HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE

Class I

WHY THIS COURSE?• Agriculture is important for India• 62% population depend on agriculture• Contribution to GDP going down• TFP had been declining but now recovering• NSS Survey indicates 44% farmers want to quit farming• Investment in ag. R&D declining• Youth not attracted to agriculture• Situation likely to be alarming after 2025• New generation faces a big challenge• IARI students: Good in subject matter, poor in other sub.

Origin of Agriculture • Modern man (Homo sapiens) believed to have evolved

from Homo erectus- 135,000-200,000 yrs ago• Most of this period lived in Nomadic existence in forest

as hunters & gatherers of food• Process of domestication-10,000 yrs ago• Sign of plant cultivation-8th-7th millennium BC• Archaeological remains-wheat, barley, pea, lentils etc-

near East- spread to Europe, West Asia & Nile valley• More sp. –domesticated• What motivated them to adopt: hunting to settled agri.?• People on diversified diet healthier than farmers

FOOD & AGRICULTURE

• Food – an essential need• Agriculture- prime source for food• History of agri.- co-terminus with civilization• History of Indian agri.- complicated &

controversial• Absence of literary text for early period• Lit. available – post Gupta or early medieval

era

Agriculture in India

• Earliest source- Arthashastra of Kautilya– Agri. is way of life, a philosophy & a culture– Agri. & herding under Revenue Admn.– Characterized by archaelogical evidences1.Vindhya-Ganga region2.North-west of Indian subcontinent– Hunting-gathering in late Mesolithic period to– Domestication of animals and cultivation of

plants- 7-6th millenium BC

Agriculture in India

• Indian subcontinent had 2 centres of farming of cereals :– North-west with barley-wheat complex (Mehrgarh)– Vindhya-Ganga region for rice: latter is earlier than

formerDomestication of rice is found at Atranjikher & Lal Qila

(1200-1500 BC)Rice-wheat-barley-legume agri. Established in Narhan

& Imlikhurd by the end of 3rd millenniumTwo crop a year started around this period

Agriculture in India

• Millets of African origin-Introduced in India in 3rd millennium BC-Associated with Harappan culture (2,500-2,000

BC)-Came to middle Ganga plains by 1800 BC

• Border land of Afghanistan- - Domestication of animals and plants– Symbiotic development of sedentary agri. & pastoral

nomadism- quite common in hills

Agriculture in India

• Indus civilization- Well provided with development of Agri & animal husbandry– Higher precipitation– Irrigation– Cultivation of rice, wheat & barley– Use of chem. Fertilizers (Gypsum & CaSO4)– Raising two crops a year

Agriculture in India

• Sixth century BC to 6TH century AD-Variety of sources:

-Pali, Sangam, Sanskrit-Kautilya’s Arthsastra & Dharmsastra

– Classification of land– Irrigation– Export of items-sugar– Taxes &– Medicinal & aromatic plants

Agriculture in India

• Early medieval Period (600 AD to 1200 AD)– Agrarian structure– New type of tools & technology– Regional agri. –South India, Bengal & Gujarat

British Period :-Initialy concerned with development- Ignored agriculture-Led to Bengal Famine

Origin of Agriculture- Hypothesis

• Several hypotheses but debate continues as none of them wholly satisfactory:– Climate change- ice age-11,000 yrs ago- favourable

environment for farming– Population pressure– Resource concentration from desertification– Land ownership– Natural selectionGreg Wadley & Angus Martin (1993)- cereals and milk

contain ‘Exorphins’- drug like addictive properties

Origin of Agriculture

• Origin of agri. Can’t be because of particular invention

• Why it took so long to settle and cultivate?• Gifted individuals – hunting can’t go forever,

let’s change- is it better way of life?• Change is not easy to humans- discarding old

and adopting new, nevertheless• Change is difficult but change is must for

progress

Domestication

• First domestication to modern crop production: wild sp. –HYVs – MVs- through selection– Grain size, colour, tolerance to drought, disease and insect

pests– Creation of agrobiodiversity– Movement with people-– land races were created with variability– Natural and human selection for countless generations– Supported nearly 1 billion people in early 19th centuryHybridization and heredity- Mendel- modern crops

Crop Nutrition, Production and Protection

• Application of chemical fertilizer in early 20th century• Humus-the main source of nutrition• Understanding of photosynthesis came much later• Pest management- balanced ecosystem- 1200 BC botanical

pesticidesused in China• Dams on river Nile in Egypt, Euphrattes and Tigris in

Mesopotamia- Iraq• Irrigation practices- Mesopotamians evolved sophisticated

irrigation system• Dams in Asia- Cauvery river in 1900 by Chola king• Farm implements- scratch plough –moldboard, sickles,

spades and hoes

Modern Agriculture

• Till 18th century- traditional way• Scientific discoveries helped in modernization

– Origin of Species – Darwin in 1859– Mendel’s law of inheritance - 1869- 1900– Leibig’s discovery in 1840 killed humus theory–

chemical fertilizers industry in 1894– Steam engine in 1858VISIT AGRICULTURE SCIENCE MUSEUM in NASC

Trends in food grain production in India

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Production X5 Productivity X3Area X0.25Popln.400 M-1.2B

1960-61- 82.02 MT-710kg/ha1965-66- 72.35 MT-629kg/ha1973-74-104.67 MT-827kg/ha

Transformation of Agriculture

Traditional to Modern

Triggers of Growth• Science of Heredity-

– Mendel :1866- 1900• Plant nutrient- artificial fertilizers

– Liebig : 1840• Pest Management

– Bordaux mixt. in early 20th century• Irrigation –

– Early yrs. of 20th century• Mechanization-

– Charles Hart & Charles Parr – Tractor in 1902

Traditional V/s Modern Agriculture

• Traditional– Small farm– Polyculture– Heterogenous

germplasm– Little fertilizers & chemicals– Minimum tillage– Varying period for

fallow

• Modern– Large & small farms– Monoculture– Uniform

varieties/hybrids– Extensive use of

fert/chem.– Appropriate/timely

tillage– Intensive land use

Triggers of Growth

• Science of heredity- Mendel 1866, 1900 – Demolished theories of inheritance– Concept of genes– Quantitative inheritance

• Chemical fertilizers– Humus theory demolished- C bulk of dry matter from humus– Photosynthesis – CO2 + H2O = (CH2O) + O2

– Liebig 1840- C from atmospheric CO2

– Liebig’s patented manure- first inorganic fertilizers

Triggers of Growth– Modern fert. Industry-Liebig 1894- Phosphate, lime, magnesia

& potash– Direct synthesis of Ammonia from N2 and H2 in Germany by

Frit Harber in 1913- Nobel Prize in Chemistry– P form TSP from Phosphoric acid, 1st started in Germany in

1870s– K from KCl – Murate of Potash- Germany, Russia, US, Cnada– Global prodn- 100 million tonnes Nutrient mining- partial

replenishment– China- the largest producer of N fert. Followed by US & India – Declining TFP- 18/28 MT. (gap of 10 MT fertilizer)– Balanced fert. Application - NPK & micronutrients- 4:2:1– Imbalanced application- leads to toxicity

Triggers of Growth• Pest Management

– Irish famine-1840- 1 million died- P. infestans– Bordeaux distt.- mixture - CuSO4 +lime– Chinese – botanical pesticides

Organic pesticides– DDT in 1939 by Paul Muller at Geigy in Basel- Colarado potato beetle– Killed mosquitoes- saved thousands of lives– Most widely used – Organophosphorus compounds– Carbamates– Synthetic pyrethroids– Sulphonyl ureas

Widespread useDeveloped countries- 0.49 kg/ha in 1961 to 1.30 kg/ha 2000Developing countries-late starters- 0.66 in 1990- 1.02 kg/ha in 2000

Pesticide residuesIPM

Irrigation

• Water availability• Water demand• Gravity & Arch dams• Increasing WUE

– sprinkler– drip – micro irrigation

State-wise potential and actual area under micro-irrigation ( Area in 000 ha )

States Drip Sprinkler TotalPotential Actual

%Potential Actual

%Potential Actual

%Andhra Pradesh

730 50 387 52 1117 51

Gujarat 1599 11 1679 8 3278 9Haryana 398 2 1992 26 2390 22Karnataka 745 24 697 33 1442 28Maharashtra 1116 43 1598 13 2714 26Rajasthan 727 2 4931 14 5658 13Tamil Nadu 544 24 158 17 702 23UP 2,207 0.48 8582 0.12 10789 0.20All India 11659 12 30578 8 42237 9Total area under MI is currently 3.87 million ha against estimated potential of 42 million ha

Major crops-field crops (cotton, groundnut, sugarcane) to vegetables and fruits (banana, papaya, mango, grapes) and plantation crops

Mechanization• Early yrs of 20th century in US

– 38% people engaged in Agri.– 3-4% today

India:-1950- 8,000 tractors-2001-2.61 million machines-largest producer of tractor 400,000 units in 2009-10-6,25,000 current yr. 2014

– combinesModern Agriculture:Seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, chemicals, machines = Led to

increased output

Impact of Modern Agriculture

• Output of US agri. Doubled during 1910-1970– Scientific knowledge/technology– Land grant Universities

• Resesrch• Education• Extension

• European agriculture– Wheat yields-doubled in UK

• New varieties• Improved agronomy• Modern farm inputs

Dr. S. Raman, New Delhi Winter School, 20/3/09

Fresh Water Resources – 4 %

Land – 2.3 %

Population – 16 %

Rainfall – 1170 mm

Resources and Liabilities

Past and Projected Water Demand

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Some Success Stories

• Maize• Potato• Cotton• Soybean

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Production X5 Productivity X3Area X0.25

1960-61-82.02 MT-710kg/ha1965-66-72.35 MT-629kg/ha1973-74-104.6 MT-827kg/ha2010-11-241.5 MT-1921kg/ha

Production and productivity of rice in India

Production and Productivity of Wheat in India

Area X 2.5Prodn.x 8.5Prody x3 1950-51: 6.5 MT-663 kg/ha

1960-61: 11 MT- 851 kg/ha1963-64 : 730 kg/ha1965-66: 10.4 MT-827kg/ha1970-71: 21.8 MT-1172kg/ha

Production and productivity of maize in India

Prodn. x12Yield x4Area x3

Bt Cotton in India

Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha

35

Year Area(m ha)

Production(m t)

Yield(t/ha)

% share in oilseeds area

% share in oilseeds

production1970-71 0.032 0.014 0.426 0.19 0.14

1980-81 0.61 0.44 0.728 3.46 4.69

1990-91 2.56 2.60 1.015 10.60 13.97

2000-01 6.42 5.27 0.822 27.61 28.64

2010-11 9.60 12.74 1.327 35.27 39.22

2011-12 10.18 12.28 1.207 38.50 40.92

2012-13 10.70 14.67 1.37 40.29 42.80

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Area, Production and Productivity in IndiaArea, Production and Productivity in India

334 1050 3.2

Area, Production and Productivity of Soybean around the World

Area, Production and Productivity of Soybean around the World

Country Area(m ha)

Production(m t)

Yield(t/ha)

USA 30.91 91.42 2.96

Brazil 23.50 69.00 2.94

Argentina 18.60 54.50 2.93

China 9.19 14.98 1.63

India 10.70 IV 14.5 V 1.37 (40%)

Paraguay 2.68 7.20 2.69

World 102.17 260.85 2.55

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Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service-www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdgetreport. 

GREEN REVOLUTIONBREAKTHROUGH IN WHEAT IMPROVEMENT

WHY MODERNIZATION OF AGRICULTURE?

Class III

Population Growth

• 1 M yrs or more- 1st 8 Million people in 8,000 BC

• 10,000 yrs. – 1st 1,000 M by 1830• 100 yrs - 2nd 1,000 M by 1930• 30 yrs. - 3rd 1,000 M by 1960• 15 yrs. - 4th 1,000 M by 1975• 25 yrs. - 6 billion by early 21st century• 2011 - 7 billion Oct. (6.928 b on July 01)• 2025 - 9.2 billion

Global Population Explosion

First 4 million years

1950-1985

1985-2050+ 4.5 bn ?

+ 2.5 bn

2.5 bn

Current: >7 billion

Poor: 1 billion (240 m in India)

Underweight Children: Underweight Children:

Severely: 180 millionSeverely: 180 million

Chronically: 800 millionChronically: 800 million

Vitamin A deficient: 200 millionVitamin A deficient: 200 million

Pregnant Women:Pregnant Women:

Anemia: 400 millionAnemia: 400 million

1/8 persons hungry1/8 persons hungry

Present Concerns:

Source - Paroda, 2011

1951

1991

2001

846 mn

548 mn

361 mn

1028 mn

1971

India’s Population

2011

20501500 mn (expected)

1210 mn

Decennial Growth in Human Population

• Graph

• Ship-to-mouth• Life boat• Paddock Brothers’ Famine 1975

Other FactorsDeveloped Vs developing

• Increased longevityAntibiotics in 1950s:

PenicillinChloromycetin

• Industrial Revolution- strong production & distribution base for

• Fert, pesticides, farm machineryKnowledge & technology Policy & investmentDeveloping countries followed the suit

Wheat Improvement in India

• Domesticated in West Asia• Selection of land races by generations of farmers• Scientific breeding in early 20th century• North America, Europe, Russia, Japan & Australia• India- 1905 at IARI- Pure line selection• 1930-40 Hybridization – grain quality & disease

resistance- Dr. BP Pal & Assoc. –Leaders

Wheat Improvement in India-cont.• Started at IARI in 1905- Dr. BP Pal & associates-yield, quality

& disease resistance• NP 700 & NP 800 series• NP 823- Early Maturing, good quality suitable for rainfed• NP 824- Good yield in plains & lower hills• NP 809- Resistant to 3 rusts & loose smut through

hybridization• Ch. Ram Dhan & SM Sikka at Govt. Agri. College & Research

Instt. Lyallpur (faislabad) developed C series wheat in Punjab - yield 3-4 t/ha

• 1947 av. Yield 700kg/ha – remained same for the last 40 yrs.

Low Productivity of Indian Wheat

Remedy of the Malady

Wheat Yield in India______________________________________ Year Yield______________________________________

• 1950-51 :6.46 MT 663 kg/ha• 1960-61 : 11 MT 851 kg/ha• 1963-64 734 kg/ha• 1965-66: 10.4 MT- 827kg/ha• 1970-71: 21.8 MT- 1172kg/ha

• Increase in yield not consistent

Wheat improvement - Yield barrier• 20 varieties grown over 80 yrs. were analyzed (Kulshrestha and Jain , 1981)

-1910-60 Tall -2 per decade for six deacdes-12-1970-80 Dwarf -4 per decade-8

Evaluated for:-grain yield-HI-# effective tillers/sq. m-plant ht.-grain wt-total dry matter

Tall var. showed significant differences for 1st 4 characters but did not show significant difference in biol. yield & grain. Wt

K13 (Kanpur) and NP 165(IARI) showed significant but small improvement in yield 1940s, 50s & 60s no difference in grain yield despite concerted effortsSignificant difference recorded in var. of 1970s & 80s

Indian breeders struggled to break yield barrier over 60 yrs. But did not succeed

Wheat ImprovementResponse to fertilizer

• Inadequate availability• Lack of infrastructure for prodn. & distribution• Attempt made to develop varieties for high soil fertility• Tall varieties (115 cm or more) lodged at high doses

beyond 40 Kg/ ha Nitrogen • Need for breeding stiff strawed, lodging resistant

coupled with disease resistance & quality• SP Kohli-Sr. wheat Breeder in early 1960s initiated

work for identifying sources of dwarfing with stiff straw but rust resistance was top priority

Dwarf Wheat

• IARI germplasm collection screened- none of them dwarf except 3 Italian varieties

• Funo• Falchetto• MaraLodging resistant but susceptible to RUST- less used in

breedingrht8 gene for reduced plant height –identified in these

varietiesItalians developed famous ARDITO & released in 1916Was widely grown in Eastern Europe & South America

Dwarf VarietiesHYV winter wheat – Russian Scientist -PP Lukyanenko developed:

– Bezostya– Kavkag &– Avrora Great Britain

Little Joss (142 cm.) in 1908Holdfast (126 cm.) in 1935Capelle Desperz (110 cm) in 1935Marris Huntman (106 cm) in 1972Armada (97 cm) in 1978

USAHonor (120 cm) in 1920Eroga (85 cm.) in 1973

Did not havea robust source for dwarfing but succeeded in improving wheat yield over a long period in Western world

Dwarf Winter Wheat• Indian wheat breeders struggling to develop dwarf

wheat varieties, scientists in Japan had found solution way back in 1930– Daruma- a land race- origin remains obscure – 1873– Daruma- registered as variety in 1900– Kihara & assoc. showed bread wheat – 3 sets of chr. in 1940s

Evolution of NORIN 10:-Shiro(white) Daruma-Aka (red) Daruma

Shiro Daruma X Glassy Fultz- an American wheat at Central Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishinghara & released Fultz Daruma

Fultz Daruma X Turky Red at Ehime Prefectual Experiment Station in 1925- The advance progeny of this cross yielded NORIN 10 in 1932. It was released in Oct. 1935 by Inazuka

Dwarf Spring Wheat

Norin 10- semidwarf winter wheat height of 52-55 cm It received its dwarfing gene from Daruma- land race selected by Japanese farmers• Standard source of dwarfing gene throughout world• Free from adverse effects on expression of yield

contributing characters when placed in right genetic background

• Short internodes reduced plant height without reducing length of earhead, # of spike bearing tillers, & # of grains/spike

Norin 10 In USA• Following occupation of Japan in 1945- group of scientists sent from

USA to Japan• SC Salmon- Adviesr to USDA – sent Norin 10 to US• USDA distributed to wheat breeders-

– Orville A. Vogel of Washington Agri. Exp. Stn., WSU, Pullman evolved 1st semidwarf, HYV carrying Norin 10 outside Japan

– The variety Gaines gave a record yield of 14.5 t/ha under high fertility with large dose of fertilizers

– Gaines, however, showed high proportion of sterile florets– Gaines crossed with Brevor- sterility was transferred to Norin 10-Brevor

hybrid– Further selections led to Breeding lines free from sterility– Selection 14 crossed with 3 American varieties to introduce disease resistant

genes– Gaines was 85 cm, Brevor 120 cm and Selection 146 cm height– Gaines showed no lodging but Brevor showed 20% lodging– Gaines – a winter wheat and could not be grown in subtropical conditions

Mexican Wheat

• Norman Borlaug working at CIMMYT, Mexico got Norin 10-Brevor hybrid lines from Vogel– 1st few crosses with elite Mexical lines – not successful due to rust– Successful crosses showed sterile florets, shrivelled grains, poor quality &

susceptibility to rust– Sustained efforts for next 6 yrs- winter & spring gene pools different &

showed considerable genetic divergence– Now Borlaug had Norin 10 in spring wheat background

• Pitic 62 Inia 66• Penjamo 62 Tobari 66• Sonora 63 Ciano 67• Sonora 64 Norteno 67• Mayo 64 Cietoe Coros• Lerma Rojo 64 in 1966

Multilocation Evaluation

Mexican Wheat in India

• Rabi 1961-62 -Observational Nursery from USDA

• Summer 1962 -Multiplication at Wellington• Rabi 1962-63 -Demonstration at IARI farm

Invitation to Borlaug to visit India & visits in March 1963

• Rabi 1963-64 -Multilocation Trial 4 places• Rabi 1964-65 -Large Multilocation trails-155

places• 1965- Two Mexican Lines Sonora 64 & Lerma Roho 64 A

Released for Commercial cultivation by CVRC (CSCSNRV)

Area, Production and Productivity of Wheat in India

Area X 2.5Prodn.x 8.5Prody x3

Reduction in yield gap has been the main approach for increasing wheat production

Source: IARI/ ICAR network

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Year

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Potential yield

Actual yield

Bt Cotton in India

Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha

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Incidence of malnutrition among children (< 3 years)

Wide inter-regional variations in yield

State Foodgrain yield, 2006-07 (t/ha)

1. Punjab 4.0

2 Tamil Nadu 2.6

3 West Bengal 2.5

4 Uttar Pradesh 2.1

5 Bihar 1.7

6 Orissa 1.4

7 Madhya Pradesh 1.2

Focus on high potential eastern & central region for immediate yield gains

Per capita net availability of foodgrains

400

420

440

460

480

500

520

1971 1981 1991 2000 2007 2008

(g/capita/day)