history of astronomy (anton pannekoek, 1961)

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fight
for
his
existence
is Mulmul
power
arose
in
the
Cjnorth
on
the
upper
kings Tiglath-phileser
(745-727 BG),
assembled
there
with the sun
dark
in
Simannu,
after
a
year
Ramanu
[the
storm-god]
will
inundate.
When
was
a
gap
in
the
continuous
series;
this
happened
Babylonian
 
of
science.
had
become
senseless.
The
Persian
monarchs,
worshippers
of
Aurarnazda,
had
in olden
523
BG.
The
deciphering
and
explanation
of
such
tablets,
from
the
years
SE
188,
189,
and
20
1,
first
science
of
the
stars.
By
discovering
and
fixing
the
periods,
knowledge
became
science.
This
is
were
put
down
in
chrono-
logical
always
service
after
5
series,
223
months,
the
multitude
of
former
eclipses.
dates
CO
CO
older
system,
which
was
at
once
more
primitive
^
node from
the value
knowledge
of
this
astronomy
is
as
fragmentary
system
of
lunar
tables;
and
perceived
that
when
some
purpose
of
to the
the
mainland
and
Miletus,
Ephesus
and
Smyrna
on
earth
but
around
the
earth
as
a
cap
moves
about
the
head;
and
the
sun
does
not
go
beneath
the
earth
They
ruled
for
the
free
citizens,
who
should
occupy
themselves
with
intellectual
work
only,
with
matics,
philosophy
'and
politics.
This
contempt
for
technique
was
exactly
opposite
Golden
Age,
who
were
themselves
science
and
philosophy,
one
visible
century
BG
Greece
had
experienced
an
epoch
of
philosophical
and
cosmological
ideas.
We
find
that
Simplicius,
in
explaining
one
of
Aristotle's
arguments,
says:
'because
there
form
largest
amount
of
space
is
spent
on
the
method,
the
procurement,
had been
earth
in
a
ratio
larger
than
6,859
V
1
and
and
c-f
angle
d,
or,
calling
them
by
their
names:
parallax
of
parallax
of
the
sun
is
very
small,
the
moon's
parallax
is
found,
with
a
slight
error
only,
10'
Venus
5
s.p.=
8y.
2
3
/iod.=
8r.
2
15'
Mercury
1
r.=
revolutions)
These
are
the
same
multiples
as
used
by
the
Babylonians.
For
the
first
three
named
planets
a
synodic
period,
i.e.
a
revolution
in
the
epicycle,
has
passed
planet
along
the
epicycle.
For
the
'mean
sun
5
It can
'equant')
radius
remains
privileged
Italy,
especially
to
the
ruling
capital,
Rome.
The
peoples
who
lived
beyond
the
frontiers,
barbarian
tribes
in
Europe
and
Africa
astronomy.
As
a
compendium
of
Greek
astronomy
there
appeared
Ptolemy's
Thirteen
Books
of
the
Mathematical
Composition
(Matematike
Suntaxis]
. He
at
between
distance north
of the
greatest
distance.
This
means
that
annular
solar
eclipses
only
sun from
that
the
demon-
strations
tally
exactly,
planetary
motions,
was
geometry
materialized;
the
only
field,
truly,
where
geometry
could
materialize.
Whereas
outside
this
space
ofa
Egypt,
protected
by
Sultan
Al-Hakim
to
the
ancient
ideas
of
Plato.
So
there
was
a
brilliant
rise
in
Arabian
astronomy,
It
was
per-
to
remain
content
with
the
sufficiently
accurate,
and
days
too
early;
more
severe
demands
position
fixed and
So
it
satisfied,
now
earth is
*
Jupiter
was
now
called
its
'real
planets,
just
as
for
the
superior
ones,
new
observations
besides
observations;
but
for
Mercury
this
facility
to
us,
who
live
in
a
harsher
country,
where
tranquillity
[we
might
expect
here
the
word
transparency]
of
not
the
decimal
point
as
integers,
counting
the
successive
powers
of
A
as
units.
astronomy,
a
vertical
wooden
quadrant
19
feet
in
radius,
suspended
by
the
centre,
as
the
moon
at the
a
considerable
increase
in
the
intensity
of
observing
the
sun,
the
planets
and
the
stars
the
careful
attention
given
to
differences
of
a
few
minutes,
a
mark
equinoxes
and,
instead
ofthe
not
easily
the
remainder
after
division
of
the
year
by
19
(the
first
year
has
the
remainder
o).
In
the
first
year
ofthe
cycle
successfully
and
the
unequal;
others
thought
differently,
but
as
yet
there
was
no
certainty.
The
General
always
successfully,
results
of
the
scientists
carried
no
conviction.
the
entire
astronomy;
they
work.
accurately,
motu
stellae
Martis'
('On
the
Motion
of
the
Star
Mars
5
place
in
the
242
routine work
vast
edifice
to
be
invaded
and
decomposed
hereafter
as
they
are
useful
the finest
of the
force
among
them
was
also
capable
of
imaginative
flights.
But
his
theory
remained
entirely
question concerning
object
was
known.
This
meant
governments
for
this
purpose
an
observatory
to
establish
by
observation
practical
accumu-
lating
observations;
equator.
Ifthe
conditions.
It
has
been
yearly
motion
and
that
Copernicus
was
right.
This
was
not
all.
When
Bradley
been
obliged
to
make
them
himself
with
half
of
the
eighteenth
cen-
tury
be
postponed
even
in
England
the
physics
textbooks
based
entirely
coining
to
London
finds
matters
considerably
changed,
in
philosophy
most
Gottingen
in
the
solar
system
as
a
purely
mathematical
problem.
He
posed
the
problem
in
its
most
general
form:
each
body
in
any
used
for
meridian
transit,
this
was
transformed
into
a
'meridian-circle*
or
they
could
be
derived,
this
was
a
way
an
observatory
does
not
serve
to
give
information
about
the
time;
it
is
an
instrument
for
astronomical
measurement,
indicating
the
regular
rotation
of
of
observations,
Ireland,
in
1842-45
built
a
telescope
with
a
mirror
6
feet
(182
cm.)
in
diameter,
with
which
the chief
40
inches
diameter
be determined
accurately by
of Venus.
orbits
of
PARIS
PH.
FAUTH
since
have
a
region
computer
who
during
the
following
years
took
care
far
as
Jupiter's
orbit.
To
compute
the
perturbations,
or
Neptune
had
produced
the
orbits
of
13,
33
and
75
years.
lie
of
the
supposed
unknown
planet
and
its
position
in
the
sky.
When
Airy
and
Paris
Observatory,
he
could
state
a
planet's
velocity
and
die
velocity
of
light,
was
did not lie in
of
feet
around
the
end
computed
that
such
an
orbit
in
a
rigid
earth
is
completed
in
305
days;
the
a
cause
of
polar
variations
in
general.
indeed
rigid
and
invariable,
or
does
anything
happen
there?
In
other
words:
What
and
snowlike
spots
around
craterlets,
waxing
and
decreasing
with
the
amount
of
sunshine,
and
ascribed
them
to
thin
water-vapour
exhala-
tions
from
rifts
in
the
soil.
He
also
paid
same
idea
was
expressed
by
the
well-known
geographer,
Kurt
Wegener.
More
generally,
however,
the
origin
is
sought
in
by
comparing
the
as
yet
unknown
would
it
that under
water,
not
see
the
planet's
surface
but
only
the
upper
investigations
extending
its
surface
is
the
upper
side
light
point
different
way
on
the
angle
between
incident
and
reflected
light
(called
'phase
angle'
above).
This
of
polarization
reflected
solar
radiation,
which
consists
mainly
of
visual
wavelengths
below
0.7
of
Venus,
the
rotation
period.
Keeler,
at
Lick
Observa-
tory
in
1895,
made
spectrograms
of
heated
to
a
higher
temperature,
Carnot
physics.
was
the
growth
continually
faced
and
spots
for
a
single
day,
whereas
in
1833
and
1843
spot
would
appear
hotter
than
the
surroundings.
Faye
was
especially
struck
wavelengths
of
the
interchange
at
these
high
temperatures.
Here
also became
mi II
velocities
producing
them
demanded
temperatures
of
millions
of
degrees.
It
seemed
incredible,
lightning.
repeated
in
1867
and
1868,
on
November
I3th-i4th.
Schiaparelli
of that
said?
We
have
already
that
swarms
of
such
stones,
exact
algebraic
Strand
there
existed
a
large
of
good
meridian
observations
of
spectro-
scopic
binaries,
different
from
the
spectrum
was
invisible.
This
does
not
they
must
nearly
its
distance,
would
appear
as
a
star
of
magnitude
2,
3
or
7;
so self-evident
has been
it. After Kirchhoff
the
great
Orion
Nebula.
Thus
what was
a
star,
is
not
exactly
true.
Funda-
mentally,
the
spectral
lines
are
also
able
the radiation of
lengths
still be
When
dealing
and
complete
cataloguing
of
the
magnitudes
of
all
the
naked-eye
stars
in
his
first
Bonn
years
has
been
mentioned
above.
material.
But
Argelander,
average
luminosity
is
smaller
than
that
density
with
distance;
because
the
luminosities
of
the
stars
were
widely
different,
what
Durchmusterung
a
stars. When
a distance
as Oort
fifteenth
to
eighteenth
magnitudes;
therefore,
if
they
are
14,000
parsecs.
Thus
it
was
problem
of
the
evolution
of
the
stars,
now
appearing
degrees;
these
we
do
not
find
even
are
working
with
millions,
not
for
distances
now
and
dimensions,
but
for
3.
Ibid.,
124, 148,
304, 369
Evection, lunar,