history of food preservation (storia delle tecnologie di conservazione degli alimenti)

History of Food History of Food Preservation Preservation

(Storia delle tecnologie di (Storia delle tecnologie di conservazione degli alimenti)conservazione degli alimenti)

Marco RivaMarco RivaDiSTAM – Università di MilanoDiSTAM – Università di Milano

[email protected]@unimi.itRif.: Food Preservation in History, in G. Rif.: Food Preservation in History, in G.

Borgstrom, Principles of Food Science (2 vol., Borgstrom, Principles of Food Science (2 vol., 1968); N. W. Desrosier1968); N. W. Desrosier

M.Riva /DiSTAM - UNIMI2

The pre-agricultural times correspond to collecting, hunting and fishing. It started approximately 3 million years BP.

The agricultural times began with the development of agriculture simultaneously at six points in the world. It lasted from 10000 years BP up to the 19th century.

The agro-industrial times began with the industrial revolution. It lasted from the 19th century up to nowadays.

Development of man, Development of man, agriculture and food agriculture and food

techniquestechniques


Pre-agricultural times is based on collecting, hunting and fishing.

This period corresponds to wild food. It started approximately 3 million years BP and lasted from the first human beings in the Neolithic era up to the beginning of agriculture.

The search for food played a major role in the bio-cultural evolution of man. • Man invented, adapted and built up food

complexes

• he domesticated fire

• he invented fireproof earthen pots to cook food

• he preserved foods by drying, smoking, fermenting and chilling

Pre-agricultural timesPre-agricultural times


Man as a predator: hunted, gathered food plants, fished, and made tools and instruments adapted to these activities. They prospected for food plant species and set up the first food complexes. Hunting big game contributed to shaping mankind's social organisation; cooking brought together people around the fire and thus food consumption became a community feature. The emergence of cooked food: food products

can be eaten in three forms: raw, cooked, or fermented (e.g., sauer kraut). While raw food is natural, the cooked food is referred to as cultural. A very important step forward was made when man "was no longer satisfied with roasted or grilled food, cooked in the dry heat of flames, so he invented the cuisine prepared with moist heat. This moist cooking allows more diversity of dishes and flavors as well as a greater possibility of mixing foods in the same meal.“Cuisine is much older than agriculture: men cooked their wild foods before cooking agricultural food products. In Neolithic times the culinary revolution preceded the agricultural revolution.

The revolution of containers: Man as a hunter/gatherer needed containers to collect, transport, preserve, cook and eat... The first containers used to be sea-shells, tortoise shells, tree bark... The earthen pot (made of baked clay), a waterproof container which can be put on a fire-place (hearth) was a major invention. Pottery artefacts are of great scientific value because they can identify and characterize archeological cultures.

Man as predator and Man as predator and cookcook


During this period man gradually…:

• Invented agriculture, • selected founder species, • created villages and towns, • invented and improved acquisition and production tools, • transferred food species on a worldwide scale.

The agricultural period is based on the domestication of food plants and animals which progressively constituted the main source of human food.

This period corresponds to the agricultural food products, transformed and prepared inside of domestic consuming units.

The 16th and 18th century were the times for major changes in Europe... when New World species and foods came in Europe …. and when a new industrial and liberal society set up on a traditionnal agrarian basis, and where is formed and developed the agro-industrial period related to food.

Agricultural timesAgricultural times


• Meso-America : maïze, bean, avocado, tomato, vanilla, cocoa • South America : tobacco, groundnut, potato, cotton, tomato, pine-aple, pimienta, Cassava, rubber-tree • Middle East : oat, wheat, peas, lentil, flax, olive-tree, vine, fig-tree, date palm-tree • Central Africa : mil, sorghum, yam, coffee, oil palm-tree• Western China : mil, soya, tea • South-East Asia, Southern Pacific : rice, banana, sugar cane, orange tree, egg plant, coconut tree, pepper

Agriculture and animal raising required the domestication of both animals and plants, raising of species useful for human beings, and taking care of the factors that kept them alive and productive.

Agriculture started simultaneously in several parts of the world. Euro-mediterranean agriculture started in the Middle-East and spread, first to the western Mediterranean region, then up to the northern part of Europe. This happened between 6000 and 2000 BP.

Beginning and development of Beginning and development of agricultureagriculture


Agriculture offers a wide class of foods

They can be stored, preserved to reach market and consumers, and processed to obtain new products, with optimal nutritional or functional properties, or to separate its constituents.

New and ancient food technology moves from the goal to assure a variety and a quantity of safe and convenient foods to all

Processing, Storing and Processing, Storing and PreservingPreserving


3000 – 0 B.C

0- 12th Century

http://www.foodtimeline.org/The Food TimelineThe Food Timeline


VivariaVivaria Catch wild animal and keep Catch wild animal and keep

them in enclusures (Egyptian them in enclusures (Egyptian fowl house, Romans artificial fowl house, Romans artificial ponds)ponds)

Live fish marketing, poultry Live fish marketing, poultry delivered in bunches to marketdelivered in bunches to market

Sperlonga, Villa di Tiberio

• Fresh food directly to market or consumer

• No cold chain

Fes (Morocco), market


SmokingSmoking

Beneficial preserving effect of Beneficial preserving effect of smoke was discovered by smoke was discovered by early cavermenearly cavermen

Fish: Salmon (North American Fish: Salmon (North American Indians and Eskimos), Indians and Eskimos), Swordfish (Iraqi)Swordfish (Iraqi)

Meat: Arawaks - meat cured in Meat: Arawaks - meat cured in the sun and then smoked over the sun and then smoked over a fire of green wood, over a a fire of green wood, over a grid (boucan > bouccaneer)grid (boucan > bouccaneer)

Fish smoking

• Smoke contains formaldehyde and other preservatives

• Smoking promotes local drying and surface sanitisation

Boucanning


DryingDrying From experience of effect of dry From experience of effect of dry

air in desert or mountain, with air in desert or mountain, with eventual supplement of fireeventual supplement of fire

Seeds near cavermenSeeds near cavermen Dates, figs and grapes in Middle Dates, figs and grapes in Middle

WestWest Asparagus, cabbage, cherries Asparagus, cabbage, cherries

and plums by Romansand plums by Romans Apricots trodden in pulp, boiled Apricots trodden in pulp, boiled

and dried on trays > arabic and dried on trays > arabic worldworld

Guatemala - The clean beans, still in their

parchment, are now ready to dry

• Dehydration reduce microbial growth and enzymatic changes

• Dried foods are less voluminous and practical for long storage

Drying the

apricot pulp in a portable

solar drier


DryingDrying The dry raisins and figs were a The dry raisins and figs were a

popular energizer for Roman popular energizer for Roman soldierssoldiers

A lye methods (olive oil + ash) of A lye methods (olive oil + ash) of grapes was employed to speed grapes was employed to speed drying near Greeces, Romans and drying near Greeces, Romans and Iroquois IndiansIroquois Indians

Sun or Wind dried meat was an Sun or Wind dried meat was an early man’s ratio (Xarqui of early man’s ratio (Xarqui of Brasilian Indians, Biltong in South Brasilian Indians, Biltong in South Africa, Akutok from caribou near Africa, Akutok from caribou near Eskimos, Charqui from llama near Eskimos, Charqui from llama near Incas >> bresaola!)Incas >> bresaola!)

Drying of the Zibibbo grapes

The word BILTONG is derived from the words

"BIL" (BUTTOCK) or meat and 'TONG" or strip. So it

is just a strip of meat.

• Drying was an alternative of salting when salt was scarce


DryingDrying Pemmicam from buffalo meat Pemmicam from buffalo meat

near Indians of North America, near Indians of North America, by pounding dry meats (difficult by pounding dry meats (difficult to chew) in fragments, stored in to chew) in fragments, stored in skin bags filled with grease for skin bags filled with grease for traveltravel

Dried milk curd from Tibet, dry Dried milk curd from Tibet, dry koumiss and urum from Tartars koumiss and urum from Tartars (the milk skin produced by (the milk skin produced by boiling is poured off, cooled and boiling is poured off, cooled and dried. If placed in a wooden dried. If placed in a wooden barrel or leather bag, it keeps barrel or leather bag, it keeps well all winter)well all winter)

Making Pemmican

by pounding jerky into powder.

The meat is then mixed with grease

(deer tallow is perfect)

and rolled into balls or stuffed

into containers.

Mongolian women make urum, or so-called white

butter, from milk

• Dried foods can be powdered and eated after water addition


DryingDrying Drying in the open air is the Drying in the open air is the

most ancient method for most ancient method for preserving fishpreserving fish

This technology was typical of This technology was typical of Phoenicians, but also near the Phoenicians, but also near the costal populations of Norway costal populations of Norway and Eastern Swedenand Eastern Sweden

Indians and Eskimos dried Indians and Eskimos dried salmon, cod and smelt after salmon, cod and smelt after evishering and splitting along evishering and splitting along the blackbone, with elaborated the blackbone, with elaborated incisionsincisions

Fish drying near Eskimos

• Natural drying is slow and can be speeded by different practices


DryingDrying Cereal seeds were always dried for Cereal seeds were always dried for

storagestorage In the Middle East bulghur, obtained by In the Middle East bulghur, obtained by

boiling wheat, spread it in the sun to boiling wheat, spread it in the sun to dry, and then polished by hand from dry, and then polished by hand from bran, is nowadays employed as basis for bran, is nowadays employed as basis for soups. The technique is similar to rice soups. The technique is similar to rice parboiling, employed in East Asia.parboiling, employed in East Asia.

Pasta natural drying is documented only Pasta natural drying is documented only in 10th Century (North Africa and Sicily) in 10th Century (North Africa and Sicily)

In East Asia, tea leaves, after In East Asia, tea leaves, after fermentation, were sun-dried to prepare fermentation, were sun-dried to prepare the stable ingredient for beverage.the stable ingredient for beverage.

Bulghur

Tea leaves drying – The first description of the

procedure was recorded by Lo-Yu in 780 B.C.

• Drying can be speeded with hot and dry air circulation


SaltingSalting The practice of salting fish is dated The practice of salting fish is dated

3500 BC in Mesopotamia, Egypt and 3500 BC in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Indus ValleyIndus Valley

Phoenician fishermen employed salting Phoenician fishermen employed salting to preserve fish captured in the Near to preserve fish captured in the Near AtlanticAtlantic

The art of curing meat is also very old. The art of curing meat is also very old. Salt grain (“corn”) >> corned beef Salt grain (“corn”) >> corned beef

Salt was a strategic resource in Roman Salt was a strategic resource in Roman Empire, employed to preserve also Empire, employed to preserve also vegetables, butter and cheesevegetables, butter and cheese

Salami and bacon production were old Salami and bacon production were old specialties: later, in bacon, saltpeter specialties: later, in bacon, saltpeter substituted marine salt >>> pink substituted marine salt >>> pink colourcolour

Salting Vats that are used for preserving fish

caught

• Salt reduces water activity, inhibits microbial growht and enzymatic activity

Salt in Sahara desert


ConcentrationConcentration In ancient words sugar was unknown: In ancient words sugar was unknown:

honey or concentrated fruit juice are honey or concentrated fruit juice are employed as sweetenersemployed as sweeteners

The Indians of Northeast discovered The Indians of Northeast discovered the manufacture of maple sap, by the manufacture of maple sap, by evaporation from wooden or bark evaporation from wooden or bark vessels or by putting hot stones into vessels or by putting hot stones into the liquidthe liquid

In the Middle East and Roman In the Middle East and Roman empire the juice pressed from grapes empire the juice pressed from grapes was boiled to obtain a syrup called was boiled to obtain a syrup called dibs or sapadibs or sapa

Sugar from cane has been diffused in Sugar from cane has been diffused in Europe as a consequence of Arabic Europe as a consequence of Arabic invasions invasions

Gathering sap from sugar trees for making

maple syrup

• Water content reduction and sugar increase stabilize juices and syrups


FermentationFermentation The oldest recipe for barley wine The oldest recipe for barley wine

(beer) is in a cuneiform inscription (beer) is in a cuneiform inscription on a Babylonian libraryon a Babylonian library

The practice of tapping the date The practice of tapping the date palm to produce date wine is today palm to produce date wine is today widespread in North Africawidespread in North Africa

Grape wine production came from Grape wine production came from Mesopotamia and is an industrial Mesopotamia and is an industrial activity near the Romansactivity near the Romans

Honey was the basis for the making Honey was the basis for the making of the miod of the Vikings and the of the miod of the Vikings and the mid of Siberian peoplesmid of Siberian peoples

Fermented apple syrup (cider) was Fermented apple syrup (cider) was known earlier than its production known earlier than its production became usual in Normandy became usual in Normandy monasteriesmonasteries

Barley fermentation in ancient Egypt


FermentationFermentation Leavening of water-flour mixtures in Leavening of water-flour mixtures in

Egyptian era was a revolution in bread Egyptian era was a revolution in bread making, allowing, after cooking, to making, allowing, after cooking, to obtain a soft and aromatic productobtain a soft and aromatic product

Not only wheat, but also rice was Not only wheat, but also rice was fermented, not into a beverage, but to fermented, not into a beverage, but to provide a main item near Andean provide a main item near Andean populace (“sierra rice”)populace (“sierra rice”)

In East Asia, rice was fermented into In East Asia, rice was fermented into alcoholic beverage, in the form of sakealcoholic beverage, in the form of sake

Other cereals (sorghum, maize) or Other cereals (sorghum, maize) or roots (cassava, potato) were subjected roots (cassava, potato) were subjected to fermentation in different to fermentation in different civilization, to preserve and transform civilization, to preserve and transform amilaceous foods.amilaceous foods.

Kuchikami-no-saké was made by chewing the rice or other grain, spitting it out into a container and allowing the

enzymes in the saliva to ferment the grain for several

days.

Breadmaking in Ancient Egypt

• Alcohol is a preservative, not only an euphorizer


FermentationFermentation The utilization of molds and other The utilization of molds and other

microbes to make soybean microbes to make soybean accessible to man’s digestion was accessible to man’s digestion was known in early Chinaknown in early China

Mucor cultures were employed to Mucor cultures were employed to produce the similar-cheeses sofu produce the similar-cheeses sofu and tofu in China and Japan, and and tofu in China and Japan, and tempeh (from copra) in Indonesiatempeh (from copra) in Indonesia

Most of these old manufacture Most of these old manufacture practices are scientifically based: practices are scientifically based: temperature was regulate, short-temperature was regulate, short-range heating was applied to range heating was applied to remove undesirable intruders.remove undesirable intruders.

Tofu production

• Fermentation allows the manufacture of new, stable and very ingenierized foods


FermentationFermentation Sauerkraut is one of the oldest forms of Sauerkraut is one of the oldest forms of

preserved food. Roman are credited to preserved food. Roman are credited to learn the technology from Germans, learn the technology from Germans, where cabbages were preserved for the where cabbages were preserved for the winter trough lactic acid fermentation.winter trough lactic acid fermentation.

Sauerkraut (due to his high content in Sauerkraut (due to his high content in ascorbic acid) is credited with having ascorbic acid) is credited with having kept scurvy away from ships during kept scurvy away from ships during XVIIth Cent.XVIIth Cent.

Romans employed the same technique Romans employed the same technique to preserve other vegetables. to preserve other vegetables.

The Slavs still have their koumiss and The Slavs still have their koumiss and other drinks based on lactic other drinks based on lactic fermentation.fermentation.

Sauerkraut production

• Lactic fermentation has not only a preservative effects but is also probiotic

Selling of fermented

mare’s milk in Almaty,

Kazakhstan


FermentationFermentation Fermented meat products (sausages Fermented meat products (sausages

and salami) were a popular dishes and salami) were a popular dishes near Romans, and are nowaday a near Romans, and are nowaday a tradition in all Mediterranean tradition in all Mediterranean countriescountries

Duk’s eggs were fermented and Duk’s eggs were fermented and preserved by the early Chineses by an preserved by the early Chineses by an alkaline treatment to make “pidan”. alkaline treatment to make “pidan”. The appearance of pidan differs from The appearance of pidan differs from fresh eggs in that the white becomes a fresh eggs in that the white becomes a semitransparent tea-brown color, and semitransparent tea-brown color, and the yolk is solid or semisolid with a the yolk is solid or semisolid with a dark-green colordark-green color

In southeastern Asia the proteolitic In southeastern Asia the proteolitic fermentation of fish and shellfish is fermentation of fish and shellfish is still practiced (nuoc-mam of Vietnam still practiced (nuoc-mam of Vietnam and nam-pla of Bourma) to make a and nam-pla of Bourma) to make a clear fish sauce.clear fish sauce.

Pig’s breading and salami

production in

Ancient RomaPidan is an

alkali-fermented egg, with long shelf

life

Nuoc-mam is prepared by fermentation and salting of fish in form of

clear hydrolyzate


Highly Fermented productsHighly Fermented products Buried heads of salmon (early Eskimos), Buried heads of salmon (early Eskimos),

fermented herring (Sweden), rankorret fermented herring (Sweden), rankorret (fermented trouts, Norvegia): salted and (fermented trouts, Norvegia): salted and fermented fish are considered a fermented fish are considered a delicaciesdelicacies

Vinegar from sour wine was largely Vinegar from sour wine was largely employed to preserve vegetables and employed to preserve vegetables and meats near Romansmeats near Romans

Garum production (salted, fermented Garum production (salted, fermented and aromatized anchoy, preserved with and aromatized anchoy, preserved with vinegar in sealed anphora) was a vinegar in sealed anphora) was a delicacy of Roman cuisine and a very delicacy of Roman cuisine and a very technological activity in Roman coloniestechnological activity in Roman colonies

““Carpione” or “escabeche” preserving Carpione” or “escabeche” preserving techniques remain typical in techniques remain typical in Mediterranean countries, and are based Mediterranean countries, and are based on vinegar addition to fried fish.on vinegar addition to fried fish.

Garum or liquamen: fish, fish intestines and salt are mixed together and allowed to ferment

in sealed containers


FreezingFreezing The ancient peoples living in iced The ancient peoples living in iced

regions were well acquainted with the regions were well acquainted with the art of freezing: plant tubers and art of freezing: plant tubers and animal meat among Eskimos, sour animal meat among Eskimos, sour milk among Yakutsmilk among Yakuts

North Americans Indians living in cold North Americans Indians living in cold regions preserve and delivery poultry, regions preserve and delivery poultry, game and fish in a frozen statusgame and fish in a frozen status

In the 17°th Cent., frozen dishes were In the 17°th Cent., frozen dishes were served at the Csarist courtsserved at the Csarist courts

Marketing of frozen fish, preserved Marketing of frozen fish, preserved with ice was diffused in the 18°th with ice was diffused in the 18°th Cent., before artificial freezing Cent., before artificial freezing methods introductionmethods introduction

Freezed Similaun’s man

The most famous of all mammoths, the frozen Berezovka

mammoth.

• Freezing stops the microbial growth and the enzymatic activities


Freeze-dryingFreeze-drying The peoples of Peru and Bolivia were The peoples of Peru and Bolivia were

able to transform their cherished able to transform their cherished potato into a “chuno” by freezing it at potato into a “chuno” by freezing it at night and allowing it to thaw in the night and allowing it to thaw in the daytime, as a consequence of the daytime, as a consequence of the great differences in ambient great differences in ambient temperaturestemperatures

Reindeer meat winter-dried by the Reindeer meat winter-dried by the Lapps and Tibetan methods to Lapps and Tibetan methods to preserve meat are other applications preserve meat are other applications of freeze-dryingof freeze-drying

Alaska pollok (mintai) and some Alaska pollok (mintai) and some practices of preserve stockfish in practices of preserve stockfish in Norway are other examples of this Norway are other examples of this techniquetechnique

The “chuno” (shredded and freeze-dried

potato) was a strategic resource

in Andean populance.

• Freezing promotes ice crystal formation and high-rate heating allows to sublimation of ice


Fat-embeddingFat-embedding Pemmicam of North American Indians Pemmicam of North American Indians

is the most representative example of is the most representative example of the preserving activity of fat coveringthe preserving activity of fat covering

In the Amazon regions, fish and meat In the Amazon regions, fish and meat were roasted in its own fat, sliced and were roasted in its own fat, sliced and sealed in jars covered with fat to sealed in jars covered with fat to make “mixiria”make “mixiria”

In Mediterranean countries blanched In Mediterranean countries blanched vegetables and bleu fish were vegetables and bleu fish were preserved in olive oil preserved in olive oil

Ducth plants were used to put up Ducth plants were used to put up covered salmon with melted butter in covered salmon with melted butter in tin and sealed cans prior to Appert’s tin and sealed cans prior to Appert’s invention.invention.

Ch'itsuh (Pemmican) from

Eskimos

• Fat-embedding promotes air exclusion, reduces oxydation and diminishes microbial growth


Chemical preservationChemical preservation The use of mustard seeds both as a The use of mustard seeds both as a

condiment and a preservative has been condiment and a preservative has been established in Egypt (1500 B.C.), was established in Egypt (1500 B.C.), was known by the Romans as a tool for known by the Romans as a tool for must storage and was carried in must storage and was carried in Britannia, originating the classical Britannia, originating the classical mustard sauces.mustard sauces.

Sulfur was used by ancient peoples for Sulfur was used by ancient peoples for fumigation purposes and as fumigation purposes and as preservative for winespreservative for wines

A lot of aromatics (i.e., pepper) have an A lot of aromatics (i.e., pepper) have an anti-bacteria effect and were largely anti-bacteria effect and were largely used to assure sanification of dishes. used to assure sanification of dishes. Aromatic woods or therpenic essences Aromatic woods or therpenic essences have similar effectshave similar effects

Retzina is a greek wine

aromatised and preserved with

pine resins• The use ok chemical preservative has a long history before the modern chemistry revolution

Mustard seeds and

classical italian

“Mostarda”


ChillingChilling Cooling thought evaporation was the basis Cooling thought evaporation was the basis

for the porous earthenware jars still in use for the porous earthenware jars still in use in the Mediterranean regionsin the Mediterranean regions

The filling of ice and snow stores was a The filling of ice and snow stores was a ritual ceremony in ancient China and was ritual ceremony in ancient China and was employed by Romans and Japaneseemployed by Romans and Japanese

For centuries in Russia, North America and For centuries in Russia, North America and Northeastern Europe ice was harvested in Northeastern Europe ice was harvested in winter from the lakes and saved for the winter from the lakes and saved for the warm summerwarm summer

Lowering of the water temperature by Lowering of the water temperature by dissolving salt was proposed as the first dissolving salt was proposed as the first refrigeration technology and used for refrigeration technology and used for chilling wines and for Sorbetto production chilling wines and for Sorbetto production in Florence about 1550 ACin Florence about 1550 AC

Ice cream production

device

• Refrigeration slows the decay of food quality and microbial growth

Himuro (ice room, Japan)


DairyingDairying Through the cuneiform writings of the

Sumerian (6000 B.C.) and from drawing and carvings, it is apparent that dairying was highly developed by the ancient peoples

Curd is the surprising result of storage of milk in animal goatskin

The further discovery was the direct use of rennet, also from calves, and the effect of salting and drying on curd separated from the whey

Both the ancient Carthaginians and Ethiopians, before the Greeks and Romans, made hard cheese

The earliest reports of the extensive use of butter and of its ripening and storage in cask originated from the 5th Cent. with the Celts in Ireland

Cheese and butter seller in a painting

of XIVth Cent.

Cheese in ancient Egypt


Meat-handlingMeat-handling Sausage is one of the old forms of Sausage is one of the old forms of

processed foods, preserved through processed foods, preserved through drying, salting, smoking, fermentation, drying, salting, smoking, fermentation, spicing and sometimes also cookingspicing and sometimes also cooking

Sumerians and Chinese are able to Sumerians and Chinese are able to ground their partially dried meats and ground their partially dried meats and make sausage by adding spicesmake sausage by adding spices

Even before historical records, the Even before historical records, the Greeks prepared a sausage somewhat Greeks prepared a sausage somewhat resembling the present-day resembling the present-day frankfurtersfrankfurters

The word “sausage” is derived from The word “sausage” is derived from the Latin “the Latin “salsussalsus”, meaning salted, or, ”, meaning salted, or, literary, preserved meatsliterary, preserved meats

Traditional sausage

production

Sausages exposition


FishFish Preservation of fish includes not only smoking, Preservation of fish includes not only smoking,

drying, fermentation and salting, but also drying, fermentation and salting, but also picking in salt solutions and lime-curingpicking in salt solutions and lime-curing

The origin of pickling is uncertain, but Romans The origin of pickling is uncertain, but Romans carried it a high degree of perfection, carried it a high degree of perfection, especially in preserving swordfish from Sicily, especially in preserving swordfish from Sicily, tuna from Bysantium and Cadiz, makerel from tuna from Bysantium and Cadiz, makerel from Spain, and mullet from Exone.Spain, and mullet from Exone.

Brine-salting received is greater development Brine-salting received is greater development during the 13th Cent with herringduring the 13th Cent with herring

Curing of fish with lime to facilitate water Curing of fish with lime to facilitate water uptake and swelling of the tissue was uptake and swelling of the tissue was practiced in the Middle Ages in Scandinavia: practiced in the Middle Ages in Scandinavia: this technique is on the basis of the this technique is on the basis of the preparation of stockfishpreparation of stockfish

Production of

stockfish

White fleshed fillets are being rolled into rollmops ready for

poaching then pickling

M.Riva /DiSTAM - UNIMI32 The agro-industrial The agro-industrial

periodperiodThe agro-industrial period is characterized by a combination of agricultural and The agro-industrial period is characterized by a combination of agricultural and industrial activities and by services.industrial activities and by services.

It is a time for agro-industrial food products, transformed and prepared from It is a time for agro-industrial food products, transformed and prepared from agricultural products by the agro-food industry.agricultural products by the agro-food industry.

The industrial revolution changed the working conditions used to obtain agro-food The industrial revolution changed the working conditions used to obtain agro-food products by many ways :products by many ways :

stimulating the scientific research,stimulating the scientific research, increasing education rate among farmers,increasing education rate among farmers, inventing adapted tools according to an increasing production, inventing adapted tools according to an increasing production, revolution in transportation which allowed to develope a worldwide economy,revolution in transportation which allowed to develope a worldwide economy, transforming agricultural products into agro-industrial food-products,transforming agricultural products into agro-industrial food-products, contribution to the accession of a society of mass consumption.contribution to the accession of a society of mass consumption.

Industrialized societies reached the stage of mass consumption though even the Industrialized societies reached the stage of mass consumption though even the richest societies could not eradicate starvation.richest societies could not eradicate starvation.

In underdeveloped poor countries starvation and malnutrition remain. The old In underdeveloped poor countries starvation and malnutrition remain. The old struggle of man against food shortage is an ongoing struggle. struggle of man against food shortage is an ongoing struggle.

M.Riva /DiSTAM - UNIMI33 Industrial era: the Industrial era: the

backgroundbackground For many centuries no major invention took For many centuries no major invention took place in the field of food preservationplace in the field of food preservation

The discovery of the New World is accompanied The discovery of the New World is accompanied by new products circulation (maize, tomato, by new products circulation (maize, tomato, potato, cocoa) without technique advancementpotato, cocoa) without technique advancement

Except for the discovery around 1330 that Except for the discovery around 1330 that gutting greatly improved the quality of salted gutting greatly improved the quality of salted herring, one has to wait until the turn of the herring, one has to wait until the turn of the 19th Cent. to find real innovation in food 19th Cent. to find real innovation in food preservationpreservation

The discovery from Appert of the heat The discovery from Appert of the heat processing combined with hermetic sealing is processing combined with hermetic sealing is reputed the crucial data for food technologies reputed the crucial data for food technologies progress, but is true that is the energy progress, but is true that is the energy revolution that represent the most significant revolution that represent the most significant fact: heat and cold can be artificially produced fact: heat and cold can be artificially produced and applied with a fine controland applied with a fine control

Salted and smoked herrings were an

important resource in Middle Ages

Solanum tuberosus (potato): a food from

the new world


Live product deliveryLive product delivery Well-smacks for the preservation of Well-smacks for the preservation of

live fish were introduced in England live fish were introduced in England in 1872in 1872

At the end of the 19th Cent. At the end of the 19th Cent. enclosures and pens were common enclosures and pens were common for retaining whitefish and sturgeon for retaining whitefish and sturgeon during the fall for sale in the early during the fall for sale in the early winterwinter

At the present time a lot of delicate At the present time a lot of delicate fish and crustaceans (including fish and crustaceans (including lobsters) are always marketed alivelobsters) are always marketed alive

Lobster marketing

Fish transported alive in the farm in canvas

containers after capture


Natural ice and chillingNatural ice and chilling F.Tudor was the first man to organize ice F.Tudor was the first man to organize ice

trade (1805) on large scale trade (1805) on large scale During the first half of the 19th Cent. During the first half of the 19th Cent.

iced fish consumption were common in iced fish consumption were common in the major town of Europe and USA, not the major town of Europe and USA, not only in the fishing portsonly in the fishing ports

J.Perkins made the first refrigerating J.Perkins made the first refrigerating machine (UK, 1834)machine (UK, 1834)

A more practical compressor was A more practical compressor was constructed in 1874-76 and based on the constructed in 1874-76 and based on the use of sulfur dioxide or ammoniause of sulfur dioxide or ammonia

In the 1870-80 period experimental In the 1870-80 period experimental shipment thought Atlantic of chilled meat shipment thought Atlantic of chilled meat under mechanical refrigeration was madeunder mechanical refrigeration was made

Old type of home refrigerator

A car employed to delivery chilled fish


FreezingFreezing F.Bacon is credited with the invention of F.Bacon is credited with the invention of

artificial freezing (1626), but it describe only artificial freezing (1626), but it describe only the effects of lower temperature on an iced-the effects of lower temperature on an iced-chicken!chicken!

Open-air freezing of herrings was an industrial Open-air freezing of herrings was an industrial activity on the Newfoundland and the New activity on the Newfoundland and the New Brunswick during the 19th Cent.Brunswick during the 19th Cent.

Before the refrigeration compressor, Before the refrigeration compressor, commercial food freezing started sporadically commercial food freezing started sporadically in USA, UK and Russia with the employing of in USA, UK and Russia with the employing of ice-salt mixturesice-salt mixtures

Piper patent (1861) is the first practical device Piper patent (1861) is the first practical device for freezing fish, based on ice-salt mixtures for freezing fish, based on ice-salt mixtures employed to chill an insulated cold-storage employed to chill an insulated cold-storage room. In another invention the product is room. In another invention the product is enclosed in thin sheet-metal pans, removed at enclosed in thin sheet-metal pans, removed at the end of the circulation of ice-salt mixthe end of the circulation of ice-salt mix

The Refrigerated Railroad Car

Cold storage room for fish

preservation

M.Riva /DiSTAM - UNIMI37 Further developments in Further developments in

freezingfreezing Frozen foods hat to wait until the Frozen foods hat to wait until the

advent of the compressor (1876) to advent of the compressor (1876) to become a commercially feasible become a commercially feasible projectproject

First freezing plants were erected to First freezing plants were erected to Sidney (meat) and Astrakan (Russia)Sidney (meat) and Astrakan (Russia)

The first transoceanic shipment of The first transoceanic shipment of frozen meat took place in 1877 from frozen meat took place in 1877 from Buenos Aires to Le Havre (“cargo “Le Buenos Aires to Le Havre (“cargo “Le Frigorifique”): meats remain Frigorifique”): meats remain acceptable at -17°C for 6 monthsacceptable at -17°C for 6 months

« Le Frigorifique » (the

refrigerator), 1876

The housewife of Northwest were credited for the The housewife of Northwest were credited for the beginning of fruits freezing, keeping ice provided by his beginning of fruits freezing, keeping ice provided by his husband in a local ice store to prepare barrels and cans husband in a local ice store to prepare barrels and cans of frozen berriesof frozen berries

In 1904 S.H.Fulton initiated his investigations on the In 1904 S.H.Fulton initiated his investigations on the freezing of sugared strawberries and raspberriesfreezing of sugared strawberries and raspberries

The plate freezer of C.Birdseye (1929) is the next stage: The plate freezer of C.Birdseye (1929) is the next stage: vegetables and fruits are quick-frozen with retail vegetables and fruits are quick-frozen with retail packagingpackaging


Ice CreamIce Cream The Florentine P.Coltelli is the first on The Florentine P.Coltelli is the first on

record (1660) to have manufactured record (1660) to have manufactured “sorbetto” and ice cream with the aid of a “sorbetto” and ice cream with the aid of a salt-ice mixturesalt-ice mixture

Manufacturing outside of the summer season Manufacturing outside of the summer season was started in 1750 by the Frenchman was started in 1750 by the Frenchman DubuissonDubuisson

During the 19th Cent. a small vacuum During the 19th Cent. a small vacuum freezing machine, descript by E.Carrè, was freezing machine, descript by E.Carrè, was introduced into the Paris cafèsintroduced into the Paris cafès

Commercial development of ice cream Commercial development of ice cream production started in USA with salt-ice production started in USA with salt-ice plants first, and with mechanical plants first, and with mechanical refrigeration laterrefrigeration later

The “mastella”, an ancient ice-cream device


Freeze ConcentrationFreeze Concentration At the end of 18th Cent. a Swedish At the end of 18th Cent. a Swedish

apothecary, J.C.Georges, and an Italian apothecary, J.C.Georges, and an Italian scientist, Mirabelli, recorded experiments to scientist, Mirabelli, recorded experiments to concentrate fruit juices (lemon always) by concentrate fruit juices (lemon always) by freezingfreezing

A process of concentrating grape juice (must) A process of concentrating grape juice (must) was patented by E.Monti in 1906 and was was patented by E.Monti in 1906 and was based on repeated freeze-thawing stagesbased on repeated freeze-thawing stages

In 1911 was patented a treatment of spraying In 1911 was patented a treatment of spraying apple juice onto a slowly rotating drumapple juice onto a slowly rotating drum

The next developments were the The next developments were the concentration by evaporation in high vacuum concentration by evaporation in high vacuum and, in 1935, the realization of a freeze-and, in 1935, the realization of a freeze-drying processdrying process

A modern freeze concentration plant

The Shuttle mission food system includes freeze-dried products


FermentationFermentation Attribution of fermentation to the effect of Attribution of fermentation to the effect of

microorganism was demonstrate by Kutzin (1837, microorganism was demonstrate by Kutzin (1837, acetic acid), Mitsherlich (1841, yeast acetic acid), Mitsherlich (1841, yeast fermentation) and Pasteur later. The first method fermentation) and Pasteur later. The first method to prepare fermenting yeast solutions is to prepare fermenting yeast solutions is attributed to Buchner (1897)attributed to Buchner (1897)

Manufactured baker’s yeast succeeded in Manufactured baker’s yeast succeeded in supplanting brewers yeast, or brausupplanting brewers yeast, or brau

The use of lactic cultures in cheesemaking The use of lactic cultures in cheesemaking started in 1897, and in the same period cultured started in 1897, and in the same period cultured yeast were introduced in breweries and wineriesyeast were introduced in breweries and wineries

The employ of fermentation to produce ethyl The employ of fermentation to produce ethyl alcohol or lactic acid for industrial purpose alcohol or lactic acid for industrial purpose started in 1881started in 1881

For centuries, breadmaking

employed mother’s pieces

A modern brewery with the fermentation

tanks


CanningCanning In 1809, the French chef N.Appert received an In 1809, the French chef N.Appert received an

official citation for a new method of food official citation for a new method of food preservation: his technique involved heating of preservation: his technique involved heating of food in hermetically sealed glass bottles and jarsfood in hermetically sealed glass bottles and jars

The application of Appert was based on The application of Appert was based on observations by L.Spallanzani that by heating observations by L.Spallanzani that by heating peas for a sufficient length of time in sealed test peas for a sufficient length of time in sealed test tube no spoilage occurredtube no spoilage occurred

The explication of the fundaments of these The explication of the fundaments of these applications is due to L.Pasteur ( 1873, food applications is due to L.Pasteur ( 1873, food spoiled trough the process of fermentation spoiled trough the process of fermentation because of action of microorganisms) and to the because of action of microorganisms) and to the subsequent studies of applied bacteriology (1895-subsequent studies of applied bacteriology (1895-97, Russel and Prescott)97, Russel and Prescott)

Appert’s invention is subsequent to other Appert’s invention is subsequent to other application of heating preservation: bottling of application of heating preservation: bottling of fruit (berries) using corks, preserving cooked fruit (berries) using corks, preserving cooked meat in a block-tin box of canister with a hot fat meat in a block-tin box of canister with a hot fat coveringcovering

Reconstruction of an Appert’s recipe

L'ART DE CONSERVER,PENDANT PLUSIEURS

ANNÉES, TOUTES LES SUBSTANCES

ANIMALES ET VÉGÉTALES ;

OUVRAGE soumis au Bureau consultatif des Arts et

Manufactures, revêtu de son approbation, et publié

sur l'invitation de S. Exc. le Ministre de l'Intérieur.

PAR APPERT, Propriétaire à Massy, département

de Seine et Oise,ancien confiseur et distillateur, Élève

de la bouche de

la Maison ducale de Christian IV.


The can and the autoclaveThe can and the autoclave Appert’s method was adapted in England Appert’s method was adapted in England

(1811) to tin-plate canister (cans) by (1811) to tin-plate canister (cans) by Durand and De HeineDurand and De Heine

Appert’s cooking method (hot water) was Appert’s cooking method (hot water) was substituted by superheated CaCl2 substituted by superheated CaCl2 solutions (Solomon, 1861) and by close solutions (Solomon, 1861) and by close kettle with either water and steam (1874, kettle with either water and steam (1874, Shriver)Shriver)

Autoclaves were introduced in 1878, on Autoclaves were introduced in 1878, on the basis of Papin’s (1679-1681) the basis of Papin’s (1679-1681) prototype prototype

Commercial applications started in 1840-Commercial applications started in 1840-1870, with canned tomatoes, meat, milk, 1870, with canned tomatoes, meat, milk, peas and asparagus, fruits and jellies in peas and asparagus, fruits and jellies in glass and sardines in oilglass and sardines in oil

Canning industry development was Canning industry development was supported by necessity of the Artic supported by necessity of the Artic explorations and of the Wars (USA Civil explorations and of the Wars (USA Civil war and sino-japanise war)war and sino-japanise war)

An ancient can

Denys Papin’s

“digester or engine for softening bones”


PasteurizationPasteurization Between 1860 and 1864 L.Pasteur discovered Between 1860 and 1864 L.Pasteur discovered

that, by carefully controlled heat treatment, that, by carefully controlled heat treatment, most of the harmful microorganisms in wine most of the harmful microorganisms in wine could by destroyed without deactivate the could by destroyed without deactivate the useful onesuseful ones

Soxhlet, a German chemist, may have the first Soxhlet, a German chemist, may have the first to pasteurize milk: this practice was common to pasteurize milk: this practice was common in 1890 near Danish buttermakers and, later, in 1890 near Danish buttermakers and, later, in USAin USA

The pasteurization process employed The pasteurization process employed autoclaves first and retort tower recently. autoclaves first and retort tower recently. Ultra-high temperature pasteurization (with Ultra-high temperature pasteurization (with tube or plate heat exchanger or UHT process) tube or plate heat exchanger or UHT process) was introduced in 1948was introduced in 1948

During the last century pasteurization was During the last century pasteurization was applied to wine, beer, fruit juices and other applied to wine, beer, fruit juices and other beveragesbeverages

An ancient device for milk pasteurization

A modern milk

pasteurization plant


DryingDrying Use of kilns feeded with hot air to dry Use of kilns feeded with hot air to dry

cereals and fruits was traditionally cereals and fruits was traditionally practiced in cold and wet regionspracticed in cold and wet regions

The application of an hot water fast The application of an hot water fast immersion of product before drying was immersion of product before drying was applied at the end of 18° Cent.applied at the end of 18° Cent.

The use of a stove to heat air in drying The use of a stove to heat air in drying chambers was common at the beginning chambers was common at the beginning of 19° Cent.of 19° Cent.

A method to artificially dry cut vegetable A method to artificially dry cut vegetable at low temperature and subsequent at low temperature and subsequent compression was developed by Masson compression was developed by Masson and Chaolletand Chaollet

Artificial drying in tunnel or kiln was Artificial drying in tunnel or kiln was commercially applied after 1850 to commercially applied after 1850 to prunes, potato and applesprunes, potato and apples

Further developments regard spray, Further developments regard spray, vacuum and drum dryingvacuum and drum drying

James Jones chicory- drying kilns in New

Zealand

A tunnel drier


ConcentratingConcentrating In 1862 G.Borden pioneered condensed In 1862 G.Borden pioneered condensed

milk by presenting his patent for milk by presenting his patent for concentrating cider, fruit juices and milkconcentrating cider, fruit juices and milk

The process consisted in evaporating The process consisted in evaporating water of milk in vacuum pans, water of milk in vacuum pans, resembling those employed in sugar resembling those employed in sugar production, and in sealing the condensed production, and in sealing the condensed milk in under vacuum and hermetic tin milk in under vacuum and hermetic tin cans cans

The key of the treatment was employed The key of the treatment was employed by the Anglo-Swiss Co (later the Nestlé) by the Anglo-Swiss Co (later the Nestlé) and determined the commercial use of and determined the commercial use of concentration for products with high concentration for products with high convenience and good nutritional convenience and good nutritional propertiesproperties

One of the most representative product One of the most representative product is today the tomato paste concentrateis today the tomato paste concentrate

The label of first condensed milk

A jacketed vacuum evaporator for tomatoes


FiltrationFiltration Removal of microorganisms through Removal of microorganisms through

filtration was introduced by Soviet filtration was introduced by Soviet engineers in the 1920sengineers in the 1920s

Microfiltration, ultrafiltration and Microfiltration, ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis for preserving purpose Reverse Osmosis for preserving purpose were applied after the II World War to were applied after the II World War to beveragesbeverages

This ancient Egyptian clarifying device was found pictured on the wall

of the tomb of Amenophis II at Thebes

Controlled Atmosphere Storage Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS) was used already in the (CAS) was used already in the 30’s, when ships transporting 30’s, when ships transporting fruits had high levels of COfruits had high levels of CO22 in in their holding rooms, thus their holding rooms, thus increasing the shelf-life of the increasing the shelf-life of the product. In the 70’s MA packages product. In the 70’s MA packages reached the stores when bacon reached the stores when bacon and fish were sold in retail packs and fish were sold in retail packs in the UK. in the UK.

Modified Atmosphere Modified Atmosphere StorageStorage

MAP of meat steak


An old model of microvawe oven

In the last century ultraviolet lamps In the last century ultraviolet lamps were proposed and used to sterilize were proposed and used to sterilize workspaces and tools and to workspaces and tools and to disinfecting drinking waterdisinfecting drinking water

Research on food irradiation dates Research on food irradiation dates back to the turn of the century. The back to the turn of the century. The first U.S. and British patents were first U.S. and British patents were issued for use of ionizing radiation to issued for use of ionizing radiation to kill bacteria in foods in 1905. Food kill bacteria in foods in 1905. Food irradiation gained significant irradiation gained significant momentum in 1947 when momentum in 1947 when researchers found that meat and researchers found that meat and other foods could be sterilized by other foods could be sterilized by high energy and the process was high energy and the process was seen to have potential to preserve seen to have potential to preserve food for military troops in the field.food for military troops in the field.

By late 1946, the Raytheon Company By late 1946, the Raytheon Company had filed a patent proposing that had filed a patent proposing that microwaves be used to cook food. microwaves be used to cook food. Later, food industry apply microwave Later, food industry apply microwave to sterilize foodsto sterilize foods

RadiationRadiation

America's astronauts have been eating

irradiated foods from the beginning of the

space program


Electron beam processingElectron beam processing. This technique involves the passage of an . This technique involves the passage of an accelerated electron beam through the product to be treated. accelerated electron beam through the product to be treated. Accelerated electron beams, like X-rays and gamma rays, are ionizing Accelerated electron beams, like X-rays and gamma rays, are ionizing radiations, which kill the bacteria coming in contact with them.radiations, which kill the bacteria coming in contact with them.

Ultra-high pressureUltra-high pressure. This processing technique has existed since the . This processing technique has existed since the late 1890s. Basically, the food product is placed in a flexible vessel (a late 1890s. Basically, the food product is placed in a flexible vessel (a pouch or container), and placed in a chamber under ultra-high pressure pouch or container), and placed in a chamber under ultra-high pressure (80,000 to 100,000 psi) and held for a few minutes. When you apply the (80,000 to 100,000 psi) and held for a few minutes. When you apply the pressure, you're compressing the bacterial membrane, which, in a sense, pressure, you're compressing the bacterial membrane, which, in a sense, stops respiration.stops respiration.

Pulsed Electric FieldPulsed Electric Field. In this technique, the product is pumped through . In this technique, the product is pumped through a treatment chamber in which electrodes are installed. The bacteria are a treatment chamber in which electrodes are installed. The bacteria are exposed to high voltage as they pass between these electrodes; this, in exposed to high voltage as they pass between these electrodes; this, in turn, causes "electro-poration" -- that is, a hole in the bacterial cell wall.turn, causes "electro-poration" -- that is, a hole in the bacterial cell wall.

Induction, or ohmic, heatingInduction, or ohmic, heating involves passing current through the involves passing current through the material being pumped. Because there is no hot surface, such as is found material being pumped. Because there is no hot surface, such as is found in a heat exchanger, sterilization can be achieved without burn-on or in a heat exchanger, sterilization can be achieved without burn-on or other problems.other problems.

Vacuum packagingVacuum packaging simply involves the removal of oxygen from the simply involves the removal of oxygen from the package before it is sealed.package before it is sealed.

Pulsed lightPulsed light is a method of food preservation that involves the use of is a method of food preservation that involves the use of intense and short duration pulses of broad-spectrum "white light". For intense and short duration pulses of broad-spectrum "white light". For instance, the process was reported to be effective to inactivate molds in a instance, the process was reported to be effective to inactivate molds in a variety of baked goods and to extend their shelf-lives.variety of baked goods and to extend their shelf-lives.

Active packagingActive packaging may be defined as packaging that changes the may be defined as packaging that changes the condition of the packaged food to extend shelf-life or to improve safety or condition of the packaged food to extend shelf-life or to improve safety or sensory properties, while maintaining the quality of the food. It includes sensory properties, while maintaining the quality of the food. It includes antimicrobial film, oxygen scavengers, moisture controllers and a more antimicrobial film, oxygen scavengers, moisture controllers and a more active role for ethylene absorbers to help reduce the pathogens and active role for ethylene absorbers to help reduce the pathogens and gasses that contribute to food spoilage.gasses that contribute to food spoilage.

Last developmentsLast developments

history of food preservation (storia delle tecnologie di conservazione degli alimenti)

Documents

food species

raw food

food techniquesm

food consumption

grilled food

agricultural food products

emergence of cooked

food plant species