spain:

o Latin. It became the common language among native population.

Indigenous languages disappeared, save Basque.

There were major Latin writers:

Lucan and Martial were important poets.

Quintilian was essential in rhetoric.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca was the most important philosopher

of Roman times.



8

o Education. They founded schools in Spain and in Osca (Huesca) they

created a kind of university for the most important Roman families of Spain.

o Religion. Some places preserved indigenous cults.

Most of the population adopted the Roman pantheon.

Christianity spread in Spain at the same time as in the rest of the

Empire.

o Art. It had the same characteristics as in the rest of the Empire.

Many remains have been preserved throughout Spain:

Cities like Emerita Augusta, Segobriga, Italica, Tarraco,

and Clunia.

Bridges like in Mérida, Alcántara, Cordova or Salamanca.

Aqueducts like in Segovia, Mérida, and Tarragona.

Theatres and Amphitheatres in Mérida, Sagunto, Tarragona,

Italica, Segobriga,...

City walls like in Lugo.

Triumphal arches like in Tarragona and Medinaceli.

2.6. Crisis in Roman Spain

In the 3rd

century Spain suffered a severe crisis that involved a progressive

ruralisation.

During the 5th

century some Germanic peoples invaded Spain:

o Suebi in the Northwest of Spain. They formed a kingdom that lasted until

the late 6th

century, when they were expelled by the Visigoths.



9

o Vandals and Alans in the South, although they moved to North Africa

shortly later.

o Visigoths, who signed a treaty with Rome to settle in Spain.

3. VISIGOTHIC SPAIN

3.1. Visigothic history

Initially Visigoths occupied most of Spain and south of Gaul.

o Their capital was Tolosa (Toulouse).

o Franks moved southwards and king Clovis defeated Visigoths at the battle of

Vouillé (507).

After Vouillé, Visigoths settled in Spain and moved their capital to Toledo.

There were continuous fights against Suebi in the northwest, Vascones in the north,

and Byzantines in the southeast.

o Leovigild (568-586) expelled Suebi in 585 and persecuted Roman Catholic

population (he even executed his own son because of being a Catholic).

o Suintila (621-631) expelled Byzantines from the southeast.

The Visigothic Kingdom suffered a severe political and economic crisis at the early

8th

century:

o It finally ended once the king Roderic was defeated by Muslims at the

battle of Guadalete (711).

3.2. Visigothic society

Initially Goths were separated from native Spanish-Romans.

o Mixed marriages were banned.

o Goths had different laws.

o Spanish-Romans were Roman Catholic, whilst Goths were Arians.

Later Goths mixed with local population:

o A single code of laws was elaborated by Chindasuinth and Recceswinth:

Liber Iudiciorum or Fuero Juzgo (Visigothic Code).

o The king Reccared made Goths convert into Catholicism at the 3rd

Council

of Toledo (589).



10

Roman Catholic Church supported the kings after their conversion and convoked

the Councils of Toledo:

o Spanish bishops met at those councils.

o They were religious and political assemblies that were strongly linked to

monarchy.

Monarchy was elective, although kings tried to make it hereditary.

o There were fights among nobles to elect the new king.

o Kings were attended by warriors that had sworn allegiance to him in

exchange for protection. They constituted the Aula Regia.

o Bishops and major Spanish-Roman families also supported them.

o Territory was controlled through dukes (dux) in provinces and counts

(comites) in towns.

3.3. Visigothic economy

Agriculture and cattle raising were the main basis of the economy.

o Peasants farmed the lands in exchange for protection.

o There were continuous crisis due to draughts and plagues that provoked

hunger.

Trade declined although they had commercial relations with the Byzantine Empire,

Italy and North Africa.

o Luxury goods were imported to Spain.

o Currency was minted by Visigoths following Roman traditions:

Golden solidus and tremissis.

Silver siliqua.

3.4. Visigothic culture and art

St. Isidore of Seville and his brother St. Leander of Seville were the main cultural

figures of the Visigothic Spain.

o They were theologists and held major ecclesiastical positions.

o St. Isidore wrote the Etymologies, a kind of historical encyclopaedia.

Visigothic art is really poor but in goldsmithing:

Architecture:

o There are few remains of churches, which were small and built in regular

masonry.

o Horseshoe arch and vaults were typical in Visigothic art.

o Ceilings used to be low, made by horseshoe vaults or wooden roofs.



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o There is decoration of reliefs on the walls.

o The main examples are San Juan de Baños (Palencia), San Pedro de la

Nave (Zamora), Quintanilla de las Viñas (Burgos).

Goldsmithing:

o Votive crowns were typical for Visigoths.

o The most important evidences are the treasures of Guarrazar and

Torredonjimeno.



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Unit 5. Spain in ancient times

Exercises

1. Who were the Pre-Roman people? Why are they given that name?

2. Look at the map above and answer the questions:

a. Which peoples founded colonies on the Iberian Peninsula?

b. In which areas of the peninsula were the Celts settled?

3. Look at an atlas and check which present-day autonomous regions correspond to

the Iberian area and to the Celtic area.

4. Answer the questions:

a. Name the different coloniser peoples.

b. Why did the colonisers settle on the Iberian Peninsula?

5. Complete the chart with the missing words:

Verb Noun

Colonise

Inhabitant

Settle

Occupation

Introduce

6. Which coloniser people introduced the alphabet in Spain?

7. Did Iberians have any writing system? And Celts?

8. Use a word from the chart above in the correct form to complete each sentence:

a. Celtic ____________ were called castros.



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b. In pre-Roman Spain many different tribes _______________ the

Peninsula.

c. The colonisers ______________ new crafts and farming methods.

d. There were Phoenician ______________ on the Mediterranean coast.

9. Choose the correct word to complete each sentence:

a. Iberians lived in the north/south and east of the Peninsula.

b. Pre-Romans believed in many/one god(s).

c. Celts lived mainly from cattle raising/trade.

10. List the main Phoenician, Greek, and Carthaginian colonies and where they were

located.

11. Why did Romans come to Spain? When happened that?

12. When did the Roman conquest of Spain end? Which was the last region to be

conquered?

13. In which stage of the conquest did Rome occupy the territories of the plateau?

14. When did Romans conquer the Spanish Mediterranean coast? And the Balearic

Islands?

15. List the different provinces that Romans created in Spain between the 2nd

century BC and the 4th

century AD.

16. How many provinces were there in each stage?

17. Which were the capitals of each province?

18. Match each of the Roman provinces with one of Spain’s autonomous regions.

19. Find the mistake in each of these sentences. Correct the wrong ones.

a. Romanisation was faster in the north of the peninsula than on the

Mediterranean coast.

b. Slaves in Roman Spain had the same rights as citizens.

c. The use of Greek helped spread the Roman culture throughout the

peninsula.

20. Answer the following questions and say whether they are true or false. Correct

the false ones.

a. The Iberian Peninsula was not inhabited before the Romans arrived.

b. Rome occupied the north of the peninsula after they defeated the

Cantabri and the Astures.

c. Hadrian, Trajan, and Theodosius were Visigothic kings.

d. The Tarraconensis was a Roman road.



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e. Hamilcar Barca commanded the Roman army that arrived in Emporion in

218 BC.

f. The Romans began their conquest by conquering the tribes of the north.

g. Under Rome, the economy of Hispania depended on cattle raising and

soldiers.

21. List the present-day languages of the Iberian Peninsula that descend from Latin.

22. After the arrival of the Romans, the towns in Hispania became very important.

Find out and write the modern names of these Spanish Roman towns.

a. Caesaraugusta

b. Toletum

c. Emerita Augusta

d. Hispalis

e. Lucus Augusti

f. Pompaelo

g. Tarraco

h. Asturica Augusta

i. Complutum

j. Gigia

k. Barcino

l. Carthago Nova

23. Now guess the Roman names of the following Spanish towns:

a. Calatayud

b. Valencia

c. Lérida

d. Huesca

e. Granada

f. Salamanca

g. León

h. Sigüenza

i. Calahorra

j. Castro Urdiales

24. Give the name of a philosopher, a writer and an emperor born in Roman Spain.

25. Find out the Roman name given in Spanish to the people that have been born in

the following cities and say why they are called like that:

a. Huelva

b. Ciudad Rodrigo

c. Alcalá de Henares

d. Lugo

e. Gerona

f. Cádiz

g. Tarrasa

h. Cabra

i. Elche

j. Vic

26. Search for some information about the Roman city of Complutum and which its

major remains are.

27. Copy and complete the table with the following terms:

Iberians, aqueduct, Sagunto, termal baths, Numantia, castros, Dama de Elche,

Tartessos, Tower of Hercules, Hannibal, Scipio Africanus, mosaic,

Arganthonios, Emerita Augusta, Emporion, Celts, garum.

Pre-Roman world Roman world

28. Match each building to the correct location:



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Theatre Lugo

Temple Alcántara

Bridge Sagunto

Walled city Segovia

Aqueduct Mérida

Circus Baelo Claudia

Triumphal arch Bará

29. Look at the picture and choose the best option to complete the sentences below.

a. The picture shows the ruins of an amphitheatre/a theatre.

b. Chariot racing/gladiator fights took place there.

c. This amphitheatre was located in the Roman city of Italica in the

province of Lusitania/Baetica.

30. When did the Visigoths settle in Spain?

31. Which was the capital of the Visigothic kingdom?

32. How did the Visigoths reach Hispania?

33. Which king united almost the whole peninsula during the Visigothic period?

34. Put the words in the correct order to form questions and answer them:

a. the last/was/king/Who/Visigothic?

b. fight/did he/have to/armies/What?

c. which/die/battle/did he/In?

d. did/end/the kingdom/When/of Toledo?

35. Complete the questions with the appropriate question word: What or Who.

a. __________ type of government did the Visigoths have?

b. __________ did the Councils of Toledo represent?

c. __________ was head of the army?

d. __________ was the function of the Aula Regia?

36. Match each question above with the correct answer:

a. To give advice to the King.



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b. The Catholic Church.

c. A monarchy.

d. The King.

37. Match each Visigothic king with the innovation introduced during his reign:

Leovigild Legal system unified

Reccared Mixed marriages legalised

Recceswinth Catholicism made official religion

38. What were the main economic activities of the Visigoths? What happened to

trade?

39. Match each name with the correct description:

Guadalete converted to Catholicism

Reccared Etymologies

St. Isidore last Visigothic king

Roderic Visigothic defeat

40. Match each of the following terms with the correct definition:

Romanisation adoption of Roman culture and way

of life

Latin follower of Islam

Castro Celtic settlement

Visigoths province of Spain during the reign of

Augustus

Aula Regia kingdom in Hispania with capital in

Toledo

Muslim council of nobles

Emporion language of the Romans

Baetica Greek colony in Hispania where the

Romans arrived in 218 BC.

41. Match the words on the left with the correct periods:

Leovigild Pre-Roman Spain

Seneca

Iberian Roman Spain

Hadrian

Reccared Visigothic Spain

Phoenicians



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42. Write the events below in chronological order.

a. Phoenician and Greek colonisation of the Mediterranean coast.

b. Invasions of Suebi, Vandals, and Alans.

c. Beginning of the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

d. Spread of Christianity throughout Hispania.

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