history and preparation of soap and detergent
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Iniyan Cafaso
XI B
Chemistry
Project
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1. Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove
grease and dirt.
2. There are two type of cleansing agents :
a) Soaps
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b) Detergents
3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that
contains 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule.
4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or
vegetable oil by saponification.
Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of a
long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic
acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or
potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in nonpolar
substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end(the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water.
The structure of a soap molecule is represented below:
Non-polar hydrocarbon chain ionic end.
(Soluble in nonpolar substances) (Soluble in water)
The history of soap manufacturing
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Soaps can be prepared through saponification.
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therefore,
general equation,
What is fat?
What happen to the fat during saponification?
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Preparation of soap by saponification
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Procedure
1. 10 cm3 of palm oil is measured with measuring cylinder 10ml and poured into a
beaker 250ml.
2. 50 cm3 of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution 5 mol dm-3 measured with
measuring cylinder 50ml and poured in the beaker.
3. The mixture is heated and stirred with glass rod until its boiling for 5 minutes.
Then, the flame is turned off and the mixture is left to cool.
4. 50 cm3 water and a few spatulas of sodium chloride was added to the mixture
and boiled again for 5 minutes. Then, the flame is turned off and the mixture is
left to cool.[white precipitate is formed and floats].
5. The mixture is filtered with filter paper, and the residue (soap) is washed by
distilled water.
Example-->
Soap Chemical formula
Sodium palmitate CH3(CH2)14COONa
Sodium stearate CH3(CH2)16COONa
Sodium oleat CH3(CH2)CH=CH(CH2)COOK
Potassium soap is usually used for bathing because its more softer and milder
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than sodium.
Soaps And Detergent As Cleansing Agents
Hydrophilic part dissolves in water.
- Hydrophobic part dissolves in dirt/grease.
- Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps pull the dirt/grease-
free, and break the grease into small part.
- The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the-
cloth because the repulsion between the negative charges on their surface.
- The droplets is suspended in the water forming an emulsion.
- Rinsing washes away these droplets and leaves the surface clean.
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The effectiveness of Soaps
Advantages of soaps
1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is water does not
contain Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.
2. Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because
soaps are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that
soaps are biodegradable, that is they can be composed by the action of bacteria.
Disadvantages of soaps
1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and
calcium salts.
2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard
water.
3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate
and calcium stearate.
4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing
dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic
acids molecular size that are insoluble in water.
5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because
they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (head) that
dissolves in water.
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DETERGENT
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DETERGENT - DEFINITION
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detergent also cleaning agents
Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons
obtained from petroleum fractions.
Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.
Molecular structure of Detergent
they are generally refered as non soap cleaning chemicals
Types Of Detergent
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chemically a detergent is a sodium salt of sulponic acid with
structure as shown below
a) sodium alkyl sulphate (anionic detergent)
b) sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate (anionic detergent)
the alkyl chain also has from 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule
Example:
a) sodium 4-dodecylbenzene sulphonate
CH3(CH2)11 - C6H4 - SO3-Na+
b) sodium dodecyl sulphate
CH3(CH2)11OSO3-Na+
Preparation of detergent
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PREPARATION OF SODIUM ALKYL SULPHATE
Step 1: Sulphonation
Step 2: Neutralization
The alkyl sulphonic acid is neutralized by using sodium hydroxide
Alkyl sulphonic acid + Sodium hydroxide
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PREPARATION OF SODIUM ALKYLBENZENE SULPHONATE
Step 1: Alkylation
Long chain alkene
Step 2: Sulphonation
Alkene Benzene + H2SO4
Step 3: Neutralization
occur between Alkyl Benzene sulphuric acid React with Sodium
Hydroxide produce Sodium Alkylbenzene Sulphonate (detergent) and
Water (H2O)
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The effectiveness of detergents ascleansing agents
Advantages of detergents
1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard
water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions
found
in hard water.
2. The detergents ions (R O SO3 - and R SO3 - )react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions
in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed
are
soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active
in hard water and lathers easily.
3. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the
hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific
properties.
Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised for specific uses
such as shampoos and dish cleaner.
4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion isacidic
water do not combined with detergents ions.
Disadvantages of detergents
1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-
biodegradable,
that is, they cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable
detergents cause water pollution.
2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of water
plants
and algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves
in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other
aquatic lives.
3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the
water
surface will prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause
fish and other aquatic life ti die from oxygen starvation.
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4. Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine
gas
in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.
SHAMPOO
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Introduction
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Shampoos are cleaning formulations used for a wide range of applications,
including personal care, pet use, and carpets. Most are manufactured in roughly the
same manner. They are composed primarily of chemicals called surfactants thathave the special ability to surround oily materials on surfaces and allow them to be
rinsed away by water. Ester carboxylates are especially suitable in shampoos; incombination with alcohol ethoxy sulfates, they reduce skin irritation. Most
commonly, shampoos are used for personal care, especially for washing the hair.
Raw Materials
New shampoos are initially created by cosmetic chemists in the laboratory. They must decide
on aesthetic features such as how thick it should be, what color it will be, and what it will
smell like. They also consider performance attributes, such as how well it cleans, what the
foam looks like, and how irritating it will be. Consumer testing often helps determine what
these characteristics should be.
Once the features of the shampoo are identified, a formula is created in the laboratory. The
more important ingredients in shampoo formulations are water, detergents, foam boosters,
thickeners, conditioning agents, preservatives, modifiers, and special additives.
Water
The primary ingredient in all shampoos is water, typically making up about 70-80% of the
entire formula. Deionized water, which is specially treated to remove various particles and
ions, is used in shampoos.
Detergents
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The next most abundant ingredients in shampoos are the primary detergents. These materials,
also known as surfactants, are the cleansing ingredients in shampoos. Surfactants are surface
active ingredients, meaning they can interact with a surface. Surfactants are derived from
compounds known as fatty acids. Fatty acids are naturally occurring materials which are found
in various plant and animal sources.The materials used most often to make the surfactants used in shampoos are extracted
fromcoconut oil, palm kernel oil, and soy bean oil. Some common primary detergents used in
shampoos are ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate, and sodium lauryl ether sulfate.
ammonium lauryl sulphate
Foam boosters
In addition to cleansing surfactants, other types of surfactants are added to shampoos to
improve the foaming characteristics of the formulation. These materials, called alkanolamides,
help increase the amount of foam and the size of the bubbles.
Thickeners
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To some extent, the alkanolamides that make shampoos foam also make the formulations
thicker. However, other materials are also used to increase the viscosity. For example,
methylcellulose, derived from plant cellulose, is included in shampoos to make them
thicker. Sodium chloride (salt) also can be used to increase shampoo thickness.
Conditioning agents
Some materials are also added to shampoos to offset the sometimes harsh effect of surfactants
on hair and fabrics. Typical conditioning agents include polymers, silicones, and quaternary
agents. Each of these compounds deposit on the surface of the hair and improve its feel,
softness, and combability, while reducing static charge. Shampoos that specifically feature
conditioning as a benefit are called 2-in-1 shampoos because they clean and condition hair in
the same step.
Examples of conditioning agents include guar hydroxypropyltrimonium chloride which is a
polymer, dimethicone which is a silicone, and quatemium 80, a quatemary agent.
Preservatives
Since shampoos are made from water and organic compounds, contamination from bacteria
and other microbes is possible. Preservatives are added to prevent such growth. Two of the
most common preservatives used in shampoos are DMDM hydantoin and methylparaben.
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