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HISTORY OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN EUROPE
I
Leposavic, 2015.
1
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
EUROPE
I
Leposavic, 2015.
2
Book:
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE
I
Editors:
Petar D. Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska)
Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia)
Branislav Antala (Slovakia)
Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, (Republic of Srpska)
Publishers:
University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical
Education in Leposavic
FIEP Europe - History of Physical Education and Sport
Section
Authors:
Airikki Poussi (Finland)
Andi Spahi (Albania)
Amalia Tinto (Italy)
Arūnas Emeljanovas
(Lithuania)
Claude Scheuer
(Luxembourg)
Dean Qefalia (Albania)
Daiva Majauskienė
(Lithuania)
Dario Colella (Italy)
Dario Skegro (Croatia)
Dimitris Hatziharistos
(Greece)
Erzsébet Rétsági
(Hungary)
3
Florian Muca (Albania)
Gabriela Štěrbová
(Czech Republic)
Ilir Dojka (Albania)
Juel Jarani (Albania)
Kata Morvay-Sey
(Hungary)
Nenad Zivanovic
(Serbia)
Petr Vlcek (Czech
Republic)
Stefania Cazzoli (Italy)
Tamás Csányi
(Hungary)
Zrinko Custonja
(Croatia)
4
Reviewers:
Jela Labudova (Slovakia)
Nicolae Ochiana (Romania)
Veroljub Stankovic (Serbia)
Zoran Milosevic (Serbia)
Prepress:
Kristina M. Pantelic Babic
Printed by:
ABL PRINT, Mlynarovicova 5, Bratislava, Slovakia
Book-jacket:
Anton Lednicky
Circulation:
100 copies
ISBN 978-86-82329-52-7
NOTE: No part of this publication may be
reproduced without the prior permission of the
authors.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD - ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS .................... 8
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE ORGANIZATION AND
FUNCTIONING OF THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN
ALBANIA ..................................................................................................... 24
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CROATIA ........................... 39
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN CZECH LANDS .............................................................. 58
THE ROOTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT SCHOOLS IN
FINLAND .......................................................................................... 72
ENACTMENT OF GREEK PHYSICAL EDUCATION -
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM (1835-1907) ................ 82
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUNGARIAN SCHOOL
PHYSICAL EDUCATION ........................................................................... 93
THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL IN ITALY -
FROM THE PROGRAMS TO THE NATIONAL GUIDELINES AND
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING (PETE) ..................... 114
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LITHUANIANS SCHOOL: SINCE
ITS ORIGIN TO THE END OF THE XX CENTURY ............................... 142
THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN LUXEMBOURG ...... 156
6
During one session of FIEP’s Section for history of Physical
Education and Sports held in Nis (Serbia) in 2014 originated the idea
and initiative for writing of History of Sports and Physical Education
in European countries. By exchange of views with present
colleagues, the idea was accepted. After consent of FIEP Europe’s
President Mr. Branislav Antala (Slovakia) regarding this matter,
during the following Section’s session the Commission for leading
this idea into realization was formed. Elected members of this
Commission were: Nenad Zivanovic, Petar D. Pavlovic, Branislav
Antala and Kristina Pantelic Babic. At the same session was decided
to start first with writing of History of Physical Education.
With the work of stated Commission members, National
Delegates and Assistant of National Delegate of FIEP Europe, as
also other associates from most European countries, this publication
on beginnings of development of Physical Education in European
countries’ schools was created. All manuscripts received for this
publication successfully passed review process. All FIEP Europe
National Delegates were informed about this project, and we
received 18 European papers implemented in this publication.
Besides, we also received a paper from Colombia about PE in Latin
America, which is an indicator of interest for this topic beyond
European borders.
We hope to include all European countries in following
publications, and also to go outside Europe in our close future.
Papers are sorted alphabetically by countries which participated in
this edition, with Colombian manuscript as a final one.
We thank all authors for being a part of this interesting
project, and looking forward to work together in the future.
With best regards,
EDITORS
7
FOREWORD
ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
Nenad Živanović, FIEP Europe, President of History of Physical
Education and Sport Section, Serbia.
When everything has its own time (Solomon), and one
should believe this to be so, then it is quite understandable that this
book on physical education and sport has awaited its time. Without
pretending that this is the final story of this beautiful theme, we
emphasize that it is only a part of our smart book (history) on
physical education and sport. From different sides and from different
angles perceived, our smart book on physical education and sport
perceives man and his desire to always be the best and excellent
among others (Homer) and constantly perceives physical exercise as
the beneficial food to man’s, primarily physical being (N.
Zivanovic). In different parts of the European continent, and in the
other parts of the world as well, man has been crossing the path of
developing its natural form of body movement - exercise all the way
to the derivative and modified forms. All this man has done in the
reverse direction, constantly returning to his natural forms of
movement - training. Of course, it has always been adapted and in
harmony with the social environment and social circumstances in
which he has lived.
However, we must point out one fact. Physical exercise, no
matter how it is defined, is not a subject that can be made and bought
in a store. Physical exercise is actually a man himself and his
movement, performed with the corresponding objective, not only to
develop or train some of his (motor) properties, but also because of
the emotional experiencing of such a movement - training. This fact
alone indicates the complex structure of man. His physical and
mental structure, consecrated by the Holy Spirit, makes him a
complete man, a personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.
Therefore, a physical exercise for him is a wholesome food essential
to his being.
8
At the heart of physical education is a man with all his
needs and desires. This man, as we have noted, has a need for
physical exercise, specific food that is essential to his, primarily
physical being. In fact, this man has a need for self-motion -
exercise. Therefore, when we talk about physical exercise and
physical exercising, we actually talk about the man himself. And this
man, searching for his identity, moves from the idea that a person is
one, unique and unrepeatable, to an individual – an atomized
individual who thinks he is self-sufficient. Thus, between these
extremes, a man wanders seeking, above all, himself and his
increasingly lost person. That is why education and, of course,
physical education is so important.
Education and physical education as well can be defined in
different ways. But it is not superfluous to recall that the term
upbringing (education) is an old Slavic word denoting feeding. Of
course, physical education as a part of general education ensures that
a physical exercise nourishes man. And from this simple fact derives
all the philosophy of physical education and sport, and it, among
other things claims: everything for a man, a man for nothing.
This philosophical idea draws its strength from the simple
fact that says life is the highest value obtained from the Creator and
noone, especially an educator, has the right to intentionally or
unintentionally, incur the collapse of these values. Hence, the
establishment of many schools, and in them the subject of physical
education, to make man stand up and show him all the values of life.
But, in all stages of life on the Earth, there were periods of ups and
downs of the human civilization and culture. Therefore, the time in
which we live should be considered taking into account this fact, and
in accordance with it we should try to find the best solutions. It is not
easy, but it is a sublime duty of the (real) experts and teachers.
It is interesting to recall the times of two hundred years ago.
Then, at the southern edge of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy a
Fruskogorskian monk Georgie, translating a V. K. Hufeld book
Macrobiotics, used a term physical education in the title of a chapter.
The book was translated into the Serbian language and published in
Budim in 1807.1 Before that, in these parts of Europe, different terms
1 More on this in: Milosevic, Z. and Berar M. Tracing the Term Physical Education, Physical
Education and Sport Through the Centuries, Vol.1, Iss. 1. 44–52.
9
denoting the organized forms of physical exercise, were used. The
most common terms used were the body exercises and gymnastics.
But this term physical education was exactly in line with the basic
meaning of education - and that is feeding. By means of the attribute
physical in this syntagm a type of food that is offered to a man,
regardless of his age, is highlighted. And that reflects a complete
pedagogical idea emanating from the basic philosophical ideas that
we have highlighted.
The Humanists
Turning towards man and his needs began in the mid-14th
century. The advent of the Humanism and the Renaissance in the
northern Italy established a new view of the world and of man in that
world. Scholars and leaders of the new movement were called the
Humanists. They had directed their learning towards the man (studia
humana) and had pointed to the humanity as a worthy decoration of a
free man.2 Such a radical shift and a break with the tradition of the
Middle Ages, whose role model was found in the legacy of the
ancient Greeks and Romans, was felt in relation to the physical
exercise, as well. Instead of generating the possibilities of the
organized physical exercise only for a selected group of (young)
people - knights, various forms of physical exercise were offered and
widely recommended to each and everyone. This urbi et orbi had
been accepted and a new wave of a tsunami force, had begun to
spread throughout Europe.
The leading humanists who spoke about education, have
always emphasized the importance of physical exercising. It was
2 Education and science that the Humanists took over from the priests and monks ceased to be the
"handmaiden of theology" and became a "teacher of life". In that school, as well as in the amended
environmental practices, one new man was formed. It was the man of this world who wanted to
live out his life to the fullest and improve the gifts with which he was endowed (so he thought) by
nature. To this and such a man ecstatic humanists sang the hymns. They tell him about his
"excellence" (exelenntia) and his "dignity" (dignitas). They equate him with God (quidem mortalis
deus) and encourage him to the comprehensive application of his own strength and quality (virtus),
the constant striving to be a "noble" and "free" (nobilitis et liber), and to achieve fame (laus). We
should now be able to add the competition, as well. After all, this is the motto of the EU, which is
written in its founding documents. This is so because with the neoliberal concept of planning and
management and the replacement of capitalism with the bankism (Gerald Selent), a Neohumanist
approach is quite possible. And, unfortunately, we are witnessing where it leads.
10
very important in the design of an educational system that included
various programs of physical exercise in their concept.3
3 It is appropriate, at least briefly to recall of the basic facts relating to these, for our profession,
significant people:
Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first who was able to show the culture of the ancient
Greeks and Romans. With his own money he has funded deciphering the Latin alphabet. His
name is linked to the humanistic movement in Italy.
Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420), in his treatise on the Education of the Master of
Padova’s son, stated as a topic of conversation: his character and discipline, free- open
minded learning, physical exercise, training in art (the art of) war, recreation. He pointed out
three allies: health, physical exercise and recreation, as well as the necessity of the
knowledge about health and all this he substantiated with many examples of the vigorous
physical exercise and recreational activities.
Vitorino de Feltre (1378-1446), followed the ideas of Greece and Rome on the importance
of physical exercise, but he stressed the importance of ball games, jumping and fencing. He
was declared the first teacher of the Renaissance as his program has well balanced the
physical, intellectual and moral education.
Aeneas Sylvius Picocomini (1405-1464) is one of the most important humanists who later
became the Pope. He claimed that the organism is indivisible and that the physical activity
helps the development of all human abilities.
Mafeus Vegius (1405-1458) believed that education should develop all of man's physical
and spiritual qualities. He especially emphasized the importance of health habits and
advocated that physical education should be free education, not to exceed in the extreme, but
to be approached as a good recreation activity.
Jakob Sadoleto (1477-1547) was the pope's secretary. But he wanted, following the model of
the ancient Greeks, to connect physical exercise and music. This was of great importance
because after many centuries this issue was given the proper attention.
Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) recommended physical activity for health. He was not
inclined to asceticism and complete specialization. He made a division of gymnastics into
the preventive and therapeutic ones. He believed that physical activities represent an integral
part of the free education.
Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) recommended physical exercise as part of the education of
children. He emphasized the importance of generous movements, but of these that will have
a positive impact in their lives. That is why he was against the creation of the athletes.
Martin Luther (1483-1546), was an enthusiasts who believed that physical training is of
great importance for the education of the youth. He was imbued with the idea of the
"muscular Christians" (Muscular Christianity). He recommended that music should be used
as a useful and beneficial activity, and fencing and wrestling were considered as beneficial
and healthy physical activities.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) believed that the games and sport were important for children
and youth. He felt that games and sport contained a certain degree of skills and that they
were very useful for the organism.
François Rabelais (1483-1553), a writer and doctor, can be called a classical humanist. He is
known for his works Gargantua and Pantagruel, in which he outlined his views on education.
In his program physical education occupies an important place, which is based on the seven
skills: wrestling, running, jumping, shooting, riding, and all types of military skills. Rabelais
described the exercises that are suitable for enclosed spaces (training rooms).
Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) has by his practical and theoretical works contributed
most to the development of physical education. He has in his major works laid a solid
foundation of our profession. In the General Didactics (Didactica Magna) he presented his
views on education on the basis of the premise that "schools are not torture houses, nor
prisons as lunatics think, but places to play in". And then he conveyed another message:
"With prowess and not fraud to win". In his second book, The World in Photos (Orbis
11
These programs, encouraged by the new view on life and
man's place in society, had gradually diverged and were directed in
two independent directions. In the continental Europe the idea of the
gymnastic forms of physical exercise prevailed. In contrast to this
idea, in England, on the insular part of Europe, sport had won the
status of the leading idea in the organization of physical exercising.
This, of course, was conditioned by different social circumstances,
for which there had been so many different approaches to the forms
of physical exercising. The fact is that the utilitarian values of sport
and gymnastics, in such circumstances, have come into the limelight.
Egocentristic approach to sport and ethnocentric approach to
gymnastics were quite in line with the social circumstances.
Until the advent of the Reformation and later revivals that
took place, there were no substantial and concrete progress in the
organized physical exercising and its firmer inclusion in the school
system. Only with the appearance of John Amos Comenius and his
work (to make it more absurd – a post got as a punishment) in a
school in Saros Patok in Hungary, there came a turning point of the
immeasurable importance to physical education and sport. He was,
thanks to his work as well as the position of the principle of the
school, the first in the history of our profession, to award a physical
exercise (education) a place in the school curriculum, as well as the
time allotted in the teaching timetable. We now, in fact, inherit what
was done by Comenius in the mid-17th century. And when it comes
to his theoretical and practical work, even today he can serve as an
example of the serious and creative efforts to approach education
(also) as - feeding. His works, primarily the United didactics and
The World in Photos are the examples of the great foresights and
meticulousness, and are a good token of the times that are behind us.
Pictus), written in four languages he described all physical exercises and competitions then
known in Europe. This is an encyclopedic work, which is very important for the History of
physical education and sport. In addition to these important books, Comenius, as the director
of a school in Saros Patok, has alloted to the subject of physical education place and time
within the school curriculum. Thus, a subject of physical education has for the first time,
taken seriously and equalled with all other achool subjects (disciplines) that were taught in
school. (According to: Zivanovic, N. Contribution to the epistemology of physical
education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 147-154).
The other notable personalities for our profession, from the time of the Reformation, and later,
will be discussed in the framework of the Theory of the development of physical education and
sport.
12
Theories of the Physical Education and Sport
Development
Different theories of the physical education and sport
development4 have based their philosophy of development on the
goal (and mission) of the physical exercise. Each for themselves and
all together, during the tumultuous centuries that are behind us, they
have undergone various stages of development. This was caused by
different social circumstances in which they were created and
developed.
At the end of the 17th and the 18th century there have been
many revolutions, among which five of them have exerted a great
and decisive influence on the conception of social development.5
Then came the inevitable undermining of the "ancient regime" and
its subsequent marginalization.6
"The Ancient Regime" has undergone criticism and change
in education, as well. In the period of the enlightment the attitude of
the church and its control of education, emphasizing the study of the
history of the ancient times, theology, Greek and Latin languages,
were sharply criticized. New people, the philosophers, represented
the opinion that - modern history, new (live) languages, engagement
in science and, within that, in physical activities, should be studied,
instead. Prominent figures, important for the development of
physical education and sport as well are John Locke7 and Jean
Jacques Rousseau8. They were, indeed, by their educational and
4 According to: (1) Zivanovic, N: School sports from the perspective of the theo-
anthropocentrism. In. Bokan, B. and Radisavljević Janic (Ed.). International Scientific Conference,
Belgrade, "The effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and
adults". Belgrade, 2012: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education; 112-117; (2) Zivanovic, N:
Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 155–165. 5 The revolutions of the crucial influence on the development of social relations and the concept of
social life certainly are: scientific, agricultural, commercial or economic, industrial, democratic or
socialist ones. 6 The term the "ancient regime" is used by the French to describe religious, legal, socio-cultural
and economic institutions that prevailed in the Western Europe in the late 17th and 18th century,
because it was inconsistent with the new tendencies of the development. 7 John Locke (1632 - 1704) is one of the largest English philosopher of his time. His works, essays
on education, have influenced many teachers and political theorists. He qualified a newborn as a -
tabula rasa, who under the influence of education builds up and changes. This has resulted in many
teachers to start with a different observation of children. 8 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was another important person of the "Age of the
enlightenment". He sharply attacked the current system, and his thoughts and messages about
education he presented in Emil, a work which is half a discussion and half a novel. His ideas on
13
journalistic work guidelines for further development of our
profession. Their numerous followers, Pestalozzi, Felenber,
Basedow, inspired by their work, have created the operating
principles and by their practical work have done much for the
development of physical education.
Theory of biocentrism
The theory of biocentrism dated back in the early 18th
century, when all the more pronounced were collisions of the old
and the new social relationships, old and new traditions, views of the
world and of man in this world. It has began to spread the notion that
man recognizes the natural impulsive moves and feels the need to
play, that he has discovered himself and his world through the
experiences, that its value is based in freedom, voluntariness and
natural forms of movement and exercising. This certainly is nothing
new, and not a new view of the world. But such ideas and thoughts
in the works of Locke and Rousseau, appeared to be new.
"It is a sad misconception that physical exercise is
detrimental to mental activity, as if both these operations could not
be carried out simultaneously, and as if one could not manage the
other".9 (3) Of course, this idea and the message for this time exuded
a new view of the man and his physical exercise. This novelty, to put
it plainly, was redolent of freshness of thought and for that social
moment, was a bold step taken towards a new era.
the new, progressive, education became the basis of many new educational programs in the mid
18th century. He believed that "constant, nature entirely similar exercises strengthen the body and
not only do they not dull the spirit but rather create a kind of reason capable of filial age, and that
every age is most needed. They teach us to know our strength, our body attitude towards the
bodies that surround us and the use of natural tools that are within our grasp and which correspond
to our organs." Such an attitude towards education and, of course, physical education stems from
his attitude - that all is the good that comes from the hands of the Creator, and by human hands is
corrupted. Therefore, he advocates a new approach to education and a return to nature. Because of
that his Emil prefers to climb the hills like a goat to jumping in the salon like a monkey following
the directions of the gallantry. Z. Z. Rousseau was among the first to raise the issue of the
education of girls. However, this education is different and appropriate to the creating of a good
housewife and a kind of decoration of the house. In the education of girls there are religious and
aesthetic education and skills. The rest of the education complements a husband at his own
discretion. Great attention he has devoted to the play. The conditions for play should be created by
the elderly and their assistance should be unobtrusive and discreet. Children need to feel free and
self-solve tasks in the play. 9 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emil or on education. Belgrade, 1925. Bookstore Rajković and Čukić,
p.53.
14
These ideas were accepted by the thinkers and educators
such as: Basedow,10
Pestalozzi,11
Saltzman, GutsMuths12
. In recent
10 Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) has by its theoretical and practical work contributed to a
new approach to the physical education. He opened a school called "Philanthropinum," in Dessau,
in 1774. Contemporaries have called this school a "High school for humanity." In it the plan of the
daily work schedules looked like this: 7 hours - sleeping; 6 hours - dressing, feeding, rest and
recreation; 1 hour - correspondence and neatness; 5 hours - studying and intellectual work; 3 hours
- physical exercise, dance and music; 2 hours - handmade works (with physical exertion).
Throughout the summer students would spend about a month in the camp, where the nature
replaced textbooks, and another month was planned to carry out the practical work with the
peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The basics of the physical education in the Philanthropinum,
was "Dessaus’s Pentathlon", which consisted of: running, jumping, climbing, cargo carrying and
balancing (balance exercises). Great attention was paid to the persistent walking, swimming and
rowing. He advocated also for a broad application of games and gave methodological guidelines
for their application. He believed that the games developed prowess and provide emotional
experience - creating the conditions for a good life. 11 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) a Swiss educator has built his own position, which is
predominantly directing gymnastics towards raising the health and resilience of the body against
natural influences that can endanger it. In this context, special attention was devoted to
strengthening and training locomotor apparatus. Therefore, with him for the first time, simple -
joint exercises appeared. Pestalozzi has coming from town to village, begun to deal with the poor
children upbringing. In 1800 he managed to establish the "House of Education", which was later
moved to Iferten and became famous throughout the world. His "House of Education" resembles
very much the "House of Play" of Vittorino Rambaldoni (1378-1446). Among his many works the
most important are the following: Leonard and Gertrude and How Gertrude teaches her children.
There he also presented his views on the necessity of the integrated education. Because of this, he
believes that physical education should be a means of forming the spirit as well as the moral and
aesthetic education. 12Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) is one of the most important theorists and creators of
the systematization of physical exercises. He spent some time in Salzmann’s Philanthropinum,
where he received a needed experience in gymnastics work. The principles underlying his theory
and methodology are current even nowadays, which tells how his work is built into the basics of
the later system of gymnastics, and even today's physical education. Here are these principles:
• man is a physical and spiritual unity;
• weakness of the body leads to the weakness of spirit;
• highest intellectual culture, without physical education, provides only an
incomplete person, without the joy of life and beauty;
• natural practicing of the primitive peoples civilized ones should replace with
gymnastics skills; these may be military, athletic and medical, but the only type
for all of them should be the - pedagogical gymnastics;
• the duty of the most educated countries and all the teachers should be to
organize propaganda of the pedagogical gymnastics. That means everyday
gymnastics for all ... To create an atmosphere for gymnastics;
• there is a need to reinforce the concern about hygiene and one should
recommend exercise in the fresh air;
• in a teaching method one should count on the age, sex, profession, and the
composition of those who practice.
GutsMuths has in its systematization of physical exercises singled out:
a) real gymnastic exercises - jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing,
balancing, dancing, etc.;
b) handicrafts;
c) social games for the youngsters.
15
years, these ideas were more elaborated by: Laban,13
Dalkroze,14
and Montessori.15
Their programs were oriented towards young
people. So Laban had built his expressive gymnastics on a natural
desire of a child towards movement and a spontaneous play. There
were created special education programs outside of school such as
snow school, school camps. Today, this approach is observed in the
programs of schools in nature and sports camps.
The theory of ethnocentrism.
The theory of etnocentrism in the center of its development
puts ethnos, people. Also, any form of physical exercise was created
having this in mind and was adapted to that end. It originated during
the turbulent times of the 19th century, when the international
conflicts dominated Europe and Napoleonic wars simultaneously
represented a conflict between the old and the new. Nations were
getting stronger, and the period of the professional armies was
passing by. In such a situation there was a growing need for the
physical education of citizens, who would be the new troops, if
necessary. The representatives of this school are: Franz Nachtegall16
,
Pehr Ling Henrik17
, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn 18
, Miroslav Tirs.19
13 Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a dancer and theoretician. In 1936 he emigrated to London
(England) and there he has, within his pedagogical work, developed a system of "education by
movement". He had claimed four aspects of movement (flow, time, space and path), eight
combinations and sixteen ranks. Soon the term "movement" has become the most important term
in the representation of Laban’s concepts, and the phrases such as "art of movement", "gymnastics
by movement" and "education by movement" became the integral part of the vocabulary of
physical education. 14 Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) as a good musician has always helped his disciples to use
movements to more easily become good musicians. After the Second World War his ideas were
accepted also in the British schools and were known as "music and movement". 15 Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori (1870-1952) has built on the ideas of
Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel her own educational system, in which the play and movement
were important elements. She said that "what really makes the teacher is his love for a human
child; because love is what differentiates the social duty of the educational worker and creates a
higher awareness of his mission.” 16 Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) founded the first gymnastics institute in Europe, which was, in
fact, the basis for the further development of physical education in Denmark. When the practical
benefits of such work were noticed, daily basis physical exercising was introduced as a
compulsory subject in schools (1801). He soon opened in Copenhagen a military gymnastics
school for the education of the professional staff. In addition to the practical work Nachtegall
wrote gymnastics manuals. 17 Pehr Henrik Ling (1776-1839) spent five years in Nachtegall’s school in Copenhagen, and on
his return to Sweden he formed a new system of gymnastics. Sweden as Denmark, was in a
delicate international political situation, thus it was necessary to use the Civil Army (citizens) to
16
In the theory and practice of physical education these
representatives of ethnocentrism are known as the founders of
various gymnastic systems that were aimed at gathering young
people doing physical exercise and their development in order that
they, so strengthened, could fight for the social goals and ideals. It is
through the analysis of the ideas of their systematization of physical
exercise that we notice the emergence of the ultimate goal - ethnos,
and not an individual, a member of that nation. And even today, in
supplement the professional army. Therefore, first of all, they needed special programs of physical
exercise. Ling in 1814 founded under the royal patronage the Royal Central Gymnastics Institute
in Stockholm. The institute still nowadays exists, but under the other name (since 1967 it is called
the Institute for gymnastics and sport). Ling has proclaimed four types of gymnastics:
military (for strengthening the body and one’s will to encourage the other people's
will);
pedagogical (own body to subordinate to one’s own volition);
medical (to overcome and eliminate diseases);
aesthetic (towards emotions expression).
His gymnastics program was characterized by a design-specific directionality, whose main
characteristic is anatomical and physiological justification. Gymnastics equipment, which is still
famous in the world, has been adapted to the needs of the body. 18 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), in 28 as a soldier, survived the German military defeat, and
experienced it as a personal tragedy. From then on he devoted himself exclusively to the work on
strengthening the German nation. According to him, physical education had to create strong and
courageous warriors for the defense of France. Therefore he had devised his own system and
founded a turner organization. Since he was against everything that was not German, he would not
use the word gymnastics, known and famous throughout the world, but had found a new word -
turner. This term was derived from the medieval knight competition and exercises. In his program
he included running, jumping, climbing, suspension and exercise on special requisites. In the
period from 1819 to 1842 the Austrian Chancellor Metternich prohibited "turner". This restriction
had provoked an important change in the character of the turner exercise. In fact, during this
period training was performed secretly at homes. So there had been a restructuring of the physical
exercises, ones that required a large space were lost, and in the foreground erupted apparatus and
small space exercises. They were able to maintain discipline and control. These exercises were
later incorporated into the school programs. Jahn’s system of physical exercise, with the help of
his students spread out to other countries as well. Soon it lost a national basis and with the systems
of Ling and Nachtegall, became an important part of the development of physical education in
many countries around the world. 19 Miroslav Tirs (1832-1884) formed the Czech gymnastics society in 1862. When the German
students began to stand out and establish turner societies, Tirs organized the workout for the Czech
students. Later on his system was named "SOKO", as a symbol of bravery, heroism and nobility.
At that time, the living conditions of the national minorities in Austria were very harsh, so,
basically, this gymnastics organization was also established for the purpose of awakening the
national consciousness. It could be said that the sport has undergone through four stages of
development: (1) Patronizing sport (lat. Patronus: protector), (2) A gentleman sport or
pedestrianism (lat. Pedes: Foot), (3) School or university sport, (4) Civil sport.
The Tirs exercises system was divided into four groups:
a) exercises without requisites;
b) exercises using the requisites;
c) group exercises;
d) combat exercises.
17
these troubled times of the 21st century, there is a physical exercise
that is organized on the ideas of the ethnocentrism.
The theory of egocentrism.
The theory of egocentrism. This theory’s development is
based on man's quest to build his personality by emphasizing his
ego, his identity. And he puts in the foreground his ultimate
individualism. In sport, as one of the areas of physical education
which relies (as opposed to the physical education and recreation) on
the agon, fight, competition, man finds the ability to express his
individuality. This is why sport (along with other, primarily political
and economic reasons) has experienced a great expansion.
During the 19th century a specific system of games and
sports began to exist in England. This system has been specifically
accepted in so-called public schools20
. It has spread throughout the
British Empire and even beyond its borders. Activities were
different, but there stood out - the virtuosity of glory, fair play,
dignity, individual effort and courage. A lot of credit for the
development of school sport, which is the basis for the so-called civic
sport, belongs to Thomas Arnold21
, the priest, educator and
administrator of the Rugby College, and his followers, above all,
Thomas Hughes22
.
In the continental part of Europe, at that time the
ethnocentric approach to physical exercise dominated. However, in
the late 19th century (in 1884) Pierre de Coubertin23
visited England,
20 The development of sport is very distinctive. After the English bourgeois revolution, the new
social relations resulted in the class compromise of the English aristocracy and bourgeoisie, both at
the political and the economic levels. This was reflected in physical education, too and as a
product of that compromise a modern sport was created. It was created by merging some forms of
physical exercise and games favorite to the nobility (riding, fencing, hunting, swimming) and the
folk forms of competition (running, wrestling, pugilism, rowing). 21 Thomas Arnold (1795–1842) as a director of the college in Rugby, while watching children's
sporting events, realized and understood their significance for the education of children. Therefore,
they were included in the school curriculum. The motto of Thomas Arnold was to educate the
Christians - gentlemen. Self-improvement was something that represented a key education, which
had resulted in the creation of pedagogical system based on freedom. And in all this sporting
competitions had played an important role. 22 Thomas Hughes has as the successor of the ideas of Thomas Arnold, founded the movement
"Muscular Christian youth" (1842). Thus, sport helped young people to recognize the act of
freedom in the true sense of the word. 23 Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), has by his enthusiasm, work and his own money managed to
realize one for a long time present idea of restoring the ancient Olympic Games.
18
there he got familiarized with the sports games and, after returning to
France, started propagating sport. It was fruitful and in 1896 in
Athens (Greece) the first new Olympic Games were held. Today,
sport is experiencing a large and rapid development and is present in
all parts of the world.
The theory of anthropocentrism
The theory of anthropocentrism was established on the
philosophical worldview believing that man is the center of the
world and the ultimate purpose of its development. This theory
unifies all the previous theories of development: ethnocentrism,
biocentrism and egocentrism.
Its main features are:
1. Development of physical abilities and health,
2. Increase in social development (progress)
3. Improving the level of knowledge and skills in sports and
games,
4. Development of leading capabilities and increasing
opportunities for the cooperation with others,
5. Development of broad-based recreational skills,
especially for leisure time during the holidays.
These characteristics of the anthropocentristic approach to
physical exercise, although at first glance recognizable, represent a
distillate of the new desires and thoughts about the necessity of
human health and happiness. In doing so, it is suggested that these
two postulates, health and happiness are something that is a
necessity and purpose of man and that any form of the physical
exercise should comply with it. Of course, there is omitted closer
defining not only of health but also of happiness, but is associated
with the society in which human rights and freedom are achieved.
And accordingly, this philosophy of physical exercise first appeared
in Scandinavia and North America. In the second half of the 20th
century O. Åstrand24
and K. Cooper25
, each in their own way,
24 Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) had his research studies which were basically the interval
method, in his later works, in the mid eighties of the 20th century, completely rejected and
19
developed a program of physical exercise having primarily in mind
the needs of man. Later Jane Fonda26
has developed special
programs for women. Today these ideas are present in the form of
(different) fitness programs.
The theory of theo-anthropocentrism.
The theory of theo-anthropocentrism is the youngest among
the theories of the physical education development. It is considered
to be the youngest not due to the time of its philosophy originating,
but because of the time of its presence in our profession, and that is
the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In this
theory of the physical education development (physical education
and sport) one starts from the basic assumptions that: a) a man is
approached cautiously as if by "pigeon legs", and b) that physical
exercise is a wholesome food, primarily for the physical part of his
being. This is a theory that provides one more humane agon within
the frame of the Orthodox anthropology. This Christ-centrism allows
a Godman centric approach, in which God and man are in the center,
in the embrace of the eternal love and community.
This approach reminds us that school as a place to acquire
new knowledge and skills, is not composed of the the walls and
classrooms, but of those who are in it: the teachers and students. And
they, as the central beings of all created, may only be the
personalities in the community with another personality. For without
such a community there is no the first nor any other personality, and
there is not one thing that goes with the personality which is
freedom. Freedom, of course, implies an obligation arising out of it,
that everything is done for the well-being of the man himself. Thus,
one should take account of the duration of the physical exercise
(scope), as well as the load of the physical exercise (intensity).
replaced with the idea that man needed physical activity during the day, for 30 minutes, in the
various combinations of time intervals. 25 Kenneth H. Cooper (1931) had by his research established a system of physical exercise which
is known as Aerobics. He, like Åstrand, had based his system on 10,000 steps in a day. His ideas
are now used in many fitness centers. 26 Jane Fonda (1937) a film actress who aimed her exercise programs at women had made a
turning point in relation to the style of exercise and attitude of women towards their physical
appearance. She had developed a special program known as Aerobic exercise for women.
20
Knowing that the food (physical exercise) is varied and that it is
useful in optimal quantities (volume and intensity of exercise), it is
offered to man with love.
And to the posed questions of how and, above all, why
exercise, the answer is sought in the very being of man and his need
for this kind of food as well.27
In doing so, one does not forget that it
is necessary to each and all (Urbi et Orbi), which is, in fact, in the
very center of this theory. Representatives of this theory are Nenad
Zivanovic28
and Zoran Milosevic.29
Current time
Modern civilization resting on the neoliberal concept of
organizing the overall social life, with the Darwinist direction, faces
a major challenge. During decades long efforts it has managed to
incorporate in most people the guiding principles - only present is
what is important and what matters. Other time categories, such as
past and future are wiped out. In such circumstances one must
observe our profession as well.
Physical education and sport30
today can be seen not only as
an organic whole, but also as the two separate and, unfortunately,
absolutely independent units. And this requires careful
considerations about our profession.
Sport31
has particularly in its professional and elite parts,
completely rejected its old attributes (health, education,
socialization) and accepted the new ones (result and profit). When
talking about sport (elite and professional), one can no longer talk
27 The words of the Apostle Paul addressed at the weaken Corinthians: "I have the right to do
anything, but not everything is beneficial. I have the right to do anything—but I will not be
mastered by anything." (I Cor. 6, 12). 28 Nenad Zivanovic (1946), University of Nis, Serbia. 29 Zoran Milosevic (1962), University of Novi Sad, Serbia. 30 Terms which combine and contain physical education and sport, were different at different
times, and in different social environments. From the Renaissance to the end of the 19th and
beginning of the 20th century were dominated by the terms: the body exercise and gymnastics, and
in England sport. Later, the other two terms were crystallized from which the organizational
structure of our specialized field drew, as well as theoretical and practical work, namely: physical
education and sport 31 We recall of the classification of sport specific to the target sports:
School sport - Registered sport – Recreational sport
Registration sport is divided into: amateur, top and professional sports.
(According to: Nenad Zivanovic, et al., Theory of Physical Education. Nis, Panopticon, 2010, p.
21
about health, education, socialization, but solely in terms of the
results and profits, that is, in terms of its political and economic
utilitarianism. No longer are the ideas and messages of the
Pennsylvanian bishop Etelberto Talbot valid, as he instructed the
participants of the Olympics in London in 1908 – It is not important
to win, it is important to take part. Now, in accordance with the ideas
of the neoglobalistic New Age, there is one rule that is valid and is
assuming the level of the legal norms. This rule, established in the
mid-80s of the 20th century, says “It is not important to participate,
it is important to win”. And to win at any cost32
With this type of a
guiding principle it is not difficult to explain and understand the
emergence of the new cults: the cult of the body, the cult of sports
results and the cult of profit33
.
Amateur sport34
has, to a lesser extent, accepted the new
attributes of sport. It is fully compliant with the New Era, because
the athletes involved in the amateur sport inherit the values of the
modern civilization. And the higher the level of the amateur sport,
the more pronounced this acceptance is. But in its lower segments
(sports clubs in small towns and rural areas), it has retained to a
greater extent, the old attributes of sport and these should be nurtured
and encouraged.
School sport35
is the only link between the physical
education and sport. This fact is not at all encouraging, but we must
accept it and make sure it stays that way. On our work depends
whether we manage to keep current title school sport. There are
numerous attempts to establish the term sport in school. Such efforts
are reflecting not only the desire to come to the terminology changes,
32 After an ominous wave of sports violence of the 80s of the 20th century, we are witnessing new
outbursts of violence in all its forms. Fights of the athletes, fights of the fans, murder of fans
(Istanbul 2014), provocations at the football stadiums (Belgrade, London, ..., 2014), all of it
foretells, as well as the late 20th century, the coming evil times. In doing so, obscene and
hypocritical explanations of these events indicate that the present civilization recognizes only - the
current time and the Darwinian concept of competition. 33 More on this in: Nenad Zivanovic, Apology of physical exercise. Nis, Panopticon, 2011. 34 Amateur sport, as one of the segments of the registered sport, with excellent and professional,
very often is treated as a recreational sport. Between them there is not only a terminological but
also the conceptual difference already, and it should be taken into account during each expert
analysis. 35 School sport, by its very terminological definition, by its attribute – school puts emphasis on
education. And until it does, and while sport in school term does not prevail, there is still hope that
the sports competitions in school have a primary goal - education, rather than - (exclusively) sports
scores. And that children’s school sports dreams and sports competitions would represent one nice
part of their childhood and youth.
22
but also to the conceptual ones. And that would be disastrous for us
all. Because if we say - sport in school, this means that in this phrase
emphasis is placed on the attribute sport. This inevitably entails cruel
clear fact - that we will have in school sport with all of its
particularly negative, characteristics. Let us mention only one of
them, and it is – to achieve the result at any cost. If we let the result
be the primary goal and do everything for its realization, then the
school and its role in education of the young people will turn into a
service station of the registered sport. This is not just an ominous
assumption, but a harsh reality that we face. The cure for this terrible
disease are certainly the new humanists and teachers who love man,
but the man who has the personality - one, unique and unrepeatable.
Physical education and its very name suggests that through
physical exercise as the beneficial food, we build up the personality
of all our students. In addition, relying on the Orthodox Christian
anthropology and ethics derived from it, we know that only through
love I am what I am (O. Justin Popovic). Therefore, if we know that,
we will not be the teachers who will go in for the idea of this New
World and regard our student as an object, commodities to be
exploited to achieve our own goals, but we should observe him as a
personality, unique and unrepeatable. We know that in this given
freedom lies our responsibility. This responsibility makes quite
comprehensive the Orthodox Christian understanding of freedom,
which is reflected in the self-restrain for the sake of the others
(Solzhenitsyn). And in this effort to see others besides himself, the
man is realized as a person. Certainly, it is not an easy task at all, not
only to understand but also to perform, but we should head on in that
direction.
Our teacher, educator and expert ( in this very order) loves
his students and strives to be the Anatoly - their light and the light of
our profession as well. He makes effort because he knows that one
educates with love and by setting personal example - role model.
This is how we observe physical education, and the book in
front of you talks about it.
23
ALBANIA
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE
PHYSICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ALBANIA
Juel Jarani, Faculty of Movement Sciences, Sports University of
Tirana
Florian Muca, Tirana International School
Ilir Dojka
Dean Qefalia
Andi Spahi, Faculty of Physical Activity and Recreation, Sports
University of Tirana
Correspondence
Juel Jarani
Phone: 00355672120239
Abstract
During the Albanian kingdom period it is hard to come by
information on the organization and functioning of the physical
education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure
time or participation in sport activities. In the beginning of the
communist era there was the influence from eastern countries and
after the parting from eastern influence it was succeeded from the
Chinese influence. Analyzing this period it could be said that the
political influence (from the communist party) had a major influence
in the primary targets of physical education. In post communist era
(democratic period) physical education system during has gone
through phases of changes concerning the structure of class
distribution, years of study and almost the same division of
disciplines of the subject. Academic term of 2014-2015 is the most
valuable reform in physical education where in every study cycle
physical education is 3 times per week with duration of 45 minutes
per each class and taught by physical education teacher.
24
Keywords; physical education, children, communist period, school
level
Literature Review
This research is focused on the organization and
functioning of physical education in Albania during three different
periods taking into account also the establishment of the Albanian
government including: the Albanian kingdom period, the communist
period and the democratic period (post-communist era). The first
period includes 1909-1939 and it is divided in two parts: the first part
is 1909-1927 and the second part 1928-1939 (the monarch regime).
For the collection of materials it was used the database at the library
of Sport University of Tirana especially regarding gathering data for
the communist period using as a reference, the newspaper of that
time named “Popular Sport”. It was used data from different
publication from the Ministry of Education and periodical
information from Pedagogical Institutes in Albania.
The first period 1909-1939
The first period includes 1909-1939 and it is divided in two
parts: the first part is 1909-1927 and the second part 1928-1939 (the
monarch regime)
First part (1909- 1927)
During this period it is hard to come by information on the
organization and functioning of the physical education system in
schools and organized activities in the leisure time or participation in
sport activities. In this period there were only voluntary sporting
activities. There were only some sporting clubs, which are
considered to be the first organizations (cells) of voluntary sportive
activities in Albania (before the 1912 invasion of the Ottoman
Empire). Such organization of these activities continues nowadays
retaining the same features ever since the declaration of
Independence (1912) until the monarch regime (1928). During
25
1909—1927 there was an organized establishment of sport clubs and
sporting associations spread across the country which represented the
structures for physical education sporting organization in Albania.
During 1909 it was established the very first sports team in Shkodra
named “Independence” (Indipendenca) as well as the first sport
association named “Vllaznia”, and during the same time, in Korça
was established “Vllazëria” sport association. Until 1928 many
sports clubs were established such as “Sport Club Vlora”,”Sport
Club Tirana” which was founded in 1927 thanks to a significant
contribution from Selman Stërmasi, also sport clubs “Atdheu” and
“Adriatiku” were founded in Durres and Kavaja as well as sport club
“Tomorri” in Berat (1).
Second part (1928-1939; the monarchic regime in Albania)
This period was closely linked with the drafting of the
Albanian constitution in 1928 which established the monarchic
regime in Albania and marks the beginning of the state sporting
organization in a well-defined governmental structure. During 1929
(in 2 September) the national sporting body “Djelmnia Shqiptare”
was established and officially acknowledged by the government
structures. Such entity had as primary aim the physical, moral and
paramilitary training culture of Albanian youth (2). This is also the
year when for the first time was established a person responsible for
sporting activities called “Physical Education Inspector” who was
later appointed in all municipalities of Albania (1; 2).
A year later (1930) the Ahmet Zogu (King of the Albania)
government seeing the ongoing sporting activities in the country,
issued a decree in 6 June for the foundation of the Albanian Sports
Federation, a structure within the national sporting body “Djelmënia
shqiptare” to bring in more sporting youth and regulate the
organization of national and international sporting events. In every
municipality center were established regional sporting associations
which were directly depend from the federation. The sporting
activity of the Federation was divided in three main categories:
sports games, athletics and other sports (swimming, cycling, boxing
and wrestling). On 13 August 1935 in Tirana was founded the Sports
and Arts Federation “Vllaznia Shqiptare” serving as chairman the
26
Education minister Dr.Mirash Ivanaj who stressed the importance of
physical education in schools (1). It is worth mentioning that in this
period in order to help children’s physical education several
additional materials (manuals) were produced containing different
types of exercises. One of these manuals was composed of seven
types of exercises helping children with morning exercises (3). This
manual was translated from German (1935) from a gymnastic
seminar for primary schools led by Dr. Sippel, a physical education
lecturer from university of Berlin. In the following paragraph it will
be shown the purpose of this material as well as focusing on body
esthetics and body strengthening aiding human health; “……...Every
morning when I get up I jump off the bed and go to wash my whole
body using cold water and then I rub it off with a towel. Then I open
the windows and start my physical exercises. I breathe in. I breathe
using my nostrils as if smelling a flower and breathe out from my
mouth as if blowing fire …….”
This material was also illustrated by means of figures
explaining to children the differences between those who exercised
during the morning and those who didn’t use this manual; “... Thus is
the face of the boy who gets up in the morning 5 minutes early and
exercises (Fig 1) and thus is the other boy who slept 5 minutes more
and did not do any exercise” (Fig 2)
In order for the demonstration to be as interesting as
possible the author, besides the illustrations using figures he uses
animal names comparisons for the exercises for example; “ ….we
walk like monkeys (exercise 5 in the manual); ...... can you walk
27
using both your feet and hands as the boy in the picture? The boy in
the picture couldn’t do these as well. He could not bend over and
touch the ground with his fingers. But within 14 days he could do
this exercise……. “ (Fig 3 and 4).
Communist period 1940-1990
The ideological-political education of the generations
During the communist era, for the young generation
physical education, preparing for work and for defense was a matter
of great political and ideological importance. We can quote a
paragraph where such ideological and political views are stated quite
clearly; ... nowadays the issue of physical education of the working
class and in particular the youth presents a great challenge. The
aggressive intentions of the American imperialists who are aided by
the modern revisionists, their continuous conspiracies against our
country call for every town, every boy or girl to strengthen their
body to bravely protect the fatherland and the revolutionary cause
against every enemy…….. (4). The ASAU (Albanian Sportsmen and
Athletes Union) and all sports as well as all other areas in life were
linked closely to politics. In the beginning there was the influence
from eastern countries and after the parting from eastern influence it
28
was succeeded from the Chinese influence where one of the
measures taken was the abolishment of boxing as a sport (1).
Improving the ideological and political work of all sportsmen
presented a significant task for all AWYU (Albanian Working Youth
Unions) associations as well as all physical education departments.
The main goal during this period was having young educated and
capable sportsmen, able to protect the fatherland (4). During 1969
the existing elementary school programs apart from all visible
improvements went through major changes by combining physical
education with military exercises (5). Analyzing this period it could
be said that the political influence (from the communist party) had a
major influence in the primary targets of physical education; ….. the
party and the people’s power from the beginning gave a fair
assessment to physical education as a structural part of the
communist education of workers as well as giving the country what
it deserves without holding anything back ………(6). The same logic
was used for having a good health and readiness at work as well as
for defense; ......the party has instructed and ordered for all our
physical education system and the entire physical-sporting activity to
be firmly structured within the party’s ideology and to be developed
focusing on the masses (7).
During this period it could be said that besides physical
education in schools have existed several types of organizations of
children’s physical education and sporting activities such as: schools
organization of sporting classes system (these will be explained in
details further on), sporting activities for children in towns (within an
apartment building/Pioneer’s home), organized sporting summer
activities as well as sports tournaments (massive and qualitative
sports activities which have taken place only after liberation of the
country and included several types of sports)
Physical education system
During communist regime the physical education system in
primary education schools (grades 1-8) for ages 6-14 and secondary
education schools/high schools (grades 1-4) for ages 15-18 took
place twice a week with duration of 45 minutes/ class. Teaching of
first grade to fourth grade pupils was carried out by one general
teacher physical education for grades 4-12 including high school was
29
carried out by a PE specialized teacher. During 1973-1983 there was
a national unification of the educational syllabus of physical
education in all Albanian education institutions. After 1983 the
program comprising different disciplines was carried out according
to the conditions of the schools in different towns.
Till 1974, the main physical education institution which
helped improving PE comprised: the PE committees, educations
departments, sports clubs, schools headmasters offices and qualified
sportsmen (8). The link between physical education and health has
always been a cornerstone of a healthy living from childhood as well
as an inseparable part of education during the communist period.
In an article of 1989 (9) in “Sporti Popullor” gazette it is
mentioned and stressed the significant role of school in pupils and in
their physical education preparation which leads to the development
of permanent health stability. Regarding the pupil’s activities beyond
school or physical education in school we can quote the following
article; .... nowadays more than ever before it is required from the
pupil, the citizen or the cooperative worker to be educated with
regular sporting activities and sports in his present conditions, not
only by participating in a single football, basketball or volleyball
match but in gymnastics, athletics, marching, walking as well.
Everything is based upon in the dynamics of PE teachers, in their
abilities to come up with new ways to make sports as massive as
possible, to infuse pupils the concept that taking up sports is not a
waste of time, it is gained time because in this way health is better,
society improves, life is better….. (9).
Organizations which dealt with monitoring and organizing
activities in schools set up different meetings and conferences where
they draw conclusions which in turn were put into practice from
regional units such as: .....conclusion from the 5-th National ASAU
(Albanian Sportsmen and Athletes Union) Conference “a major
change needs to be implemented in our school, to transform the
school into a genuine sporting center and a place where school will
imbue the youth the education of actively and permanently taking up
sports aiming at raising the general physical education level in all
schools” ….. (10).
30
Recreational Activity Classes – Sports
During this period in schools were set up sport classes in
two study cycles starting from third grade (different sport disciplines
organized in activity classes both for the primary education schools
system for pupils aged 6-14 and the high-school/secondary education
system for pupils aged 15-18 years). Such classes were established
according to the geographical location of the schools and represented
sport clubs in sport activities such as: in athletics: in Tirana –
“Qemal Stafa” high-school represented Tirana’s sport club, “Petro
Nini Luarasi” high school Dinamo sports club and “Partizani” high
school represented Partizani sport club. Sport clubs carried out
further selection of sportsmen and at the same time gave didactical
aid and sports materials. Every academic year in primary and high-
schools there was a selection of a sport class which was taught as PE
subject/sports three times per week with duration of 90 minutes/class
(once a week in the morning and twice a week in the afternoon).
During 1984-1986 there was a significant reduction of the
quality of sport classes in different sporting activities as well as its
support with materials and didactical aid. In 1989 throughout the
country were functioning 4668 sport classes in 10 types of sports and
in which took part 14000 pupils (11) such as: in Tirana there were
schools such as “Shkolla E kuqe”, “Emin Duraku” in basketball, “29
Nentori” in volleyball, “Naim Frasheri” in gymnastics (11).
Pioneers home organization
In the framework of the development of sporting activities
it is worth mentioning activities organized in towns such as: the
Pioneers home organization which organized different sporting
activities with children from schools, alleys, streets of the capital
during summer vacations where the children from different
neighborhoods were enlisted with their respective teams (12). The
championship organization involving wide participation was
generally carried out from: pioneer sporting centers and physical
education committee of the district, which dealt with improving
work methods and forms of organization so that a higher number of
children (first grade - fourth grade) and pioneers (grades 5-8) would
be involved in sporting activities every day and physical education
31
(exercises). These activities were organized between different classes
and were based on a drafted calendar from the pioneer home
organization and PE committee such activities included: organized
activities during 1969 year; .....pioneer home organization in the
capital welcomes and sees off every day hundreds of children. In the
Pioneer home train regularly twice a week 32 groups in 8 different
disciplines-athletics, acrobatics, tourism, basketball, volleyball,
football and tennis..... (13).
Sport tournaments
Once every four years sports tournament were held
beginning from schools level and furthering into team level in town’s
sporting activities (qualitative and quantitative sporting activities
were held only after the liberation of the country and it included
many disciplines). The goal of sport tournaments was increasing
sport participation and discovering and maintaining young athletes
with perspective in different types of sports including athletics,
gymnastics, volleyball, basketball and football (15). Such sporting
organizations were held also in honor of different commemorative
occasions such as with the 1964 tournament where (citing);.... in
Tirana (the capital of Albania) were held the liberation tournament
games (year 1964), which marks the first phase of the sporting
activity between schools organized in honor of the great jubilee- the
20 anniversary of the liberation of the country and the 350
anniversary of the establishment of Tirana.... (15).
The first tournament for pioneers was held on 20-25 July in
1957, at “Qemal Stafa” pioneers’ residential home in Durres, in 9
types of sports with the participation of 586 pupils (376 boys and
210 girls) from 11 districts. The different disciplines have changed
with each year from 9 types in 7, 6 and 5 types of sports these few
last years. The biggest attendance was during 11-th Tournament in
1974 with 1384 pioneers participating. The types of sports activities
have complied with the respective federation rules. Local and
national tournaments are held in two days consecutively. In the
preparation of priority sports such as basketball, volleyball etc. there
is a chain system used along with sport classes and pioneers
organizations whereas for other sports entering the tournament there
were no such systems (14).
32
Democratic system period (post-communist era) 1990- 2015
Physical education system during this period has gone
through phases of changes concerning the structure of class
distribution, years of study and almost the same division of
disciplines of the subject.
Until 2010 the physical education system hasn’t seen any
substantial changes (19) as far as subject matter, school cycle
divisions or the duration of physical education classes (Fig 5 and 6).
Prior to this period the division has been almost the same with the
communist era where physical education was held twice a week with
duration of 45 minutes for each class. Later such structure (division
of school years and teaching) went through significant changes.
The 2010-2011 curriculums went through some changes as far
as the distribution of physical education classes in particular the
Secondary low cycle where PE subject was divided in two curricula:
the core curriculum and the free-choice curriculum.
1. Core curriculum/ obligatory (grade 10- 2 times per week;
grade 11- 1 time per week; grade 12-0 times per week)
2. Free-choice curriculum(grade 10-1 time per week;grade11-
1 time per week; grade 12-1 time per week)
During this period it is evident that there is a decrease of classes in
the weekly course schedule for physical education as far as
secondary education.
33
The content (academic year/terms 1996-2000) of disciplines
according to the program as well as the distribution table of classes
(16; 17; 18) along the many years has remained almost the same.
Below it is displayed the program content disciplines;
1. Knowledge of physical education (during the teaching
process)
2. Popular games (during the teaching process)
3. Skills and basic motor activities ( division according to
grade)
34
4. Manipulative movement skills (division according to grade)
5. Rhythmic dancing (division according to grade)
6. Sporting motor skills; free-choice depending on the
conditions and resources of the schools (basketball,
volleyball, handball, athletics, gymnastics, skiing, football)
The content of disciplines according to the program as well as
the distribution table of classes (19) for grade VI (academic year
2005-2006). Distribution of classes according to the content was
carried out in accordance with the real conditions of sporting
grounds, sporting materials as well as geographical location of the
school.
PE Disciplines contents;
1. Knowledge of physical education (during the teaching
process)
2. Basic motor movements
3. Manipulative movement skills with and without the use
of tools
4. Motor skills games
5. Rhythmic dancing
6. Gymnastics
7. Volleyball
8. Athletics
9. Football
10. Basketball
11. Badminton
12. Ping-Pong
13. Handball
The 2014 year is a golden period for physical education and
is the most valuable reform from the Albanian Ministry of Education
and Sports, including 3 times per week obligatory PE classes taught
by physical education teacher.
35
Conclusion
During the Albanian kingdom period it is hard to come by
information on the organization and functioning of the physical
education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure
time or participation in sport activities. In this period there were only
voluntary sporting activities. During the communist era, for the
young generation physical education, preparing for work and for
defense was a matter of great political and ideological importance.
Analyzing this period it could be said that the political influence
(from the communist party) had a major influence in the primary
targets of physical education. Physical education system during
democratic period (post communist era) has gone through phases of
changes concerning the structure of class distribution, years of study
and almost the same division of disciplines of the subject. Academic
term of 2014-2015 is the most valuable reform in physical education
where in every study cycle physical education is 3 times per week
with duration of 45 minutes per each class.
36
REFERENCES
(1) Miço, K (2012) Sporti shqiptar në 100 vjet. Komiteti i KP,
BFSSH. Gazeta Shekulli 03.12.2012 Tiranë
(2) Dizdari, B (2012) Themelimet e mëdha të sportit shqiptar në 100
vjet Gazeta Panorama Sport 28.10.2012 Tiranë
http://www.panorama-sport.com/opinion/themelimet-e-medha-te-
sportit-shqiptar-ne-100-vjet/#ixzz3NmKdëDLm
(3) Gogo, G (1935) Ushtrohem çdo mëngjez. Ushtrime gjimnastike
dhe këshilla (për nxënësit e shkolllave fillore, djem), marrë nga
seminari në gjimnastika për shkolla fillore prof.dr Sippel i
shkollës së lartë të edukatës fizike dhe të lartë në Berlin.
Minerva, Tiranë
(4) Sporti Popullor (1967) Për një zhvillim të mëtejshëm të
fiskulturës e sporteve në masat e rinisë. 13.6. 1967; fq 4
(5) Sporti Popullor (1969) Mendime të mësuesve të edukimit fizik.
21.1.1969; fq 3.
(6) Maçi, E (1969). Masave punonjëse dhe rinisë u janë krijuar
kushte shumë të mira për edukimin fizik. Sporti Popullor;
18.11.1969, fq 4
(7) Marko, A (1969). Kultura Fizike është kthyer në një lëvizje të
gjerë massive në luftë me prapambetjen dhe konceptet e huaja
Sporti Popullor; 11.11.1969, fq 4
(8) Sirinxhi, N (1974). Puna me masat e fëmijëve dhe me shkollat
sportive është detyrë e përhershme Gazeta “Sporti Popullor:.
29.1.1974, fq 3
(9) Sporti Popullor (1989). Sa e rrënjos shkolla te rinia edukatën
fizike për tu marrë përhere me sport; 3.1.1989, fq 2.
(10) Methasani, D (1989). Veprimtaritë sportive me nivel u
përgjigjen kërkesave të nxënësve; Dibër. Gazeta “Sporti
Popullor:. 9.1.1989, fq 2.
37
(11) Sporti Popullor (1989). Shkolla dhe ushtria qëndra të zhvillimit
të kulturës fizike e sporteve; 1.4.1989, fq 2.
(12) Domini, A (1969) Qendër e kalitjes dhe edukimit fizik të
fëmijëve; Sporti Popullor 21.1.1969, fq 2
(13) Vasjari, F (1969). Fiskultura dhe sporti në jetën e përditshme të
fëmijëve. Sporti Popullor; 7.1.1969, fq 4
(14) Hatibi, B (1989). Si mund të zhvillohen spartakiadat? Mendime,
problem. Gazeta “Sporti Popullor; 23.1.1989, fq 2.
(15) Sporti Popullor (1964). Rreth 600 nxënës në aktivitet;
20.10.1964, fq 3
(16) Ministria e Arsimit (1996). Programi i edukimit fizik për klasat
V-VIII të shkollës 8 vjeçare
(17) Ministria e Arsimit (1996). Programi i edukimit fizik për
shkollat e mesme
(18) Instituti i studimeve pedagogjike (2000). Programet e shkollës 8
vjeçare, klasat V-VIII
(19) Instituti i kurrikulave dhe standarteve (2005). Programe lëndore,
shkolla 9 vjeçare, klasa VI.
38
CROATIA
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
CROATIA
Dario Škegro, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb
Zrinko Čustonja, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb
Correspondence
Dario Škegro [email protected]
Phone: +38513658666
Introduction
Roots of physical education in Croatia go back in the
middle of the 19-th century. Political situation in Croatia at that time
was complicated. Croatia was under the Habsburg Empire until 1967
when Austro-Hungarian Empire was founded. The beginnings of
physical education as non-compulsory subject are related to Istrian
and Dalmatian area, which were under the Austrian ruling. The non-
compulsory subject named in various terms begun to conduct in
schools of Istria and Dalmatia in 1848. (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2004)
Due to the political context this was the year of revolution in
Hungary and the beginning of development of Croatia as modern
society. In Istrian and Dalmatian schools physical education became
obligatory subject in 1868 as in Austria. Three years later, in 1871
physical education becomes obligatory in Croatian Military Border
due to the need to educate soldiers in strengthening, fencing and
swimming. (Jajčević, 2010). Finally in 1874 Physical education was
introduced in Croatian civil (middle-class, lower secondary school or
higher elementary school) and plebeian (early) elementary school
curricula in the Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. This
was how the development of physical education in Croatia started.
After more than 20 years of unsuccessful trials physical education
classes as obligatory subject was implemented in schools in all of the
triune Kingdom of Croatia (Janković, 1954).
39
After introduction of physical education as compulsory
subject in school curricula new problem rise up. There were no
educated personnel for conducting physical education classes and
there was urgent need for organization of courses to resolve this
trouble mater. Courses for conducting physical education classes
were held in 1875, 1877, 1878 and 1880 in Zagreb and two were
held in Velika Gorica in 1878 and Osijek in 1880. One of the most
important moments in history of physical education in Croatia is
organization of “Course for gymnastic teachers” organized and
managed by Franjo Bučar “father of sport in Croatia” in Zagreb from
1894 till 1896. Besides Mr. Bučar there are few more important
persons that affected development of physical education in Croatia
such as Fridrich (Miroslav) Singer, Andrija Hajdinak and Frantisek
Hochman. Great impact on development of physical education in
Croatia had Croatian Sokol movement. Due to the fact that Croatian
Sokol was founded in 1874, the same year that physical education
became obligatory subject in Croatian schools; its role in
establishing Croatian physical education system was inevitable.
The aim of this paper is to give an overview of events and
important activities in development of physical education in Croatia.
Roots and beginnings of physical education are correlated with other
social and political factors of that time. But at the end, despite the
fact that Croatia lived in dynamic and complicated political
ambience it is necessary to conclude that system of physical
education in Croatia followed trends of development of PE in Europe
at that time.
Attempts to introduce Physical Education in Croatia
There are few findings (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003;
Čustonja & Jajčević, 2004; Čustonja & Mavrek, 2004; Bobić &
Čustonja, 2005) that point out that phenomenon of physical exercise
of school children has been present in Croatia since 1797 when the
decision of Zagreb County by which public works were approved to
build playgrounds for “recreationi iuventutis scholastiea” (recreation
of the school youth) was made. However, there is no evidence or any
detailed explanations on the background of this Decision but it can
be concluded that this was very progressive attitude on exercise
(physical education) at that time in Croatia because there was only
40
few people in Croatia that were involved in physical exercise. At that
time the Kingdom of Croatia was under the state-constitutional
relationship with the Habsburg Empire (since 1527 till 1867). “Ratio
educationis” was document from 1777 that defined educational
system of the empire and later there were two more documents in
form of decree named “Ratio educationis publicae” from 1806 and
“Systema scholarum elementarium” from 1845. These documents
did not address physical education in any way. It is important to
mention that this period was also time of beginning of development
of sport in Croatia. In 1784 and two years later, in 1786 first sport
organizations were established The Osijek Civil Shooting Society
and The Zagreb Civil Shooting Society. The origins of oldest records
on organized physical education classes are from the Croatian
Military Border dated from 1828 when Austrian, German and Czech
gymnastic teachers educated “strong youngster” in military exercise
on German gymnastic system principals.
Picture 1: Ratio Educationis (source: google.com)
The proposal of the law on education, “Basics of Principal
Rules for Public Instruction in Croatia and Slavonia” (“Osnove
temeljnih pravila javnog obučavanja za Hrvatsku i Slavoniju”) was
first serious attempt to organize an advance education in Civil
Croatia in 1848. The committee appointed by Croatian Parliament
had the task to prepare a proposal of the law which will regulate the
schooling system in the Civil Croatia. The result of the committees
work is earlier mentioned „Basics“(Cuvaj, 1910). According to the
“Basics” physical education was supposed to be compulsory subject
in elementary and secondary schools. However, the political
41
developments in 1948 and 1849, the revolution against Magyars and
other political and social circumstances implementation of this law
was never done. Nevertheless, the “Basics” from 1848 are the first so
far known written source on compulsory PE teaching in the schools
of the Civil Croatia. The education public criticized the proposed
“Basics” severely, but no objection was registered for the concept of
the PE (Cuvaj, 1910). It is not possible to recognize from the text of
“Basics” how the implementation of physical education is supposed
to be carried out. There is hypothesis that this proposal of law on
education was made upon the role model of Prussian education law
where compulsory physical education classes were introduced in
1842. Austria was the first of Habsburg Monarchy states that
introduced physical education as non-compulsory subject in schools
in 1848. The “Basics” were the first autonomous legislative attempt
to organize schooling in Croatia (Bobić & Čustonja, 2005).
Before the Croatian parliament was dissolved in 1861, three
separate discussions regarding elementary, grammar and modern
schools were recorded. These discussions resulted with proposition
of the law where Physical education is compulsory subject in school
curricula. Unfortunately, due to political reasons Habsburg emperor
Francis Joseph I. decided to dissolve Croatian parliament and in that
way introduction of physical education in Croatian schools in 1861
was disabled (Čustonja & Škegro, 2011). Similar attempt occurs in
1865. In October 1865 Franjo Rački, Croatian historian, politician
and writer founded the Teachers’ Association in Zagreb, the first
society of that kind in Croatia. Their main project was elaboration of
the „Constitution of elementary school in the Triune
Kingdom“(“Ustav pučke škole u Trojednoj Kraljevini”). Among
other things, PE instruction was included in the list of the elementary
school subjects. The longest and most detailed description of the
planned PE instruction was described in this document. “The
purpose of gymnastics in elementary school is strengthening of the
body, development of movement agility, training of senses, proper
body posture, exact assessment of resistance and strength needed,
and skilful group routines. Not a definite number of hours has been
allocated to gymnastics, but youngsters should exercise according to
the circumstances – one or two hours every week outside the regular
schedule. In rural communities gymnastic exercises consist of
natural movements: running, jumping, jumping over, and racing in,
42
running, throwing, shooting, and climbing up and down, lifting,
wrestling, and so on. Therefore, each school should have spacious
playgrounds with trees on it, where children can play alone or under
control of teachers. Only in the municipal higher elementary schools,
if circumstances allow it, systematic gymnastics will be
implemented. Wherever there are opportunities, the young should be
instructed in swimming.” (Cuvaj, 1910) Unfortunately,
“Constitution” was never adopted as law in Croatian parliament
despite the fact that it was document with great support of
professional public (Čustonja & Škegro, 2011).
First teachers of physical education in Croatia
Fridrich Singer was Austrian officer who was first teacher
of physical education in Croatia. Later he changed his name to
Croatian version Miroslav. Singer taught non-compulsory PE at the
Lower Modern School in Croatian city Rijeka since May in 1855.
His Austrian roots and education in German gymnastic system were
good reference for his later advancement (Škegro & Čustonja, 2014).
In 1857 Josip Premru, principal of one of the Zagreb High Schools
decided to introduce non-obligatory classes of physical education in
his school. His correspondence with military authorities, where he
asked for physical education teacher recommendation, resulted with
arrival of Adalbert Brüll in Zagreb to teach. Unfortunately, Adalbert
Brüll stayed in Zagreb only for two months and then left this job
probably because of low income and poor interest by students for
physical education classes. After certain failure of first attempt to
organize non-compulsory classes of physical education in Zagreb,
earlier mentioned Josip Premru and Josip Torbar, principals of two
Zagreb high schools, are writing to Miroslav Fridrich Singer inviting
him to Zagreb to teach physical education (Cuvaj 1910). His arrival
to Zagreb in 1859 was the beginning of serious development of
physical education and kinesiology in Zagreb. He set first
gymnasium for the physical education classes and for physical
exercise in Zagreb in the Modern Secondary School. Low income
forced him to live in a part of the gymnasium until his death on
November 4, 1876.
As stated previously work of Miroslav Singer was not
important only in development of physical education but in
43
development of sport and exercise movement in Croatia in that time.
His involvement in foundation of Croatian Sokol movement was
very significant, due to the fact that Sokol movement in Croatia was
main organization in gathering Croatian youth interested in physical
exercise and sport. Singer’s role in Sokol movement was related to
the fact that he was creator of the first rules in Sokol and also he was
the first teacher of physical exercise in Sokol. The gymnasium where
he teaches physical education was also playground for Sokol
members and their activities. After Rijeka and Zagreb physical
education as non-obligatory subject is present in schools in Zadar,
Karlovac, Split, Varaždin, Rakovac and Samobor.
Introduction of Compulsory Physical Education in Croatia
Under the influence of social and political changes in
Croatia at that time all the preconditions were fulfilled for the new
stage of development in Croatian society. In 1868 Croatian –
Hungarian settlement has been adopted. This document guarantied
Croatian people autonomy in certain fields of governing. One of the
areas of autonomy was domain of education so the Croatian –
Hungarian settlement was sort of prerequisite for the new stage of
development of Croatian educational system. Beginnings of
education of trained personnel for conducting physical education
classes in Croatia, as previously stated, are related to the year 1874.
This was the year when the first law on education was adopted by
Croatian Parliament.
People’s party (Narodna stranka) won the elections in 1873 and its
president Ivan Mažuranić (1814-1890) became, from 1973 till 1880
Croatian Ban, key political figure in country. His work was focused
on development of Croatian society in cultural, governmental,
educational and economical way. During April 1874, a conference
was held on the reorganisation of elementary schools in Autonomous
Banovina of Croatia, which was summond and presided personally
by the Croatian Ban Ivan Mažuranić. On the basis of the proposal of
the legislative foundation for establishment of plebeian (elementary)
schools, made by the Principal of the Government Office for
Religious Affairs and Teaching Pavao Muhić, PhD, and his
counsellor Janko Jurković, the "Outline of the Law on Organisation
of Plebeian Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the
44
Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia" («Osnova zakona ob ustrojstvu
pučkih škola i preparandija za pučko učiteljstvo u kraljevinah
Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji») was prepared at the Conference. The Ban
Ivan Mažuranić submitted the Outline to the Sabor in August 1874
(Cuvaj, 1910). On September 8, 1874, the Croatian Sabor passed,
after vivid and substantial discussion, the Law on Organisation of
Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the Kingdoms
of Croatia and Slavonia, and the Emperor Francis Joseph I. ratified
the Law on October 14, 1874. It was the first law which regulated
education in Croatia. Among other things, a four-year
comprehensive, all-inclusive compulsory education was introduced,
elementary schools became general and public, they were exempted
from the church control, and the compulsory PE was introduced. The
law in its integrity was evaluated as one of the most progressive law
on elementary school in the then Europe (Ogrizović, 1989;
Dumbović, 1999).
Picture 2: Law on Organisation of Plebeian Elementary Schools and Teacher
Training Schools in the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia (source: google.com)
There were few problems in realization of adopted law
especially in the field of physical education. There were only few
45
teachers of physical education in Croatia that could conduct physical
education classes despite the fact that they did not have any
education in that way. Other problems were professional literature,
professional terminology adapted to Croatian language, lack of
playgrounds, gymnasiums and appropriate equipment. Still the first
and the biggest problem was chronic lack of educated personnel for
conducting physical education classes. Croatian government tried to
solve this problem by introducing physical education into curriculum
of teacher training colleges so for the next three years students were
educated in the field of physical education too. Beside this
intervention, the period of three years to wait newly educated
personel for physical education was to long for wait so there was
another system of training for Physical education. Short training
courses for the elementary school teachers that already taught at the
schools.
The same year when the law is adopted, Croatian Sokol is
founded. Sokol was a citizen society for physical exercise. First
teacher of exercise in Sokol was earlier mentioned Miroslav Fridrich
Singer, the first teacher of physical education in Croatia. Therefore,
he organised and was a teacher on two month course to educate next
year teachers of physical education to be able to give instructions to
children in that subject as well. They were supposed to perform
various exercises in walking, running and jumping and also on
apparatus like rings, bar, pole and rope. Despite the fact that students
had just two months of practising, result were more than satisfactory.
Beside physical exercise classes students had theoretical lectures as
well. All of these information’s can be found in the Croatian Official
Gazette, No. 172, from July 30, 1875 in the article titled “Physical
exercise examination” (Radan, 1984). This was the first course for
Physical education teachers in Croatia. Apart from Singer, there
were several domestic enthusiasts, teachers of other subjects, who
took their own initiative to gather pupils in their schools in free time
and conduct exercise sessions, the most prominent among them
being Andrija Hajdenjak. After the death of Miroslav Singer in 1876,
František Hochman, of Czech origins, came to Zagreb to be
appointed the Singer's successor as a teacher in the Croatian Falcon
and in schools of Zagreb. With his arrival the Bohemian (Czech)
gymnastic system replaced in Croatia the previously generally
implemented German gymnastic system. F. Hochman, who brought
46
new élan and denoted a strong step forward in PE promotion,
continued with PE training courses in order to qualify more persons
for PE teaching in schools. So he started with organising a six-week
course in winter of 1877 and a month-long course in summer of 1878
and continued with courses in the years to come. A course was held
in Velika Gorica in 1877, and in Osijek in 1880 for teachers outside
Zagreb. Together with A. Hajdenjak, F. Hochman started the first
professional journal "Falcon" in 1878, which was being published
for one year. In 1890 the journal "Gimnastika"/Gymnastics" was
launched (Janković, 1954; Radan, 1970; Radan, 1984; Čustonja &
Jajčević, 2003).
Picture 3: František Hochman (Source: Croatian sports museum)
It can be concluded that there was two parallel systems of
physical education teachers training introduced in 1875. Short
training courses for the elementary school teachers that already
taught at the schools and introduction of Gymnastic as an obligatory
course/subject at the teachers training colleges (Škegro & Čustonja,
2014). In the period from 1875 till 1880 six different courses was
organized to fulfill the needs for educated personnel for physical
education.
47
The two-year course for the secondary schools PE teachers in
1894–1896 – The first high school (college) of PE in Croatia
First training courses, held under the leadership of F./M.
Singer and later F. Hochman, were scheduled for teachers with the
plebeian (early elementary) and civil/ middle class (late elementary)
schools. The act on the introduction of PE as a compulsory subject in
secondary schools resulted in the increased needs for PE teachers.
The Croatian Falcon took the responsibility to train expert teachers
in the beginning and was granted a month lump sum from the
Government as remuneration for the organization expenses and care.
Yet, it had only short-term and temporary effects. Just a few persons
were able, like Vladimir Novak, to participate in courses for PE
teachers and to get their qualification abroad. Vladimir Novak was
educated in Prague and, in fact, was one the first PE teacher with
higher education diploma in Croatia who taught PE in cities of Split
and Tuzla. He wrote several professional textbooks, among which
"Short instruction on physiology of gymnastics" was published in
Split in 1898 (Radan, 1984).
Twenty years after the compulsory PE classes had been
introduced into the Croatian elementary schools, Franjo Bučar
(1866-1946), "a father of Croatian sport", entered the ‘historical
arena’. His name was related to almost any significant event in the
area of sport and Physical Education in Croatia from the end of the
19th
century to the middle of the 20th
century. He was the first Croat
in the membership of the International Olympic Committee (1920-
1946).
48
Picture 4: Franjo Bučar (Source: Croatian sports museum)
In 1892 Professor Isidor Kršnjavi, Ph.D., the Principal
(Minister) of the Department of Religious Affairs and Teaching of
the Country Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia sent
Franjo Bučar to Sweden for his education. The aim was to educate
an expert who would be ready to transfer his knowledge to his
compatriots. While Bučar was studying in Sweden, Prof. Kršnjavi
was preparing the terrain for the introduction of the Swedish
gymnastic system in Croatia. Namely, the then Croatian Vice-Roy
Khuén Hédérvary considered the Swedish gymnastic system was
neutral enough from the aspect of national feelings and it should,
hopefully, decrease political influence of the Croatian Falcon and the
Bohemian gymnastic system, soaked-through with national feelings,
on the Croatian youth. Bučar’s noticeable role in the history of
Croatian sport started in 1894 after he had returned from his two-
year education at the Royal Central Gymnastic College in Stockholm
(Sweden). Upon his return, Franjo Bučar got his first assignment – to
organize and manage a two-year Course for Secondary School
Gymnastic Teachers (1894-1896). In fact, it was the first high school
(college) of PE in Croatia and in this region of Europe (Radan,
1984).
The first idea of F. Bučar was a two-year training course for
secondary school PE teachers in the form of a permanent university
49
course. The course was planned for those students that "study for
teachers of secondary schools, like in Austria, Hungary and
Germany, so that they enter such a biannual course, while they're at
the university, where they, along with other subjects can listen
gymnastics as well" (Bučar, 1896).
Eventually it was decided that the first generation of the
two-year course for PE teacher would be elementary school teachers
who will be granted a permission to work as secondary school
teachers of PE after their successful completion of that training
course. About 60 elementary school teachers applied for the course
and 30 of them were selected. Among them only one female applied
and was selected. It was Ivana Hirschmann. All elementary school
teachers were treated as full-time students and all of them received a
sort of scholarship in a form of full elementary school teacher salary
(Bučar, 1896).
The curriculum and syllabus, devised by Franjo Bučar, were
modern and comparable to any curriculum of the most popular
European schools of the time. As role models Bučar used the similar
course syllabuses from Stockholm (Sweden), Oslo (Norway),
Copenhagen (Denmark), Berlin (Germany), Vienna (Austria) and
Prague (Czech). The course started on October 1,, 1894. In the four-
semester course thirty attenders took 16 theoretical and practical
course subjects: Gymnastics (time allocation per week: 6 hours of
exercise + 2 hours of theoretical classes), Sabre (5+1), Foil (3+1),
History of Gymnastics (1), Seminar in Gymnastics (1), Practice –
exercise with the secondary school students (3), Military Gymnastics
(2), Anatomy and Physiology (3), First Aid (1), School Hygiene (1),
Games (2), Ice Skating and Skiing (2), Fire-fighting (2), Swimming,
Excursions and Dances (Bučar, 1896).
In almost ideal conditions, provided by Isidor Kršnjavi, the
Principal (Minister) of the Department of Religious Affairs and
Teaching of the Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia,
Bučar managed to incite interest of the Course attenders in many
sports and games previously unknown in Croatia. Certain contents
were taught and shown for the first time in Croatia, like football,
figure skating, ice hockey, field hockey, skiing, sleighing, cricket,
and fencing foil. Simultaneously, the body of knowledge and skills
was expanded on swordsmanship, tennis, exercises on apparatuses,
cycling, athletics, bocce playing and other sport disciplines. During
50
the course over 80 games for children were demonstrated (Bučar,
1896).
School practice was conducted during all semesters in
Zagreb's secondary schools. First, student-teachers taught smaller
classes and later the whole classes. History of PE was taught
according to the Löffler’s book "Gymnastics for teachers and teacher
trainees" and some foreign authors like Scheiner and Euler. At
gymnastics seminars, the course participants were acquainted with
the domestic and foreign literature.
Picture 5: Students and professors of the Course (Source: Croatian sports museum)
As Isidor Kršnjavi soon had to step down as head of the
Department of Education and Religious Affairs, the duration of the
course from the four planned was shortened to three semesters. The
classes were delivered until March 25, 1896. On March 31st final
exams were held. All attenders passed the final exam. They were
trained in teaching PE in secondary schools. Seven of them were
immediately appointed as teachers in secondary schools, while
others were promised that they will be appointed later. Before he
retired from his position, I. Kršnjavi provided budget funding for
salaries of the seven new PE teachers, as well as support for the
construction of new gymnastic halls and, for all the schools to which
51
new teachers were assigned, some basic equipment and supplies for
games and fencing equipment.
The course attenders passed the final examinations and as qualified
PE teachers and professionals in sport returned to their hometowns.
Although the Swedish gymnastic system was never officially
introduced in the Croatian educational system and the Czech Sokol
system remained predominant gymnastic system, "some Swedish
equipment (ladders, benches) became regular equipment in Croatian
schools’ gymnastic halls and also more attention was given to sports
and sports games in school curricula" (Radan, 1970). The two-year
course for PE teachers is very important in the historical
development of PE in Croatia. One of the most important legacies of
the Course lies in the fact that F. Bučar and Course attenders
managed to increase very quickly the quality of PE and sport in
Croatia.
Credits goes to them and their efforts in promoting and
improving reputation of sport, which resulted in not only inclusion of
numerous sports and sporting games in the school curricula, but in
the introduction of numerous sports to schools as extracurricular
activities and in the establishment of first sport organizations.
Unquestionable are credits to Franjo Bučar and contribution of for
his contribution to the foundations of modern sport in Croatia.
Kršnjavi introduced numerous measures to improve working
conditions of PE teachers both in the elementary and secondary
schools. He appointed Franjo Bučar the principal adviser on the
construction and maintenance of gymnasia and playgrounds in
Croatia. No new school could have been built without a gymnasium
and playground. It was a legal obligation of financiers to provide
construction of gymnasia and playgrounds according to the
determined standards (1-2 m2 of the indoor and 4.5 m
2 of the outdoor
space per pupil) (Croatian Official Gazette, 1892).
In several decades that were to come, the course attenders
were, together with Franjo Bučar, the most agile participants and
organizers of sporting events in Croatia while they were
simultaneously performing their routine teaching tasks in schools
across Croatia. The true social and historical value of the Course for
the development of PE and sport in Croatia of the time can be seen in
the fact that Isidor Kršnjavi, due to the political causes, but mostly
due to the effects of the Course, was forced to resign from the
52
position of the principal of the Department of Religious Affairs and
Teaching of the Country Government of Croatia, Slavonia and
Dalmatia. His successor abolished any vocational training of PE
teachers. Over 45 years should have passed and four systems of
government should have been changed before PE teacher training
was re-established in Croatia (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003).
Physical education in Croatia in 20-th century
Despite the cancellation of the Course for the secondary
school gymnastic teachers, its successes and achievements of the
trained personnel aroused enormous interest of pedagogues and
sport-related persons within and outside of Croatia. So, at the request
of the Polish Falcon (Sokol) from Lavov, the Course of Swedish
Gymnastics and Modern Sports for their front men was organized in
Zagreb in 1902. Seventeen front men of the Polish Falcon (Sokol),
under the leadership of the well-known Polish educator and
gymnastic teacher Edmund Cenar, participated in an eight-day
course. Sixteen attenders from Bulgaria, among which 9 women,
participated in the similar course, organized by the Croatian Sokol in
Zagreb in 1910. Franjo Bučar was the most prominent lecturer at the
Course for Gymnastic Games, organized in Sarajevo in 1908, with
more than 40 participants (Radan, 1984). However, these were
sporadic, unsystematic and insufficient activities in the area of
vocational training of personnel in PE and sport and they could not
contribute considerably to stronger development of Croatian sport in
the first half of the 20th
century.
The first trade organization for PE – the association of
Gymnastic Teachers of Croatia and Slavonia – was established in
Zagreb in 1896, with the purpose to protect interests of PE teachers.
Franjo Bučar was the president of the Society Management Board.
Two years later, in 1898, the Society for Physical Education was
founded. Unfortunately, their activity had a small effect on practice
and they made little progress. Yet, nothing could stop the fast
growing popularity of modern sport. More and more sport clubs and
associations of different sport disciplines were established. The
Croatian Sport Association was founded in 1909.
The situation did not change considerably after the First
World War, breakdown of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and
53
establishment of a new state – the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and
Slovenes, Later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Compulsory PE was
reintroduced in elementary and secondary schools in 1920 and there
was again a shortage of qualified PE and sport personnel – the
vocational training became a fundamental issue once more. Until
1941 PE training courses (Youth Games Course and Course for
Games and Gymnastics) were being organized only from time to
time, whereas most PE teacher training activities in Croatia between
the two World Wars were related to regular front men courses in the
Croatian Falcon until its abolishment in 1929. From 1927 a PE study
was accessible for students enrolled in the University of Zagreb
Faculty of Arts (Philosophy) as the Study Group C (Minor C).
However, the issue of the high school of PE was perpetually on the
agenda. For example, Franjo Bučar actualized the need to establish
such an educational institution in 1919: «It is self-understanding that
we would be soon forced to initiate immediate foundation of the
Central Institute of Gymnastics in the Kingdom the purpose of which
would be to assume responsibility to systematically and gradually
train future PE teachers … the school should last two years or four
semesters with the perspective to improve and expand to four years
or 8 semesters … " (Franjo Bučar, Tjelesni odgoj u školi i sokolstvu.
Sokolski glasnik, Zagreb, Vol. I/1919, p. 385, according to Radan,
1984.) The issue was also addressed at the I. Congress of the
Association of Sport Federations in 1930 and several times later.
Eventually, in 1940, a decree was issued on foundation of the High
School of PE in Zagreb. The instruction began in March 1941.
Unfortunately, winds of the Second World War interrupted work of
the School in April of the same year (Radan, 1984).
The Higher School of Physculture (physical culture, i.e. PE)
was initiated immediately upon the ending of the Second World War
in 1945, but was dissolved the next year. Instead of it the Secondary
Physculture School was established in Zagreb in 1947. From the year
1948 higher education of personnel in PE and sport (two-year or
associate degree) was organized at the Teacher Training College in
Zagreb like a two-subject course of study. In 1959 it became a one
subject two-year course of pre-professional study of physical
education.
54
Physical education in Croatia today
The Institute of Physical Culture was established in Zagreb
in 1952 to improve scientific and professional research in the field of
PE and sport. But, several unsuccessful initiatives were launched
before the Parliament of the Peoples Republic of Croatia passed the
Law on the High School of Physical Culture in Zagreb on July 7,
1959. Thus, eighty-five years after the compulsory PE classes had
been introduced in elementary schools of Croatia; the educational
institution was eventually founded with the purpose to provide
quality professional training for personnel in PE and sport. The
teaching at the High School of Physical Culture started officially on
November 3, 1959. There were 58 men and 16 women in the first
generation of students. The part-time study for sports coaches
(associate degree) was launched in the academic year 1965/1966.
The study operated effectively until the 1998/1999 academic year
when was transformed into the Coach Training and Education
Department of the Social Sciences Polytechnics in Zagreb. On
October 31, 1967, the High School (College) of Physical Culture was
incorporated into the University of Zagreb. The postgraduate study
programmes (Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees)
were launched at the High School in the 1971/1972 academic year.
The High School of Physical Culture changed its name to the Faculty
of Physical Culture (Education) University of Zagreb. By the
decision of the University of Zagreb Senate, reached on January 16,
2001, the Faculty of PE has changed its name once again, this time
to the Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb.
55
REFERENCES
Bobić, G., & Čustonja, Z. (2005). Early begginings of Physical
Education in Croatia. In D. Milanović & F. Prot (Eds.),
Proceedings Book of the 4th International Scientific
Conference ”Science and Profession – Challenge for the
Future”, Opatija, Croatia, Septemer 7–11, 2005 (pp. 757
– 760). Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.
Bučar, F. (1896). Izvještaj tečaja za učitelje gimnastike u Zagrebu od
1. X. 1894. do 1. IV. 1896. [Course for the Secondary
School Gymnastic Teachers from October 1st 1894 till
April 1st 1896 – A report. In Croatian.] Zagreb:
Kraljevska zemaljska vlada Hrvatske i Slavonije.
Čustonja, Z. & Jajčević, Z. (2003). Vocational Training of Personnel
for Sport and Physical Education in Croatia – a Historical
Overview. In S. Puhak & K. Kristić (Eds.) «Making Sport
Attractive for All» Proceedings Book of XVI European
Sports Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia, September, 24-
26, 2003, (pp. 216-224). Zagreb: Ministry of Science,
Education and Sports.
Čustonja, Z., & Škegro, D. (2011). Attempts to organize and
advance education in Civil Croatia in 1861 and 1865 and
position of Physical Education. In D. Milanović & G.
Sporiš (Eds.), Proceedings Book of the 6th International
Scientific Conference on Kinesiology, Opatija, September
2011 (pp. 383-386). Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.
Čustonja, Z., Jajčević, Z. (2004). Donošenje zakona i preustroj
osnovnog školstva 1874. godine – uvođenje obavezne
nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture u osnovne škole na
području Banske Hrvatske. U: V. Findak (ur.) Zbornik
radova 13. ljetne škole kineziologa Republike Hrvatske,
Rovinj, 19. do 23. lipnja 2004., str. 77-81.
Čustonja, Z., S. Mavrek (2004). Introduction of Obligatory Physical
Education Classes into Croatian Primary Schools. IXth
56
International Congress of Sport History, September, 23-
26, 2004, Crotone, Italy,, p.34.
Cuvaj, A. (1910). Sources of the history of education in the
kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonija from the ancient times
till nowadays (In Croatian). Vol. I-XI. Zagreb: Kraljevska
hrvatska-slavonska-dalmatinska zemaljska vlada, Odjel za
bogoštovlje i nastavu.
Dumbović, I. (1999). Razvoj pedagoške misli u Hrvatskoj. U: A.
Mijatović (ur.) Osnove suvremene pedagogije, str, 81-100.
Jajčević, Z. (2010). Povijest športa i tjelovježbe. Zagreb: Društveno
veleučilište u Zagrebu I Kineziološki fakulteta Sveučilišta
u Zagrebu.
Janković, V. (1954). Iz prošlosti fizičkog odgoja u školama
Hrvatske. Zagreb: Društvo učitelja, nastavnika i profesora
fizičkog odgoja NR Hrvatske.
Ogrizović, M. (1989). Prilozi nacionalnoj povijesti pedagogije.
Zagreb: Školske novine.
Radan, Ž. (1970). Franjo Bučar i gimnastički i sportski pokret u
Hrvatskoj. [Franjo Bučar and gymnastic and sport
movement in Croatia. In Croatian.] Zagreb: Visoka škola
za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.
Radan, Ž. (1984). Uvod. [Introduction. In Croatian.] In E. Hofman
(Ed.), Faculty of Physical Education University of Zagreb
1959-1984 (pp. 3-8). Zagreb: Fakultet za fizičku kulturu
Sveučilišta u Zagrebu.
Royal Croatian, Slavonian and Dalmatian Country Government.
(1892). The Decree of the Royal Croatian, Slavonian and
Dalmatian Country Government, the Department for
Religious Affairs and Teaching, No. 5628-1892 from May
13, 1892. Croatian Official Gazette, 24, 11.
Škegro, D. & Čustonja, Z. (2014). The beginnings of education and
training for delivering physical education classes in
Croatia – 140 years of tradition. Kinesiology,
46(Supplement 1), 127-133.
57
CZECH REPUBLIC
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CZECH LANDS
Gabriela Štěrbová, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University
Olomouc
Petr Vlček, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University
Correspondence
Gabriela Štěrbová [email protected]
Phone: +420 728 920 665
Introduction
In the Czech lands, education has its tradition and deep roots.
Although the origins of formal education can be traced back to the
period of Samo’s empire (7th century A.D.), with certainty we can
speak of schooling in the era of Great Moravia (833–906/907).
However, education at that time was dedicated primarily to persons
associated with the Church and later on to lords (Kovaříček &
Kovaříčková, 1989).
The period of humanism in the Czech lands
It is generally known that in this period the value of human
beings was recognized not only in intellectual but also in physical
terms. Humanists referred back to Ancient Greece and Rome,
including the system of physical culture. There appeared theoretical
works from the field of physical education (henceforth P.E.), which
as a subject was implemented in several schools, yet in a non-
compulsory way. These humanistic ideas penetrated the Czech lands,
too. In so called “regiments of health” and school ordinances, which
58
were often translated from Latin and German, the value of physical
exercise was explained. These documents recommended staying in
the fresh air, healthy diet, hygiene and natural physical education.
Relatedly, the works of John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), a
prominent representative of late humanism, should be mentioned. In
a number of his works he addressed, directly or indirectly, the issues
of P.E. For example, Comenius mentioned the importance of games
and physical exercise for healthy development of a child, he gave
advice on ways of prolonging life, such as physical exercise, healthy
diet, alternating work and rest, he mentioned swimming, fencing and
other sports (these ideas can be found, for example, in Didactica
magna, Orbis sensualium pictus, Leges scholae bene ordinatae). In
his work Panorthosie he even suggested restoring the tradition of the
Olympic Games. The works of Comenius had a significant impact on
European Enlightenment teachers, philanthropists and their followers
in the nineteenth century (Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Kössl,
Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998).
The era of enlightened absolutism in the Czech lands
The ideas of the Enlightenment and related political, economic
and cultural changes gradually spread from Western Europe
countries to the Czech lands, in which they created preconditions for
a new stage of the development of education and schooling. In 1774,
on the initiative of the Enlightenment empress Maria Theresa
(reigned between 1740–1780), compulsory schooling for all children
aged 6–12 in the Austrian part was implemented. Until then,
education for girls was generally neglected (Kádner, 1912). The
author of the school reform was Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724–
1788), an abbot of the monastery of Sagan. According to the General
School Ordinance (Allgemeine Schulordnung), the education of
young people was crucial for the development of nations (Kádner,
1929).1 In 1777 a similar reform was implemented on the basis of the
1 Within basic education, this General School Ordinance distinguished rural schools
(the language of instruction was Czech, absences from school were tolerated, children were taught to read, write and count), “Main Schools” in towns and “Normal Schools”
in the cities of Prague and Brno (these had an extended curriculum of Main Schools
and included teacher education courses). In both Main Schools and Normal Schools the language of instruction was German (Kádner, 1929).
59
organization order Ratio Educationis in Hungary (including a part of
the present-day Slovakia) (Krátký, 1974). In 1775 the education in
grammar schools was also reformed, resulting in the state’s control
over grammar schools (Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989).
The Thereisan School Reform introduced the possibility of
physical exercise (games, natural exercise, etc.) and it recommended
that playgrounds and playing areas should be built, one near a school
and another close to the town or village. Some teachers, such as Jan
Jakub Ryba (1765–1815) or Josef Miloslav Rautenkranc (1776–
1817) supported this initiative. However, P.E. was not included in
the curriculum of compulsory education, which was caused mainly
by the influence of the Catholic Church (Novotný, 2006).
From “Schulkodex” to “Concordat”
After the death of the Enlightenment emperor Joseph II (the son
of Maria Theresa) the influence of the Church on education started to
regain strength. In 1805 (by passing so called Schulkodex), the
control over education shifted back to the Church. The efforts to
implement P.E. as a compulsory school subject was again weakened
(Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998; Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová,
2001). In 1848 the Exner-Bonitz Reform was realized, which
resulted in completing the organization of the system of secondary
education (for example, eight-year grammar schools emerged). Apart
from that, the inclusion of P.E. as a non-compulsory subject was
recommended. However, the actual decision depended on the school
principals and professors. After the revolutionary year 1848, in the
Habsburg Monarchy so called Bach’s absolutism (1851–1859) was
introduced. This resulted in slowing down the efforts to strengthen
the position of P.E. as a compulsory school subject and generally
limited the circulating of P.E.-related ideas in the society, which was
confirmed by the Concordat (an agreement between the Catholic
Church and the state) from 1855, which assigned the control over
education to the Church (Kádner, 1912; Kádner, 1929).
The Hasner reform
After the fall of Bach’s absolutism in the early sixties of the
nineteenth century, the tensions in the society eased somewhat.
60
Austria’s losses to Italy (1859) and Prussia (1866) seem to have
contributed to implementing P.E. as a compulsory subject in schools.
It was uncovered that the population, especially men, was in bad
physical condition. Generally, insufficient level of education was
reflected on, which resulted in realizing the Hasner reform in the
years 1867–1869. The reform wekened the influence of the Church
on education and established the Ministry of Education (Kultus
Ministerium) while passing the Imperial Basic Schools Act no. 62
from 14th
May 1869. Compulsory schooling was extended to 8 years
(from 6 to 14 years of age) for both girls and boys, and a new system
of basic schooling was established, replacing the Felbiger system.
The new system introduced “national schools”, which were divided
into a lower (five-year) stage and a higher (three-year) stage. After
finishing the lower stage, the learners could go to secondary schools
of the grammar school type, which were attended mostly by children
of the wealthy, and which were dedicated solely to boys (girls were
limited in their choice of state secondary schools, e.g. schools of
education, otherwise they had to attend mainly private schools,
which did not change until 1918) (Štekr, 1999; Základní škola –
Basic school, 2014).
P.E. was first implemented as a compulsory school subject in
basic schools with the time allocatoin of two lessons per week. In
1870 the school ordinance first defined the aims of P.E. as follows:
“the goal of P.E. is for schoolchildren to gain skillfulness,
confidence and courage, to enjoy order, to have self-confidence and
to be alive both in body and soul” (Reitmayer, 1972, 34). Clearly, the
health or aesthetic aspects were not expressed directly, thus we
cannot speak of P.E. in the full sense of the term. The curriculum
issued between 1874 and 1877, elaborated according to Spiess-Maul,
included floor exercise, marching exercise (for all grades), apparatus
gymnastics (from the third grade) while putting emphasis on
discipline. Only marginally were included games (without an
elaborated plan; they usually had a local character, such as folk and
simple games). The aim of P.E. was to improve the fitness of
prospective recruits.The curriculum soon ceased to be appealing,
which contributed to children’s dislike of P.E. In the context of
secondary education, P.E. was implemented as a compulsory school
subject in Bohemia in 1874 and five years later in Moravia. The first
curriculum for these schools was issued in 1875 only for Bohemia,
61
and four years later for all lands belonging to the Austrian part of the
Habsburg Monarchy. The curriculum in fact copied the Spiess-Maul
system (Reitmayer, 1972; Rychtecký & Fialová, 2004).
From the Taaffe reform to the formation of Czechoslovakia
In 1883, so called Taaffe reform was implemented. Due to this
reform the Church regained the control over education. The reform
slowed down the development of P.E. and education in general. For
girls at basic schools (both the lower and higher stages), P.E. became
a non-compulsory subject, which was effective until the end of the
First World War. Furthermore, school absence was tolerated for
various reasons, which included a reduction of the time allocated to
P.E. The standard of hygiene in P.E. school facilities was poor and
so was the health condition of the children. In addition, the
qualifications of P.E. teachers were not often very satisfactory
(Štekr, 1999).
Seven years later the situation improved due to an ordinance by
the minister Paul Gautsch, who was a member of Taaffe’s
government. Gautsch’s “Spielerlass” recommended implementing
non-compulsory games (mainly ball games) and also swimming and
skating. It also encouraged all state secondary schools to build sports
facilities (playgrounds, pitches, gyms etc.). In the 1890s, P.E.
gradually became a compulsory school subject at grammar schools.
Nevertheless in secondary schools for girls it was only after 1900
that P.E. became a non-compulsory subject (Kössl, Krátký, &
Marek, 1986). In 1911, a new P.E. curriculum for secondary schools
was issued. This curriculum was for boys; two years later a
curriculum for girls appeared. The curricula included floor exercise,
marching, apparatus gymnastics, and also natural athletic exercise
and games (performance-oriented). The curricula were inspired by
some elements of the Swedish system (P. H. Ling), from the most
part by the French system (Hébert, Demény, Racine), rhytmical P.E.,
the heyday of youth sport movement (Sokol2, Orel
3) and also by the
2 Sokol (in English Falcon) is a Czech sports movement and organization founded on
16th February 1862 in Prague by Miroslav Tyrš (1832 – 1884). This organization was
62
popularity of sports, both nationally and internationally (Czech
sportsmen and sportswomen took part in the Olympic Games). In
this respect, the new curricula seemed progressive as compared to
the former Spiess-Maul curriculum. There were some significant
changes for girls: the healthy and beautiful body was preferred
(including proper posture), emphasis was put on outside exercise, the
sense for smooth and elegant movement was developed as well as
physical strenght, courage, ability to react, and also the fondness for
physical exercise (Rychtecký & Fialová, 2004).
During the First World War both education in general and P.E.
specifically were dampened (a decrease in the quality of teaching,
toleratence of absences from school). Especially concerning boys,
military drill was integrated into P.E. Some school buildings served
for military purposes (quarters, hospitals). Many teachers were
deployed in the war (a number of them were Sokol members or
scouts), some of whom were at the birth of the first Czechoslovak
Republic and held important offices (Novotný, 2006).
From the First Republic to the Protectorate
After the end of the First World War and after the independent
Czechoslovak Republic was established (1918), the resort of
schooling was administered by the Ministry of Education. The first
minister was Gustav Habrmann. Although the laws from the
previous period were still effective, emphasis was put on national
and democratic aspects of education (access to education, continuity
between the individual school stages). The influence of the Catholic
Church was significantly reduced. Two years later, the first
Conference of Czechoslovak Teachers and Friends of Education took
place. The teachers called for modernization of education and for the
teaching of P.E. as a compulsory subject at all schools and with
proper time allocation. The Tyrš system became the basis for the
curriculum and sports and hygiene facilities were built at schools. A
college was to be established for getting the qualifications of P.E.
from its beginning also an inseparable part of the national movement (for more
information see Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný, 2006; Perútka & Grexa, 1978). 3 Orel (in English Eagle) was a Catholic sports organization founded in 1908. It was
led by Jan Šrámek (for more information see Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný,
2006; Perútka & Grexa, 1978).
63
teachers, who were supposed to be equal to other teachers and to be
insured. The conference was an important stimulus for the
development of education (Reitmayer, 1972; Štekr, 1999).
From 1920, the Journal of Physical Education was published and
was edited by Josef Klenka. The journal was a methodic tool for
teachers. The Small School Act from 1922, which also
implemented compulsory eight-year schooling in Slovakia,
confirmed compulsory P.E. for girls in primary education at both the
lower and higher stages (from the Taaffee reform in 1883 until the
end of the First World War, P.E. for girls was not compulsory; it
became compulsory in 1919, which was officially confirmed in
1922). The school act stated that the official Czech term for P.E. was
“tělesná výchova” (i.e. Physical Education), not “tělocvik”, which
can roughly be translated into English as physical exercise. This
change reflected the educational value of P.E. Two years later, a new
curriculum for P.E. in basic schools was issued. The basis of the
curriculum comprised the Tyrš system and the curriculum even went
beyond the Sokol practice. The curriculum included floor exercise,
marching, apparatus gymnastics, athletics, games, hiking and witner
sports. In 1919, compuslory P.E. for girls at secondary schools was
again implemented and resumed the curriculum from 1913. The time
allocation was two hours per week and this was effective also for
girls at teacher training institutes, where they could take an
examination in P.E. From the late 1920s there were also school
doctors who were responsible for regular check-ups of the pupils and
who were responsible for remedial P.E. This medical practice in
schools was approved of by the Ministry of Education in 1925. The
Ministry also supported the development of sports in secondary
education. In 1921 the first Secondary School Games were held in
Pardubice (for more information see Perútka, 1973). The participants
were also Slovak and German secondary school students. Due to
their popularity, the Games were included in the Sokol festivals five
years later. In 1928, after-school sports clubs emerged at secondary
schools. Various competitions and races were organized among
schools. These activities had a positive impact on the relationships
among Czechoslovak students, whose ethnic origins were different
(Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998;
Štekr, 1999).
64
In the early 1930s, the P.E. curricula for primary and secondary
education were reformed, which was influenced, apart from other
things, by modern trends in P.E. such as the French natural system of
teaching (e.g. G. Demény) or so called new Austrian school (K.
Gaulhofer, M. Streicher). These trends emphasized natural exercise
as well as educational and health aspects of P.E. The new curricula
for primary and secondary schools issued in the years 1932 and 1933
were no longer based on the Tyrš system. P.E. in schools was
oriented mainly to the pupils’ health, athletic exercise and its effects
on the individual’s health; and the development of pupils’ physical
skills was preferred. Apart from that, fair play, which is related to the
moral and educational aspects of P.E., was considered to be
appropriate. In P.E. classes, natural and dynamic exercise was
preferred as well as games. In addition, girls did rhytmical
gymnastics. As far as assessment is concerned, effort was valued as
well as the actual performance. In the late 1930s, the growing power
of the Nazis in Germany raised fears of the security in
Czechoslovakia, which resulted in the Defence Act in 1937,
according to which civil defence education (including P.E.) was
implemented in all schools in August 1938. However, it was
cancelled in less than two weeks after Hitler proclaimed Bohemia
and Moravia the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (15th
March
1939) (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Novotný, 2006; Štekr, 1999).
The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
From the new school year 1939/1940, the allocation of P.E.
increased to 3 or 4 lessons per week, emphasizing the importance of
sports and athletics. The model for Czech P.E. was the German one,
which was characterized by discipline and by its orientation both to
health and to the preparation for fight and war conditions. In
November 1939, the Nazis closed all Czech universities in response
to protest meetings of Czech citizens in October and November
1939. The Nazis also reduced the number of secondary schools and
modified the curricula (Czech, History, etc.) while emphasizing the
role of the German language as a compuslory subject from the first
school form. In 1942, so called “Kuratorium” for the education of
the youth in Bohemia and Moravia was established. This compulsory
after-school organization was supposed to re-educate the Czech
65
youth (aged 10–18). The programme of Kuratorium included P.E.
and sports as well as civil defense education (for more information
see Špringl, 2004). During the war, not only the Sokol, Orel and
Scout organizations, but also the professional teacher organizations
(including those related to P.E.) were banned. Some teachers, who
often belonged to the above-mentioned organizations, joined the
resistence movement. At the end of the war, we can observe decline
and gradual cancellation of schooling (Grexa & Strachová, 2011;
Novotný, 2006; Perútka, 1973; Štekr, 1999).
The beginnings of P.E. teacher education
The Hasner reform established teacher institutes, which were to
train teachers for the primary schools Although P.E. was included in
the study, it was considered to be a marginal subject for a long time,
or it was focused on improving the fitness of the prospective
teachers. Moreover, those who taught P.E. at the institutes had
themselves insufficient qualifications (Reitmayer, 1972).
P.E. teachers were educated in P.E. institutes. The first ones
were established abroad (Denmark, Sweden, France). In the Czech
lands the first P.E. teachers were trained in private P.E. institutes. It
was Jan Malypetr (1815–1899) who was the first Czech qualified
P.E. teacher, appointed in 1849 and who founded his own P.E.
institute in Prague. This institute created the first Czech P.E.-related
terminology, upon which Miroslav Tyrš drew later on (Kössl,
Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998).
In 1870, an examination committee for P.E. teachers at
secondary schools and teacher training institutes was established in
Vienna. A similar committee was established in Prague as late as in
1878. The examination comprised a practical part and a theoretical
one. The candidates had to prepare for the examination on their own,
which often caused discongruence and problems (Reitmayer, 1972).
This is why, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, there
was established a training course for P.E. teachers at secondary
schools in Prague in 1891. The course was four semesters long and
later on was attached to the Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of
Medicine, Charles University, which improved the quality of the
course. However, there were several problems regarding the staff
and facilities: the course did not have its own building, pitch or gym
66
until 1945. Moreover, despite women’s possibility to take the
examination (their qualifications applied only to womens’ teacher
training institutes), they were not allowed to attend the course. It was
not until 1911 that the first one-year courses for women-teachers of
P.E. at primary schools were opened. Two years later women started
attending two-year courses for teaching P.E. at secondary schools.
The lectures were attended together by both men and women, the
practical training was separate. It was from 1913 that the
examination could be taken only by those who had done the courses
and, at the same time, who studied P.E. along with another
specialization at the Faculty of Science or Faculty of Arts (Biology,
Chemistry, Languages, from 1919 also Mathematics and
Geography). During the First World War the courses were closed.
They were reopened for women one year before the end of the war
and for men one year after the end of the war (Štekr, 1999).
P. E. teacher education from 1918 to 1945
The creation of the new state caused certain changes in the P.E.
teacher training courses. In 1919, on the resolution of the Ministry of
Education, the regulations and examinations for secondary school
teachers in teacher training courses were rearranged. During the
entrance examinations, the prospective candidates were expected to
produce a secondary-school leaving examination from a grammar
school (as well as a medical certificate). Therefore school-leavers
from other schools could not be acceped. The students of the Faculty
of Medicine could study P.E., provided that they intended to become
school doctors. One could become a fully-fledged secondary school
teacher only after finishing the studying of P.E. along with another
specialization and after passing an examination in philosophy and
education. The studying of P.E. as a single subject, according to the
secondary-school department at the Ministry of Education, was not
considered to be university education. The negative reactions led to
the extending of the course from four to six semesters, which
improved the quality of the study as well as extended and deepened
the theory. In 1922, a course for secondary school P.E. teachers was
opened at Masaryk University, Brno, and in the autumn of 1939
another course was opened at Comenius University, Bratislava (at
that time the Slovak Republic was a separate state, established on
67
14th
March 1939). In the late 1920s and in the 1930s, on the basis of
insufficient physical fitness of the prospective teachers in the
courses, entrance examinations were adjusted, namely the talent test.
In 1936, the courses were extended to eight semesters and the
positions of individual subjects in the courses were rearranged. The
teaching of theory was extended and deepened and new subjects
(such as social sciences, anthropology etc.) were introduced. More
emphasis was put on methodology. Two years later the students were
compulsorily taught civil defense education. On 1st January 1939 the
programme of teaching P.E. was recognized as a fully-fledged
university education and teacher education was controlled by the
department of tertiary education at the Ministry of Education.
Unfortunately, one year later, in response to the protest meetings, all
Czech universities were closed, which lasted until 1945 (Grexa &
Strachová, 2011; Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Štekr, 1999).
1945 – 1989
Significant changes occurred after the end of the Second World
War in the year 1945, in which the Research Pedagogical Institute in
Prague took responsibility for the creation of a new curriculum. This
period was characterized by the effort to unite the school system,
P.E. became one of the elements of the comparison with the
surrounding world and reached such a level that it never had before.
For the first time, stress was put on the need for the integration of
upbringing and education. At the same time, the differentiation
between sexes was eliminated, and the foundations for standard
school were laid. After the year 1946, P.E. became an equal partner
to all other subjects, and in the following period the curriculum for
individual types of schools was designed (Antala et al., 2001).
The events of February 1948 caused the codification in P.E. and
the law of comprehensive school was passed. P.E. was influenced by
the concept of Russian physical culture, in which physical fitness
was supposed to ensure military strength, productivity, and
nationalism (Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová, 2001). Sports were
viewed as a way of achieving international fame.
In the year 1954, limits and norms were introduced in the P.E.
curricula and thus P.E. became an annoying subject for many pupils,
since they got bad marks and were more or less forced into P.E.
68
In 1955 the first worldwide Spartakiad 4 took place and from
that time on, Spartakiads became a part of school P.E especially in
the year when the Spartakiad took place. Due to the Spartakiads
rehearsals, which often filled the content of P.E. classes, the aims of
school P.E. were not fully carried out (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek,
1986).
During the 1970s, sport activities became dominant in the P.E.
curriculum and the emphasis was put on performance and
competitiveness. The curriculum for P.E. from the years 1973– 1976
turned out to be very demanding, and due to insufficient time
allocation it appeared unrealistic and overloaded.
In the 1980s the so called “desportification” of the Czech P.E.
emerged. The stress was put especially on the positive attitude
toward the physical activity rather than sport.
1989 – present
The “Velvet Revolution“ in 1989 meant a great change for
Czechoslovak citizens. The development of events brought radical
changes in the state, political, economic and also school life. The fall
of communism created some kind of vacuum in school P.E. The
instruction of PE often had only a recreational content. Since the
mid-1990s, the situation has been improving due to the recent
reforming process in the educational system and a more scientific
curriculum.
According to the newly introduced educational programmes,
named the Framework Education Programmes (in Czech Rámcové
vzdělávací programy - RVP ZV, 2007), a wide variety of P.E.
activities concerning health goals should be used in the P.E. classes.
Within the reforms of the Czech education system, the educational
field of P.E. was embedded in the educational area related to health
promotion (Mužík, 1999).
From the research results it is evident (see Vlček & Mužík,
2012) that the current conception of Czech P.E. is not accepted
4 Spartakiad (in Czech Spartakiáda) was a mass gymnastics display, which was held
every five years at the Strahov Stadium in Prague, when Czechoslovakia was under
the Communist rule.
69
homogenously by the teachers. According to the latest educational
programmes mentioned above (RVP ZV, 2007). a wide variety of
physical activities concerning especially health goals should be used
in the P.E. classes (Mužík, 1999). However, there is a low
congruence between the projected and realised curricula (Vlček &
Mužík, 2012), which presents a significant problem for the quality
evaluation of the subject.
REFERENCES
Antala, B. et al. (2001). Didaktika školskej telesnej výchovy
[Didactics of school physical education]. Bratislava:
Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity
Komenského.
Grexa, J., & Strachová, M. (2011). Dějiny sportu: přehled světových
a českých dějin tělesné výchovy a sportu [History of sport:
an overview of Czech PE and Sport history]. Brno:
Masarykova univerzita.
Kádner, O. (1912). Stručné dějiny paedagogiky a školství [A short
overview of history of education]. Praha: Nákladem
Dědictví Komenského.
Kádner, O. (1929). Vývoj a dnešní soustava školství [Development
and current educational system]. Praha: Sfinx Bohumil
Janda.
Kössl, J., Krátký, F., & Marek, J. (1986). Dějiny tělesné výchovy II.
Od roku 1848 do současnosti [History of PE II. Since
1848 till the present days]. Praha: Olympia.
Kössl, J., Štumbauer, J., & Waic, M. (1998). Vybrané kapitoly
z dějin tělesné kultury [Chosen chapters in history of
physical culture]. Praha: Karolinum.
Kovaříček, V., & Kovaříčková, I. (1989). Vývoj školských soustav
v českých zemích [Development of the Czech educational
system]. Olomouc: Rektorát Univerzity Palackého
v Olomouci.
Krátký, F. (1974). Dějiny tělesné výchovy I. Od nejstarších dob do
roku 1848 [History of PE I. Since the oldest times till
1848]. Praha: Olympia.
70
Mužík, V. (1999). Gesundheitlich vorbeugende Körpererziehung -
eine neue Richtung in der tschechischen Schule [Health
oriented PE – a new approach in the Czech school]. In:
J.C. Bussard & F. Roth (Ed.), Which Physical Education
for which School? (pp.91-96). Berne: SVSS.
Nováček, V., Mužík, V., & Kopřivová, J. (2001). Vybrané kapitoly
z teorie a didaktiky tělesné výchovy [Chosen chapters from
PE theory and didactics]. Brno: Masarykova univerzita.
Novotný, F. (2006). Stručný přehled dějin tělesné výchovy a sportu
[A short overview in history of physical education and
sport]. Ústí nad Labem: Univerzita J. E. Purkyně.
Perútka, J. (1973). Pokrokové tradície telesnej výchovy
v Československu [Progress traditions of PE in
Czechoslovakia]. Bratislava: Šport, slovenské
telovýchovné vydavateľstvo.
Perútka, J., & Grexa, J. (1978). Dejiny telesnej výchovy. II. diel
[History of PE II]. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.
Rámcový vzdělávací program – RVP ZV [Framework Education
Programmes] (2007). Výzkumný ústav pedagogický v
Praze. Retrieved from
http://www.vuppraha.cz/soubory/RVPZV_2007-07.pdf
Reitmayer, L. (1972). Dějiny školní tělesné výchovy v českých
zemích [History of PE in Czech lands]. Praha: Státní
pedagogické nakladatelství.
Rychtecký, A., & Fialová, L. (2004). Didaktika školní tělesné
výchovy [Didactics of physical education]. Praha:
Karolinum.
Špringl, J. (2004). Protektorátní vzor mladého člověka [Protectorate
petter of a jang man]. Soudobé dějiny, 11(1–2), 154–177.
Štekr, V. (1999). Historie školní tělesné výchovy [History of school
PE]. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého.
Vlček, P., & Mužík, V. (2012). Soulad mezi projektovaným a
realizovaným kurikulem jako faktor kvality vzdělávání v
tělesné výchově [Congruence between projected and
realidsed curriculum as a factor of quality in PE]. Česká
kinantropologie, 16(1), 31–45.
Základní škola [Basic school]. Anonymous (2014). Retrieved from
http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kladn%C3%AD_
%C5%A1kola
71
FINLAND
THE ROOTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT
SCHOOLS IN FINLAND
Airikki Mariitta Pousi, University of Helsinki
Correspondence
Airikki Pousi [email protected] Phone: +358 50 5367210
In Finland there has been physical education in schools
already 170 years. In this article it has been focused only into early
phases. Physical education in Finnish schools has its roots on the
other hand in the own folk sports of finish people and on the other
hand they were influenced by new ideas, which gradually began to
come here to the early 1800's onwards. People's exemplary physical
activity, particularly in rural areas were characterized by different
running and jumping championships as well as spinning and cue
games (Suomela, 1929).
Physical education at schools in Finland has gone through the
times as a part of Sweden and Russia, as well as in independent
Finland very radical development stages. Teaching started first
private grammar schools and then municipal educational institutions
and educational institution of the state.
School order 1843
In Finland there were spoken about gymnastics in early
phases when speaking all the physical education in Finland. And in
the beginning it mostly was gymnastics, The term physical education
came much later that why I use the term gymnastics as it has been
used in my sources. Some kind of gymnastics had been in
educational institutions under Swedish period. Officially, the school
gymnastics began by Imperial Senate Gracious Declaration in 1843.
72
The former high school, grammar school pedagogues and the district
schools were now instead of 1 and 2 -class primary school, 4-class
secondary schools, 2 class high schools and 2-class “schools for
women.” (1843, on the 6th of November). Hans Keiserliga
Majestäts Nådig GYMNAS och Skol-Ordning for Storforstendömet
Finland.)
At that time, the Education Act decreed that the teaching of
gymnastics had to be elementary school age five hours a week for
boys and the upper classes as well as the grammar school and high
schools they should have four hours a week. The school defines
school forms, in the teaching materials and teachers of the
requirements. Even in the 1870s the early years of our country was
only eight to the University leading the state schools and all alone
for boys. Gymnastics came by School Order of 1866 to elementary
school and gymnastics for the girls´ schools in the year 1872 (1872.
8 p elokuuta). Keisarillisen Majesteetin Armollinen koulujärjestys
Suomen suuriruhtinaanmaalle.)
The School Order defined school forms, the subjects to be
teached and requirements of the teachers. Requirements to the
teacher was the age of 21 years, student certificate , suitable
temperament, as well as a certificate of competence. The
development of the subject teachers education has been considerable.
Official gymnastics teacher training began also for men in 1882, but
before that for female students had already organized a gymnastics
teacher training in Matilda Asp´s private Gymnastics Institute 1869.
Women could get in the Gymnastics Department inform the year
1894, when also Asp´s Institute ceased the operations.
Gymnastics Teacher Education
The efforts of the development of Gymnastic Institute broke
down time to time. We had to wait a long time before the way to the
highest studies opened for the gymnastics teachers. We had unable to
have gymnastics in any place. It required “a Institute”, sufficient
space and apparatus and tools. As a prototype of Gymnastic Institute
was created on the initiative with Hjalmar Ling´s letter dated
05.05.1813 and confirmed by the Stockholm Royal Gymnastic
Central Institute GCI. GCI was repaired at the expense of the state
the old factory hall, some tools to it and salary to Ling. Apparatus
73
was imitated partly from Gutsmuts, partly imitated from nature and
sailor's life. They included: the climbing wall bars, ladders, rods,
chest, arms and a horse, benches. The wall bars were only apparatus
that was undeniably Swedish. The goal of GCI was to train
instructors in gymnastic institutes. Students, however, were initially
diverse range: soldiers, artists, priests, teachers, or students of
different subjects (Meinander, 1994).
Gymnastics Department of University of Helsinki is founded
in 1834
Proposals were made also in Finland to found gymnastics
institute. In Helsinki there were working private Department of
gymnastics founded by Gusted Mauriz Paul by the "Ling´s all over
approved model". After Paul has moved to St. Petersburg continued
his work G. Otta. The new construction of University of Helsinki
was underway. When the side building was not yet built, Engel
decided to invest fencing and dance hall there after accordance with
the wishes of Otta gymnastics. This first university gymnasium was
completed in 1834, and now it is considered of gymnastics
Department the University to be founded.
Department of Gymnastics of University of Helsinki
followed faithfully the 1870 Stockholm´s development. Hall and
apparatus of GCI's conforming to the model. Gymnastics was old
Lingian and focused in such a way medical gymnastics, where
Stockholm was in the foreground, Helsinki, gymnastics teacher
training began, however, until 1882. Until then, the University
Gymnastics Department was solely for hobby gymnastics.
Gymnastics Department had from the beginning Gymnastics of
women's. The women did not, however, required the student
examination and their gymnastics was medical gymnastics alone.
In1820s and 30s set up other gymnastic institutes among other
Turku, Vaasa and Vyborg. For economic reasons they work for only
short periods of time. Scientific education of Physical education
teachers begins 1963 in Jyväskylä University in faculty of Physical
Education. After that came the term Physical Education also in
schools.
74
Grammar Schools
Finnish people had a strong desire to raise the level of general
education. It was considered the only way to secure the Finnish own
culture. Before 1898 all the country's grammar schools were located
in cities. Therefore people of countryside had very difficult to
achieve higher education than the elementary school. When Finland's
autonomous rights were returned by the November Manifesto, the
more liberal conditions quickly began to generate private Finnish
grammar schools. When in the year 1902 there were four rural
grammar schools in our country, their number had by 1906 already
risen by 10 and 1910 entering 20. In this way the in the end of First
World War, in Finland there were the 28 private grammar schools
working. The work in grammar schools Study was based further on
the 1872 school system. Staff gymnastics had been imported and
advocated by Heikel in 1860s as a substitute for military training
with rifles. Staff gymnastics were practiced predominantly by the
two highest classes, and replaces free-standing movements. They
followed the same choreography as sabre training and rifle handling
in the other Nordic countries; the space between pupis was extended
and the movements were carried out collectively (Meinander, 1994).
In upper classes of Lyceums Number gymnastics program
should to be such that the exercises were able to substantially affect
those organs - heart, lungs, digestive organs, and others, the
condition of those organs mainly affects to persons health. The army
have had the desire to develop school sports to military service
reinforcing direction. The proposal of physical education was
immediately ready in 1918 after peace. The proposal included the
people's bold ideas to increase the condition to defend the country
(Meinander, 1992). The number of hours of exercise increased until
six hours a week. The first educational records for boys was
confirmed in 1917.
75
Elementary schools
Teacher Training Seminar of Jyväskylä
The number of Grammar schools were limited. Jyväskylä
Lyceum was established in year 1858. That was solution year was
in whole national education. Then the Tsar gave the declarations,
which Uno Cygnaeus had been based on the draft guidelines for the
presentation of the Senate following "of the foundations of
organization of public education." In 1863 was founded the first
finish seminar in Jyväskylä and the first director was Uno Cygnaeus
himself. The 1866 elementary school order did´n say anything about
number of hours of teaching gymnastics, but in 1881 National
Board of Education distributed the schools model of time table in
which each class was reserved three hours for gymnastics. Most
rural elementary schools had, however, to compromise this goal very
much. (Primary and secondary schools inspection reports from 1870
to 1884). The reason was normally a lack of space. Even the
elementary school teachers were not necessarily interested in
gymnastics, even if had received preparatory teaching of physical
education in seminars.
170 years Physical Education at Schools in Finland
76
The Regulation of School Districts was born - elementary
school to every village
Before The Regulation of School Districts, the
establishments of elementary schools was in municipal
consideration. Therefore, there were elementary schools only in
bigger villages (Halila 1949, III, 19-31, Vihola 1983, 358). The
School issue was then discussed in the year 1894 and in the year
1897 in Parliament. Until then on May 24, the day the Regulation of
School Districts was given. According to this, the rural area was
required to distribute school districts so that each pupil has the
opportunity to receive education in their mother language. If in one
school district enrolled 30 children to school striving, the school had
to be established. When doing the school district there had to be
taken into account geographic, and linguistic conditions, so that
school transport should not normally be no longer than five
kilometers long. (Halila 1949, III, 19-31.)
To organize gymnastics teaching was generally the most
difficult task in whole elementary school system in Finland in the
early days. Many were of the opinion that gymnastics, at least in
rural areas be needed. Some of elementary school teachers do not
have without any doubt accepted the gymnastics to elementary
schools. Lack of space in school rooms and lack of suitable
equipment was hampered the education. 1890 's Jyväskylä seminar
teaching of gymnastics was formulaic and rigid. We could talk about
the mode of abjection of gymnastics. (Vihola, 1983, Vihola, 1986
Old Ruoveden history III: 3, Pousi, 1988, 32). In 1903, became the
Jyväskylä Seminar colleague of gymnastics and health education,
later Licentiate in Medicine, KA Rikala, the student of Iwar
Wilskman. During his time in the seminar teaching of gymnastics
soon diversified. Gymnastics and sport equipment was increased to
the level among the best of our country (Sakari, 1969).
The Finnish conditions was applied the physiological laws of
Ling-based system, which was connected to the German gymnastic
system with rod movements. This was consisted of Finnish
gymnastics system, which involved the Iwar Wilskman´s manual
(Wilskman, 1906, Ritokangas, Järviö, 1957, Pousi, 1988, 32.). Thus,
77
for example Riihonen elementary school, which was a rural
elementary school in the Jyväskylä Seminar sphere of influence
gymnastics teaching was carried out quite versatile. The program
involved free gymnastic movements and games. "The special
movement what is practiced is explained and displayed, after which
the students will do it according to command. Otherwise monitored
by general gymnastics order, so that the different exercises follow
each other in a specific order. Gymnastics took place in the summer
time and in good weather in the school yard. In wintertime the
pupils were skating on the frozen lake, and doing cross-country
skiing. In thaws snow castles were built and snow war was played,
throwing snowballs. (Keuruu municipal archives. The curriculum
and the diary 1904-05, National Archives Keuruun Riihosen
elementary school in the district's annual reports from 1904 to 1936).
A large number of gymnastics in elementary school were made
because lack of space (Meinander, 1992, 97).
In larger schools where the student population was
approaching a hundred, boys and girls were divided into their own
groups. Boys and girls had two hours a week gymnastics. Swedish
speaking schools used typically Heikel´s manuals, which was
mainly intended for secondary school youth. Finnish speaking
schools maintained their Göös instructions. The period of
independence by the beginning of 1917, these were replaced
gradually by Ivar Wilskman´s, Elin Kallio´s and Anni Collan´s
manuals. So Riihonen elementary school Wilskman´s manual was
used for gymnastics. The lesson was as follows; Instruction is given
in such a way that the class is divided into two groups. Departments I
and II are in one group and departments III and IV the second group.
To the girls selected easier movements. In the beginning free
movements are practiced continued to rack movements, and finally
was playing. In winter, cross-country skiing trips were made. (KKA
Riihosen elementary school curriculum and annual reports.)
Athletics Track and field began to be more and more
interesting. Examples came from the Finnish sports fields and from
the Olympic Games. Successful sportsmen became role models to
follow. School children build self tools. Athletics competitions were
held outside of school hours (Pousi, 1988). The first boys'
educational records was set in 1917.
78
Physical education in Finland´s independence time
Independence time
School Compulsory Education Law 1921
After the years 1921 School Compulsory Education law
each school district had to be a four-year secondary school and two-
year primary school with different teaching managing both graduate
schools. In the primary school there were two hours of singing and
playing and in the secondary school two hours gymnastics and two
hours of sports. The Act controls the general compulsory education
and a compulsory education school became a elementary school.
National Board of Education ordered in the letter of the year1924
that each elementary school had at the first state to acquire the wall
bars and other gymnastic apparatus as well as balls, rackets, bats,
targets, high jump racks and two balls for boys.
What kind of sports types in Schools
Among types of exercise there were at first fencing, which
then became optional subject in 1911. Skiing became common turn
of the century in the schools of boys and in the first decade skiing
races spread especially in rural areas. Ice skating was common for
both boys and girls and the boys also played ice hockey and bandy.
In ball games, winter sports and athletics began the systematic
teaching, if you only had available some kind of field or terrain. Ball
games became a competitor for gymnastics. Ball Games formed
their own considerable group already around the turn of the century.
There were played: four goals, the long ball, limit the ball, the king
of the ball, football, bandy and others. Pesäpallo spread of the bus
were by the school and the Civil Guard. In the schools “pesäpallo”
became as Finlands national game to the program.
In the school program in the time schedule to the pupils there
were two terms: gymnastics and sports until 1960s.
79
REFERENCES:
Finlands Författnings Samling/Suomen asetuskokoelma:
Valton arkisto (VA), Helsinki
Kansa-ja oppikoulujen tarkastuskertomukset 1870-1879, 1880-1884.
Keuruun Riihosen piirin kansakoulunvuosikertomukset 1904-1936.
Keuruun kunnan arkisto (KA). Opetussuunnitelma ja päiväkirja
1904-05,
1872. 8 p:nä Elokuuta. Keisarillisen Majesteetin Armollinen
Koulujärjestys Suomen Suuriruhtinaanmaalle.
1843. Den 6 November. Hans Keiserliga Majestäts Nådig Gymnasii
och Skol-Ordning för Storforstendömet Finland.
Literature:
Halila, Aimo 1949. Suomen kansakoululaitoksen historia II- III.
Turku.
Heikkinen, Antero 1992. Voimistelun läpimurto. Teoksessa: Suomi
uskoi urheiluun. LTS julkaisu NO 131. Helsinki.
Meinander Henrik 1992. ”Warpaille y-lös, kyykkyyn a-las!”
Koululiikunta etsii paikkaansa. Teoksessa: Suomi
uskoi urheiluun. LTS julkaisu NO 131. Helsinki.
Meinander Henrik 1994. Towards Bourgeois Manhood, Bous
physical Education in Nordic Secondary Schools
1880-1940. Helsinki.
Pousi, Airikki 1988. Keuruun Riihosen koulu vuosina 1903-1936.
Keuruu
80
Pousi, Airikki 2003. Nuori Ilmari Vaissi. Helsingin yliopiston
kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 188. Helsinki
Ritokangas, Kalle A. - Järviö, Jouko, K. 1957. 50-vuotias
Haapamäen yhteiskoulu. Muistojulkaisu koulun
vaiheista 1097-1957. Keuruu.
Sakari, Aimo 1959. Keuruun satavuotias kansakoulu. Pieksämäki
Suomela, Klaus U. 1929. Skolungdomens fysiska fostran in Finland
på dess nyvarande ståndpunkt. Liikunakasvatuksen
työmailta IV. Helsinki.
Vihola 1986, Vanhan Ruoveden historia III:3,
Vihola, Teppo. 1983. Keuruun ja Pihlajaveden historia 1860-1917.
Vanhan Ruoveden historia III:3,1. Keuruu
Wilskman, Iwar 1906. Voimistelun käsikirja kansa- ja alkeiskouluja
varten. Helsinki.
Wuolio, Eija-Leena – Jääskeläinen, Leena 1993. Kyykkyyn – ylös!
150 vuotta koululiikuntaa. Liikuntatieteellisen Seuran
julkaisu nro 136. Helsinki.
81
GREECE
ENACTMENT OF GREEK PHYSICAL
EDUCATION - ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
GERMAN SYSTEM (1835-1907)
Dimitris Hatziharistos , Faculty of Physical Education & Sport
Science, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens
Correspondence
Katerina Zounhia [email protected]
Phone: +30 6976223534
The beginning of the most decisive phase of Modern Greek
education coincides with the arrival of Otto in Greece. The main
characteristic of this period is complete Bavarocracy, that is the
imposition of Bavarian systems in all sectors of the newly founded
Greek state. It is noteworthy that when Otto came to Greece, he was
accompanied by a large number of specialized Bavarians who were
intended to undertake the organization of various sectors of the state.
The organization of newly established state was such that it led
Greece to complete and final dependence from big forces. Under the
circumstances, through education such dependence would be
supported and enhanced. For the realization of their goals, the
Bavarians had also the entire support of the local privileged who
were impatient to make official the structure and operation of
education and in accordance with the principles and the intentions of
Patriarchate and the Fanariotes.
The main educational objectives of the first primary
schools, founded in 1834, were the promotion of religious
obscurantism, meticulous spirit and pseydoclassicism1. That was
consistent with the objectives of the Bavarian and the Greek
conservatives.
Physical education is not included in the curriculum of
primary schools. 62,0% of total number of hours are spent for the
teaching of ancient Greek and religious2. In a separate article of law
82
it is reported that “physical drills are executed twice a week under
the supervision of schoolteachers, during rest hours or leisure time
feasts3”. However, this provision was never fulfilled
4.
In 1836 the organization of secondary education in two
circles was completed: The three-grade Greek school in imitation of
German Latinische Schule and the four-grade High school, in
imitation of German Gymnazium. The same year Higher Education
was enacted and organized by the German Mauer. Thus, we can say
that the plans of the Bavarians are fulfilled and Bayarocracy in the
sector of education is fully established. The religious, scholastic, and
pseudoclassistic character of the studies, especially as outlined in the
1836 curriculum, stemming from Bavaria and distorted by the local
conservatives, will determine the goals and objectives of education.
71,8% of total number of hours on a weekly basis are spent on the
teaching of dead languages and religious and 28,2% on the teaching
of the remainder 12 courses5.
Physical education is not included in the obligatory courses
of the 1836 curriculum. In a separate article it is reported that during
free hours, when courses are not taught, students can execute
physical exercises (mainly in the afternoons and in the
summertime)6. This provision however was never fulfilled due to
teaching personnel shortage.
Physical education is not included in the 1834 and 1836
curriculum. Despite this exclusion, during the period, we examine,
an intense action for its dissemination begins. Main contributors to
this dissemination were the German C. L. Corck and G. Ottendorf
who came to Greece with Otto to help with the organization of
education. The Greek G. Th. Pagon, who studied in Germany and
wrote the first Greek book about physical education entitled
“Calisthenics in Summary” and published in 1837, participated in
this effort. The author says in its preface that this book was written
“in line with the books of J. C. GutsMuts and F. L. Jahn”7. At the
same time the building of first athletic facilities starts. Sport
equipment comes from Germany8. The first physical exercises stem
from the German system of gymnastics by F. L. Jahn that
contributed to the military education of young people9.
This period, therefore, the establishment of extra curriculum
physical education in schools begins. Since its establishment, the
organization of physical education had been consistent with the goals
83
of the German system. To a large extent, physical education
conformed to the desires and dreams of a group of Greeks who
believed that the establishment of physical education, for the purpose
of initiating military education in young people’s life, would
contribute to the production of an army capable of fighting against
the Turks and, thus, setting free the remainder part of Greece.
From 1836 and onwards intense actions are taken for the
inclusion of Calisthenics in the compulsory school curriculum of
modern Greece. However, only in 1862, 26 years later, Calisthenics
is introduced in the field of education. In particular, with the decree
of 8th
December 1862 Combat Drills are introduced in Secondary
education. With the same decree, military exercises are introduced in
the university curriculum and university military phalanx is
established. Military Calisthenics included dense line up exercises
taken from the infantry. Specifically, these exercises include:
phalanx marching in groups of threes or fours, changes of direction,
rhythmical marching and running, etc. For the teaching of military
Calisthenics, that continued to be taught outside the compulsory
school curriculum, a non-commissioned officer and a soldier from
the Fire Brigade Corps were appointed to each Secondary school due
to the lack of specialized physical educators10
. According to the
decree of 18th
February 1871, military exercises are introduced in the
curriculum of Greek schools. These exercises were compulsory for
those students who had reached the 14th
year of their age. However,
after 1877 military exercises did not continue to be taught in Greek
schools and Secondary schools. This discontinuance was due to the
fact that the circumstances in the army did not allow any further
detachment of officer or non-commissioned officer from the army11
.
With the decrees of 1862 and 1871, Calisthenics adopted a
strictly military focus in order to promote the sole fulfillment of
military and national goals. However, at the same period a group of
Calisthenics’ supporters, together with I. Fokianos (1845-1896) in
chief, expressed their opposition to the features and content that the
conservative circles tried to attach to school Calisthenics. Fokianos
was greatly influenced by the gymnastic system of A. Spiess, that he
had studied during the period of his collaboration with the German
84
professor J. Kebauer12
. This great pioneer of Calisthenics tried to
establish Calisthenics as a compulsory school subject. At the same
time, he endeavored to exclude its military character, so that it could
acquire an instructional character, in the context of students’
education. I. Fokianos’ one and only book entitled: “Calisthenics
Textbook” was written in accordance with the Belgian Captain’s
Docx13
work. Fokianos’ textbook was until 1900 the one and only
methodic guide for the implementation of Calisthenics as a school
subject.
Fokianos’ objective, which was the introduction of
Calisthenics as a compulsory subject (equal to the other school
subjects), was realized after 20 year of persistent efforts. With a
special decree during the year of 1880, Calisthenics became a
compulsory subject. Three hours per week were initially scheduled
for its teaching for each class. For the implementation of
Calisthenics, specially trained instructors were appointed. In
particular, one instructor was appointed for every 180 students. The
instructors’ training took part at the Central Public Gymnasium and
lasted 45 days. However, in 1883 military exercises were brought
back and with the curriculum of 1884 they were rescheduled to be
implemented in the two upper classes of Secondary schools for three
days per week14
.
According to the school timetable of 1884, Calisthenics
represented 10% of the total number of hours of a weekly school
programme. In Secondary schools, it represented 9,4% for boys and
girls15
(see Table 1 and Figure 1).
From the above, it becomes obvious that in the
organizational part, the objective of Fokianos was fulfilled for the
enactment of Calisthenics was completed. However, his objective for
the abolishment of military exercises remained unfulfilled. The
government of that time did not make any substantial modification to
the decree of 1862 that referred to the content of Calisthenics. At this
point it is worth mentioning that not only was the military character
of Calisthenics affected, but also it was more reinforced. In the new
decrees of 1883 and 1889 it was explicitly stated that military
exercises are the only factor that shapes the content of Calisthenics.
Furthermore, in the same decrees it was mentioned that the
preparation of students for their future military life remains the basic
objective of Calisthenics16
. Fokianos’ efforts against military
85
exercises continued for the next years and up to some point resulted
in persuading the Ministry of Education to remove strict military
exercises from school programs. However, the main aim and the
general notion for the subject of Calisthenics retained stable its
military-chauvinist character.
It is obvious that the organizers of school Gymnastics did not
attach to Calisthenics any educational value. People responsible for
the dissemination of Calisthenics treated it as a medium for
children’s and youth’s military preparation. For a long time the
organizers of school Gymnastics insisted on their choices, despite the
fact the need for exercising was evident and urgent, especially in
urban cities. In one of his lectures I. Fokianos mentioned that “due to
the concentration of people in big cities and the prolonged idling of
youths in coffee shops, tuberculosis and lack of physical activity,
begin to create problems in their physical development”17
.
The above pessimistic situation worsened even more after
Greece’s defeat in the 1897 war against Turkey. Many and serious
problems that came into surface made people criticize the past.
Insecurity and pessimism dominated after the defeat and made the
majority of Greek citizens develop a conservative attitude towards
life. In education, as in the rest domains of public life, there was a
generalized turn back. Education and schooling of Greek children are
dominated by militarism and chauvinism17
. School Calisthenics
revives in its primary form taking a military orientation18
.
It becomes evident that in the final phase of the era under
examination, all hopes for any kind of educational reforms were
reduced considerably. The status of Calisthenics as part of the
curriculum deteriorated. In 1896 the leader of Greek Calisthenics, I.
Fokianos, passed away. He was the man who defended its
educational goals and its content for a significant amount of time.
In the timetables of the 1897 and 1906 national curriculums,
the same percentage of time spent on Calisthenics as in the previous
ones. Specifically, the amount of time provided for teaching
Calisthenics represented 9.2% - 10.1% of the total amount of hours
of the weekly curriculum19
(see Table 1 and Figure 15).
The expectations for Gymnastics’ revival acquire a new
vitality in the beginning of the 20th
century. In 1900 the law ΒΧΚΑ’
was published. This law, signed by the Minister of Church Affairs
and Public Education A. Eftaxias, constitutes the first remarkable
86
effort for coping with the Calisthenics and Sport matters in our
country.
In the introductory report of the law BXKA’ it is mentioned
that “until 1884 the interest for students’ physical exercise was
confined to what should be done or to military exercises”.
Concerning the development of Calisthenics, it is mentioned that the
year 1884 constitutes a historical milestone in the course of evolution
of Calisthenics in Modern Greece, because that year the
“Calisthenics School” began to operate for the first time. Graduates
of Teaching and High School were entitled to attend that two year
school. In another part of the report it was stated that the Olympic
Games of 1896 created vivid interest and enthusiasm in favor of
physical exercises and promoted their value in people’s conscious20
.
In the first article of the law BXKA’ the purpose of Calisthenics was
determined as “the development of physical and mental potential, the
development of stamina and the preparation of young people for
military life”21
. In a separate decree, contained in the above law, an
official curriculum of Calisthenics was established for the first time.
That curriculum contained all the activities that had to be taught in
each class of primary school, of Greek schools and High schools.
These activities include regular exercises, games, and the teaching of
athletics and gymnastics (in the upper classes of high school only)22
.
That curriculum is accompanied by detailed instructions on the basic
methods of its application. Instructions are supplemented with
general preliminary remarks. These remarks explained the
significance of each group of exercises and supported theoretically
the value of the proposed curriculum23
. Apart from the curriculum, in
a separate decree of the law BXKA’, students’ examinations in
Calisthenics are explained in detail. The same decree also
determined the organization of school sport competitions24
.
Apart from the above contention I must admit that over the
period considered, the theoretical and methodical thinking for
Calisthenics began to move away from the level of speculations and
personal opinions and gradually was placed on scientific bases.
Specifically, in 1894 a book entitled “Robust bodies” was published.
In that book a series of exercises for developing strength in every
muscle group is presented25
and the effects of exercise on physical
development are described in an innovative way. It is worth
mentioning that the suggestions contained in this book are supported
87
with scientific arguments. For the first time in Greek literature
anthropometric data are reported. These data, included in a separate
appendix resulted from successive measurements of young people of
American College, who exercised for a semester for one hour, four
times a week26
. Around 1900, the "Association of dissemination of
useful books" published a remarkable book entitled "Calisthenics".
In the first part of this book the author refers to the value of exercise
in promoting physical development and human health. In the second
part exercises are classified and described27
.
The period presented in this section, particularly the years
between 1862 and 1894, during which I. Fokianos acts, is
particularly important to Greek physical education. The official
inclusion of Calisthenics in school curricula constituted the
foundations, on which the next generations would rely to demand:
- further improvement of methods of its application
- the creation of a strong scientific base, upon which its
future growth will be based
- its adaptation to the ever changing needs of our people.
Footnotes
1 R.D./6-2-1834: On Primary schools, article 1.
2 R.D./6-2-1834, article 1 (calculated by the author). Athens: Themelio.
3 Similarly, article 2, 8, and 9.
4 Law BXKA/1990: On Calisthenics, p. 9.
5 R.D./31-12-1836: On Greek schools. Timetable of Greek and Secondary schools,
taken from A. Dimaras p. 66 (calculated by the author).
6 Similarly, article 83.
7 Babanasis S., Soulas K: Greece at the periphery of developed countries. Themelio,
Athens 1979, pp. 153-198.
8 Pagon, g.th.: Calisthenics in summary. Athens 1837.
9 Giannakis Th. Construction of the first gymnasium in Nafplio. C. L. Cork organizes
and directs it. “Physical Education and Sport” p. 144.
10 Yearbook 1929-1930: School for the teaching of Calisthenics, p. 7.
11 Greek State Newspaper (GSN) Issue 19/8-12-1962: Decree for the Phalanx and
Greek University, article 1-8.
88
12 Calisthenics Instructors’ Union: Ioannis Fokianos (1845-1896), pp. 48-52
13 Docx: Guide pour l’enseignement de la gymnastique des garcons a l’usage des
Ecoles. Namur 1878.
14 Pavlinis E.: History of Calisthenics, Publishing house Kiriakidi, Thessaloniki 1977, pp. 398-404.
15 R.D./23-6-1884. Timetable of Greek schools and Secondary schools.
16 Law No/1883, GSN issue 139/1883, articles 1 and 7, GNS 79/1889.
17 Pavlinis E: «Lecture about I. Fokianos» in the commemorative edition of EGE in
honor of I. Fokianos, p. 15.
18 Law ΒΤΜT and R.D./11-9-1897.
19 Law ΒΧΚΑ’/1990: On Calisthenics, p. 11.
20 Dimaras A..: see Intro., p. 15, Volume Β’. Decree 11-9-1987: Time table of Greek
and Secondary schools.
21 Law BXKA’/1900, see Intro, p. 10.
22 Law BXKA’/1900: About calisthenics and sport competitions, chapter A’, article 1.
23 Law BXKA’/1900, C’ Decree: Curriculum of Primary and Secondary education, pp. 60-72.
24 Law BXKA’/1900: Instructions for teaching Calisthenics in primary and secondary
education, pp. 81-92.
25 Law BXKA’/1900, D’ Decree: On examination of school Calisthenics in Primary
and Secondary education and school competitions, pp. 73-76.
26 (Unknown author): Robust bodies, 1894
27 Similarly, pp. 257-261.
28 (Unknown author): Calisthenics. Association of dissemination of useful books.
89
Table 1
Percentage of hours scheduled for Physical Education in
comparison to the total number of hours of weekly programs
scheduled for all subjects of all grades according to the Greek
curriculums delivered from 1884 until 1985
Year Total
studying
hours
according to
weekly
schedules
(male/female
students)
Physical
Education
hours
(male/female
students)
Percentage
of Physical
Education
hours in
comparison
to total
school hours
(male/female
students)
1884 223/223 21/21 9.4/9.4
1886 224/224 21/21 9.4/9.4
1897 228/228 21/21 9.2/9.2
1906 208/208 21/21 10.1/10.1
1914 242/242 21/21 8.7/8.7
1931 180/187
Physical
Education
was
distributed
during all
days
(8.7/8.7)
1935 231/206 18/18 8.5/8.7
1939 205/216 18/18 8.8/8.3
1961 218/228 18/18 8.3/7.9
1964 204/216 18/18 8.8/8.3
1966 180/188 15/15 8.3/8.0
1967 221/221 17/15 7.7/6.8
1969 204/210 18/18 8.8/8.6
1973 205/210 18/18 8.8/8.6
1977 172/172 12/12 7.0/7.0
1981 167/167 11/11 6.1/6.1
1985 180/180 14/14 7.8/7.8
Mean percentage between 1884-1985 8.4
Maximum percentage 10.1
Minimum percentage 6.1
90
Sources:
1. Dimaras A.: The reform that never happened, Volume Α’ and Β’.
2. Noutsos Ch.: Secondary School Curriculum and social control
(1931 – 1973), p. 59.
3. ΥΠΕΠΘ: Εγκύκλιος αριθμ. Φ/210/2/109/99921/12-9-1977.
4. Π.Δ. 831/1977 (GSN 270, V. Α’).
5. Π.Δ. 12861/1981 (GSN 315, V. Α’).
6. Π.Δ. 831/1985 (GSA 158, V. Α’) και Π.Δ. 479/1985 (GSA 170,
V. Α’).
Figure 1. Percentage of hour variation provided for Physical
Education classes in the curriculums
delivered between 1884-1985
6 6,4 6,8 7,2 7,6
8 8,4 8,8 9,2 9,6 10
10,4
18
84
18
86
18
97
19
06
19
14
19
31
19
35
19
39
19
61
19
64
19
66
19
67
19
69
19
73
19
77
19
81
19
85
Percentage (%) males Percentage (%) females
91
92
HUNGARY
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
HUNGARIAN SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Erzsébet Rétsági, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pécs
Kata Morvay-Sey, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs
Tamás Csányi, Hungarian School Sport Federation / Faculty of
Primary and Pre-School Education, Eötvös Loránd
University, Budapest
Correspondence
Tamás Csányi
Phone: +36703181261
Abstract
This chapter presents the history of Hungarian school physi-
cal education (P.E.) from the 18th
Century until the present. Due to
expansion limitations the explanation of content focuses only on the
milestones of the evolution of P.E.. Neither will the ever problematic
infrastructure be discussed, nor the history of the training of P.E.
school-teachers. The structure of the study chronologically follows
the history of Hungary starting from the enlightened absolutism
through the reform era over the period between the two world wars
to the post-world war years of the totalitarian then soft dictatorship
concluding with the year 2015 of the democratic Hungary. We
strived to provide insight into the socio-political background deter-
mining education policies of certain periods in the overall nearly 250
years. The very first curriculum that was credited to Maria Theresia
expected schools to train obedient subjects and soldiers who are able
to protect the Habsburg Empire. In the Reform Era, multifunctional
training was believed to be the token of the progress of the common-
ers and the rise of the nation, and P.E. was marked out for having an
important role in the process. In the Horthy Era P.E. was a means of
93
covert militarization and military training. In the Rákosi Era the
purpose and task of scholastic education was to train young men that
were able to build Socialism, disciplined and loyal to the nation and
who were endowed with the ethical attributes of a communist per-
son. Raising the socialist “genotype” was in force until the 1989
change of the political system – although nobody took this aim seri-
ously from the ‘80s. Approaching European practice, democratic
Hungary introduced decentralized education direction and its im-
print, the core curriculum. Until now four core curricula (1995, 2003,
2007, 2012) were brought to light and despite their conceptual dif-
ferences and diverse elaboration, each appoint life-affirming, health
valuing personality development as the main goal.
In our study based on the works of chronicler predecessors,
we relied on the monography of Földes et al. written in 1982, as well
as relied on contemporary literature.
Keywords: Physical education history, Hungary, Curriculum
development
94
Hungarian P.E. from the 18th
Century till World War I
Hungary had been under Turkish submission for more than
150 years (1541-1699). Following the expulsion of the Turks, the
Habsburg Empire gradually gained supremacy of the Hungarian
territories. It was decided that Hungary’s own, new age development
would come off not as an autonomous state but within the confines
of national absolutism. Legislation, including education policy was
basically determined by the characteristics of the Habsburg legisla-
tion.
The 1st Ratio Educationis (1777)
During the Enlightened Absolutism, from the mid-18th
Century the state demanded increased supremacy in the aspect of
education and cultural policies, trying to decrease the ecclesiastic
authority. The primary goal of school education was to train useful,
obedient subjects, good soldiers who serve the state apparatus of the
Habsburg Empire. The first comprehensive reform act of education
was addressed as Ratio Educationis, published in 1777, credited to
Maria Theresa. The act covered the questions of youth P.E. in seven
chapters. It made preserving health a task of the schools, specified
the types of permitted and prohibited games, referred to the
configuration of youth playgrounds as well as the purchasing of
assistive devices. During this period P.E. engrossed by the versatile
training of the Hungarian nation remained at the level of personal
ambitions. A progressive thinker, Samuel Tessedik stood out for
trying to implement P.E. to practice in the school that he founded
(1780, Szarvas). He attributed particular importance – in the spirit of
the philanthropists – to regular physical activity, outdoor games and
children’s physical education. Around the turn of the 18th
and 19th
Centuries public educational tendencies were spreading, in which the
influence of Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Diesterweg, Guth-Muths
was vividly felt, having a significant mark on the national P.E.
development. In 1790-91, the National Assembly put the case of P.E.
on the agenda. By 1793 the bill was ready and it proposed the
necessity of the introduction of physical exercises in schools, with
particular regard to military aspects. The introduction of the reforms
did not eventuate (Földes et al., 1982).
95
The 2nd
Ratio Educationis – events of the beginning of the 19th
Century
The 2nd Ratio Educationis issued in 1806 did not touch upon
P.E. at all. However a separate chapter dealt with the question of
military training. From the 1820s onwards, vanguards from the
movement for a versatile youth education Miklós Wesselényi, István
Széchenyi and Lajos Kossuth urged the creation of the National
United Front for P.E. On their initiative the National Fencing
Institute (1825), the Pest Body Exercise Institute (1839), as well as
baths and stables were founded in Pest. Being maecenas of sport,
they used every opportunity to promote and develop sport. By the
second decade of the 19th
Century a new branch of public body
exercise had reached Hungary: gymnastics. The first official P.E.
teacher in Hungary was Wilhelm Egger - as a student of Pestalozzi –
moving to Pest he opened a gym where he taught gymnastics (Földes
et al., 1982).
First attempts to introduce P.E. in schools until the Freedom
Fight in 1848-49, effects of the Reform Era
In the Hungarian history we call a whole era – the nearly two
decades between 1830-1848, broadly speaking the first half of the
19th
century – the Reform Era. Reasonably as the groups of society
taking part in politics demanded and gave effect to reforms. From the
1840s onwards in the escalated process of increasing reform
movements and the growing middle social class, the great ideas of
the 19th
Century such as liberalism, conservatism, nationalism played
a significant role in the common thinking and political life. One of
the important endeavors of this era – from our point of view as well
– the issue of introducing P.E. was tried to be put through personal
initiations, then consecutively through wide social classes, too.
From 1845 onwards, as the headmaster of the Pest Lutheran
high school, Lajos Tavasi introduced P.E. in his school, that was
initially taught by Egger, then Clair. As a Lutheran school organizer,
Lajos Schedius in his school’s organizational regulation - issued in
1837 and 1840 – raised P.E. among the main subjects in public
96
schools. In the Debrecen Calvinist College from 1842 P.E. was
among the basic subjects that were taught by senior students. From
1841 in the “Pesti Hírlap” (a newspaper) Lajos Kossuth stood out to
introduce P.E. in schools, moreover he stood up for the necessity of
physical education for women. In 1846, in the Girls Boarding
Institute of Blanka Teleki, physical education was among the
subjects. On July 20th
1848, the first Hungarian Educational
Congress assembled where the proposals included the introduction of
physical education, emphasizing the importance of pre-school
education. This was the first time when such a reform plan was
developed in which P.E. was listed among the basic subjects from
pre-school till upper primary school. However, due to the break out
of the freedom fight (1848), the reforms couldn’t realized. In August
1848, József Eötvös, Minister of Religion and Education proposed a
bill in which he inaugurated P.E. as one of the main subjects in
elementary schools. During the Freedom Fight in 1848, schools and
gymnastic trainings were put into service for the army. At the end of
1848, Lajos Kossuth urged the intention to introduce P.E. in schools
(Földes et al., 1982).
Post-war ambitions concerning P.E. (1849-1867)
In Spring 1849, after the expulsion of the enemy Hungary
proclaimed its autonomy and the dethronement of the Habsburg
Monarchy. However, in the beginning of July, the aligned forces of
the Imperial and Tsarist armies marched against the revolutionary
Hungary. After a devastating defeat sanctions were taken. By the
means of the 1867 Compromise Hungary gave up most of its state
autonomy, recognized primary importance of the subsistent unified
empire. The transformed empire was referred to as Astro-Hungarian
Monarchy, which existed until 1918. After putting down the
revolution, Haynau eliminated all social organizations and institutes
in Hungary. For the representatives and pioneers of P.E. job loss and
forced enrollment in the army were waiting. It was only after the fall
of Haynau (1850) when institutionalized P.E. became possible. From
the academic year of 1850-51, the Organisations Entwurf, developed
by Károly Than came into operation, which fitted gymnastics among
the special (voluntary) subjects. The Eger Cistercian Secondary
School (1856), Győr and Ungvár elementary schools, as well as the
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collage of Sárospatak (1858) stood out in the introduction of school
P.E. (Földes et al., 1982).
Physical education from the Compromise till World War I
(1867-1918)
Following the Compromise (1867), the case of education
policy had come to a settlement. During the administration of József
Eötvös, Minister of Religion and Education, teaching P.E. with
regards to simulated fights was made compulsory not in secondary
schools, but in junior and senior classes in public elementary
schools. This act was based on the 1868. XXXVIII. Act on Public
Education and Service. According to the act besides teaching
German gymnastics, the teaching of the exercise program,
fundaments of methodology also belonged to the scope of the duties
of the teacher training institutes. Between 1868-1912 the exercises of
the so-called German gymnastics were characteristic regarding the
structural construction of gymnastic classes. From 1870 experts were
familiar with the Swedish physical exercises, however, these only
got into the Hungarian curriculum later, after the turn of the century.
Direction for secondary schools issued in 1868 contained physical
exercises, military drills, exercises on or with equipments.
Curriculum of 1870 specified military drills free and jumping
exercises plus gymnastics in the lower grades of elementary school,
which were expanded with military field- and simulated fights. The
curriculum of elementary schools was basically corresponding to that
of the public schools. Track and field exercises were given place in
the syllabus in secondary schools. The syllabus materials and
teaching books published during this period were assembled in the
manner that not only qualified gymnastics teachers but also veteran
teachers, sometimes janitors and the Wiener Neustadt NCOs could
use them. (Földes et al., 1982).
From the 1880s besides the Ministry of Defense and Culture,
a growing number of social organizations took a stand for the
introduction of physical education. The XXX. Act in 1883 ordained
secondary schools to provide weekly 4 times of military exercises in
freshmen and sophomore years, and 2 lessons in junior and seniors
years with regard to physical education. Due to the resistance of the
schools, the execution of these plans was delayed. The proposal of
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Albert Berzeviczy in 1889 (“The domestication of scholastic
physical and training exercises”) was one of the first steps taken in
order to transform gymnastics classes into physical education. As a
result, the extension of physical education by exercises and games
taken from the folk P.E was proposed. The bill of 1899 lowered the
number of classes to 2 lessons, but imposed 1 class of outdoor
activities per week as well as skating afternoons. It was only in 1905,
when the syllabus of elementary schools included the right number
of classes in P.E., where the main emphasis was in action games.
Under the terms of the bill of 1908, Swedish basic pedagogic
exercises were introduced in 15 minutes duration every lesson.
Gymnasia were equipped with Swedish banks, wall bars, vault and
trampoline. With the purpose of being more intensely time efficient,
teamwork gave place to class work.
Evolved in the 1910s, a so-called Hungarian Physical
Education system was in force until the 1940s and was based on
Swedish gymnastics as well as on elements of German gymnastics,
games and English outdoor games. P.E. classes had triple structure
(warm-up, teaching, calming down the body) (Báthori, 1985).
Hungarian P.E. between the two world wars
During the government of the 1st Hungarian People’s
Republic (16th
November 1918 – 19th
March 1919.) in addition to
reorganizing the Hungarian sport life, proposals were made
concerning the reform of school P.E., democratization of schools as
well as making the training of P.E. teachers up to date. László Nagy
had an outstanding role in proposing reforms, and therefore he is
known in posterity as “The Hungarian educator of culture”, “the
organizer of the Hungarian experimental-psychological-pedagogical
laboratory” and “guiding pedagogue”.
21st March 1919 the Hungarian Republic of Council was
proclaimed, so the cultural revolution took off. (Republic of Council
= social, political and economic revolution. People take over the
power). “Life’s most important treasure is the educated mind and the
healthy body” – says one of the posters of the Republic of Council.
László Nagy continued his professional work. In his assemblage,
“The institutes and plans establish by the Comissariat of Education”
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included “In every scholastic syllabus physical education stands
foremost” (Donáth, 2007. 168p.)
The Hungarian Republic of Council lasted only for 133 days
(1st March 1919 – 1
st August 1919). Reforms, measures and plans
could not be carried out. In March 1918 new curriculum was
developed for secondary schools, elementary schools as well as for
boys and girls separately. Remarkable reform proposals were made:
break away from the militant-minded German gymnastics and attain
a sort of multifunctional P.E. that relies on modern medicine,
biology, results and experimental methods of children’s studies.
The positive effects of Swedish gymnastics (exercises based
on anatomical and physiological knowledge, as well as preventive
and posture correction exercises) must be implemented. Radical
change was needed in the mentality of teaching physical education,
the material and in systematic teaching. The primary goal of P.E.
was to raise a hardworking, long living human who is able to create,
act and fight, is well trained both mentally and in character. For the
first time in the history of Hungarian P.E. it appeared that in addition
to physiological effects, P.E. had aesthetic, moral and communal
impact on their work as well.
The Horthy Era (1920-1944)
After the defeat of the Hungarian Republic of Council on 1st
March 1920 the Parliament elected Miklós Horthy as governor. The
new political and social structure tried to recover the positions lost in
the field of physical education and sport. Featured task was to fully
militarize the Hungarian school system – as military reinforcement.
Military exercises were meant to have a dominant role in physical
education – regarding pre-school education and all other school
types, too. The Ministry of Religion and Education resisted open
militarization, instead they thought covert militarization was more
effective. In December 1921, the National Assembly adopted the 53th
Act of 1921, the Act of Physical Education, which was later called
the “Levente” law (Levente = young souldier). Thereafter public
school P.E. became pre-school training for the military. The physical
education constraint was achieved through legislative level. Regular
physical education was made compulsory in state schools for both
boys and girls. Extracurricular P.E. was obligatory for boys only
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until the age of 21. It is only in 1924 when the law took effect. This
action tried to hand over more and more influence to the Hungarian
Scouts Union regarding P.E., especially in using the time of summer
vacation for physical activities. It specified the recording of those
obligated to physical education, and their directing to the Levente
fellowship. Constraint of Levente was a covert militarization of
physical education by securing the dominant role of military training.
Count Kunó Klebelsberg, Minister for Education had a decisive role
regarding the training of P.E. teachers (he established the Hungarian
College of Physical Education, 1925). He was an advocate for
covertly militarizing physical culture. On the positive side, in the
concept of Levente education, physical education was considered
equal with moral and intellectual education by the Minister.
Development of the cause of P.E. depended on the proceeding of the
Levente movement. Getting used to fighting and being defeated was
supported by the theories of English Common Sport Pedagogy. In
his opinion the training that was carried out by the army must be
substituted by the means of sport. Between 1928-1930 the concept of
the Levente movement unambiguously prevailed in the form of
school physical education, military drills, simulated fights and
military knowledge. In trainings military methods were used.
Exercises were focused on strength and endurance training. Girls
also had similar exercises. In 1941 militarization was intesified
(Földes et al., 1982).
Hungarian physical education between 1945-1956. The
Rákosi Era
Rákosi Era covers the Hungarian history between 1945-1956.
It was named after the leader, Mátyás Rákosi, who established a
Stalinist, totalitarian dictatorship, coming to the top of the power
pyramid between 1947-1948. He had a new constitution and state
coat of arms made in 1949 based on Soviet pattern. The
Establishment of the police state and the era of terror was about to
start. In the first period after the liberation (end of 1944 till the end
of 1948) movement of sport and the revival of physical education
was on the agenda.
Teacher’s Union, - whose P.E. department discussed issues
such as means, methods, aims of P.E., class lessons (suggestion: 3
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lessons weekly, 2 lessons of games and sport), physical cultural tasks
of schools, proposition of introducing P.E. in higher education -
played a great role. The partial reconstruction of buildings,
replacement of equipment or damaged items then the preparation of
teaching could start at the College of Physical Education. (Földes et
al., 1982). The first years of the development of physical education
was characterized by building new ground for P.E., sensational
successes and failures in sport. The second phase was between 1948-
1963, when based on the contemporary documents and terminology,
the foundations of socialist physical culture were laid down. The
start of the third phase dates back to 1963, this is the phase of the
unfolding of the socialist body culture. In 1949 three sport high
schools opened their doors in Esztergom, Kiskunfélegyháza and
Pécs. From 1950s, following the Soviet pattern, education policy was
subordinated to the interest of politics. The aim and content of
education was determined by the system of socialist ideas. In the
center of curricular aims was the breeding of the “socialist
genotype”. Regulations on school physical education were issued in
1950. Through the curriculum introduced in the 1950s (operated
until 1978/79), the administration wished to eliminate the authority
and sovereignty of schools and pedagogues. In the academic year of
1962-63, universities and colleges introduced curricular P.E., so as
pursuance of teaching-training work of secondary school P.E. was
ensured. In December 1954 the Central Directorate of the Hungarian
Labour Party was engaged in the issue of physical education and the
movement of sport, and stated that besides the achieved results, the
most neglected field was the school. In the beginning of August
1956, the Ministry of Education announced the new curriculum for
primary schools (Földes et al., 1982).
Hungarian physical education in the Kádár Era (1956-
1988)
János Kádár spent an unprecedented length of time in the 20th
Century Hungarian political life. He had been the number one factor
of power for 32 years. As the Secretery General of the MSZMP
(Hungarian Socialist Labour Party), he was two times Hungarian
Prime Minister (1956-58; 1961-88). His personality and his politics
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is called “kádárism”, or as many called it “goulash communism”.
The Kádár system was a totalitarian socialist system.
The reform of education system was carried out based on the
3rd
Act of 1961. In the 1960-70s pre-school P.E. was developed as
well as countervailing the increase of lifestyle diseases public school
physical education received more and more emphasis
(“Gyógytestnevelési tanterv és utasítás, 1965” - Curriculum of
therapeutic exercises 1965). In the ‘70s the political committee
pointed out the low quality, outdated content of requirements, and
low number of lessons in physical education. Taking all the above
mentioned factors into consideration, the works on the curriculum
started in the ‘70s. On 1st July 1973, the Independent General
Department of Physical Education and Sport went into force within
the confines of the Ministry of Culture. It was responsible the
primary, secondary and higher educational institutes’ sport
programmes. In the first half of the ‘70s more and more data slipped
out about the deterioration of youth physical fitness. Regulations
were born for the sake of the development of P.E. Developing the
pre-school system and physical culture were considered an
emphasized task. From the academic year of 1973/74 the Minister of
Education ordered 3 lessons of P.E. weekly in primary school. From
September 1978, in primary and secondary schools, P.E. teachers
were obliged to retain mass-sport classes indicated in the timetable.
In the sport of primary schools, the student olimpics played a
decisive role. In the academic year of 1977/78 schools were lacking
1000 P.E. teachers. Therefore the number of applicants enrolled in
teachers’ training program was increased, so the deficit was reduced
by the ‘80s. However the classroom teachers’ effectiveness at
primary school’s was questionable.
In secondary education 3 lessons of P.E. per week were
compulsory from 1973. In 1974, secondary school clubs were acted
upon. Concerning secondary school teacher supply, only in few
schools did troubles appear, however the situation in vocational
schools were far worse. From 1976 on new curricula of P.E. were
progressively introduced. The curriculum of therapeutic P.E. was
published as well. The health status of students was classified into 4
categories: healthy, those who take full part in P.E., those who have
reduced P.E. and the exempts.
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In 1973 physical education classes with specialized sport
curriculum were started. This provision applied to 126 primary
school classes and 23 secondary school classes. In the academic year
of 1977/78, 22.749 students took part in 764 classes specialized in
P.E. In 1st-2nd grade the weekly number of lessons was raised to 6,
3rd-4th grade to 8 lessons a week. Further important regulation was
the application of the “performance book”, which was introduced in
primary schools in the academic year of 1977/78, and in secondary
schools in 1978/79. Its aim was to improve the self directed physical
ability development. In 1978/79 new educational curriculums were
published.
Educational curriculums of 1978/79. Evolution of the new
conceptual framework of school P.E.
These curriculums (both primary and secondary school) are
included in the line of centralized and prescriptive curricula.
Curricula specialized for P.E. specified the initiation of requirements
and tasks necessary to optimal physical development of students.
They set the aims to establish and shape health-related sanitary
culture and unprompted health defending habits. Furthermore the
development of physical/mental capacity and improvement of
physical and intellectual fitness.
The specialized curricula of 1977/78 in addition to the
characteristics of centralized curriculum, proved to be productive,
firstly because of implementing eligibility and presence of curricular
approach. Although it was within the confines of traditional frames,
it tried to emphasize the physical cultural transmitting role of P.E.
through the high standards of the subject. It also contained novelty as
well: optional outdoor activities and winter sessions. Declared aim of
the curriculum was to develop intellectual skills through deriving
theoretical knowledge and basic level of curricular integration.
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Physical education since the change of political system in
1989, the democratic Hungary
From the change of political system till the first National
Core Curriculum (NAT) 1995
In Hungary, the efforts to renew the public education system
already occurred before the political transition. Public education
began to rupture the framework of the party-state and the
pedagogical theory and practice became more diverse (alternative
pedagogy, strengthening reform pedagogical trends - Rogers -
school, Komp - school, Value transmitting and Ability developing
School, Waldorf School). The first government (Antall
administration) decided on a plan to establish the minimum national
core curriculum. However, the adoption took only place during the
second government (Horn administration) in 1995. This was the
National Core Curriculum (NAT) 1995, which “was made to be a
regulatory document to be supreme to all types of schools”
(Eszterág, 2010, 85.p.). The NAT 1995 introduced on 1st September
1998, had two substantial consequences: it marked the educational-
political intention in the execution of the decentralized, bipolar
curricular regulation, and generated a structural debate. The
curriculum introduced in the preceding political system, the
“socialist” curriculum was still in force in the academic year of
2002/03.
Major characteristics and effects of the first National
Core Curriculum (NAT 1995) in regard to P.E.
The National Core Curriculum 1995 (Nemzeti Alaptanterv,
1995) is a tool of an EU compliant, development-oriented curriculum
and decentralized education management. Pedagogical programs and
local syllabuses are based on the NAT. Requirements of the
generated local curriculum were considered as positive development
regarding P.E. Implementing the previous curricula was namely
compulsory however, institutional and equipment supply made it
impossible in most schools. Among its virtues we can list the
approach of the curriculum and the expansion of its content. Topics
105
like “Combat exercises and games”, „Self-defense in Martial Arts”,
“Prevention, relaxation”, “Rhythmic Gymnastics” and “Prevention”
appeared. Downside of it is though that the curriculum constricts the
value developing role of P.E. to motor sphere of the personality.
Another handicap of the NAT 1995 is that it assigns the number of
lessons in percentage among educational areas. Practically the
number of P.E. in upper classes and in secondary schools decreased
from 3 times a week to 2-2.5 times a week, it was only in lower
grades where they could preserve 3 times P.E. classes per week.
“Frame Curricula” 2000
Following the amendment of the Educational Act in 1999
(1999. évi LXVIII. törvény a közoktatásról) the content regulation
became three-staged. In the first stage, the National Core Curriculum
ensured the uniformity of public education (by its principles,
featured developmental tasks). In the second stage it provided (NAT
compatible) methodological support, optional frame curricular
recommendations and methodological software package resources.
In 2000, the only, and therefore binding, frame curricula was
introduced by which the bipolar, three-staged education management
was materialized. (It should be noted that related to the 2003 and
2007 NAT, 65 frame curricula were created). 19th
December 2000
was an important date in the history of P.E.: requirements met the
legal conditions for daily physical education in 1-4 grades in public
education (2000. évi CXLV. törvény a sportról).
National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2003
The Article 93 of the Public Education Act 2002 (2002. évi
XXI. törvény), ordained the supervision of NAT 1995, a correction
based on an empirical analysis. The NAT 2003 (Nemzeti
Alaptanterv, 2003), the result of the supervision of NAT 1995,
preserved its basic features but broke the traditions at several points.
One of the most fundamental changes is that it does not contain
detailed contents and requirements. Developmental tasks described
the desired skills, capabilities and competencies. The essence of the
concept of generating curriculum: to provide opportunity for the
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urgent need to inaugurate the development of Hungarian education
in order to make the pedagogical alternatives appear in school
practice. Therefore NAT 2003 not directly but indirectly defines
requirements for knowledge, skills, and abilities. (Rétsági, 2004,
41.p.)
NAT 2003, Field of Physical Education of Sport
The objectives of the NAT 2003 recognized that physical
education not only develops motor skills, but has also mental,
emotional and social directions and effects. New feature is that it
draws attention to forming an emphasized lifestyle; knowledge to
substantiate life and conveying beliefs and virtues. It lists features
that need to be developed in order to prepare for social life and
develope cultured manners. In addition it implies to the educational
effects on selfexpression and selfrealization through physical
education and sport. The developing exercises are conducive to
acquire independent and conscious physical activity and general
physical literacy through laying down the basics in lower grades of
primary school (1-4.), then improving the already assimilated
knowledge in higher grades (5-8.) and orientating towards age
specificities in secondary schools.
National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2007
The objectives of the NAT 2003 recognized that physical
education not only develops motor skills, but has also mental,
emotional and social directions and effects. New feature is that it
draws attention to forming an emphasized lifestyle; knowledge to
substantiate life and conveying beliefs and virtues. It lists features
that need to be developed in order to prepare for social life and
develope cultured manners. In addition it implies to the educational
effects on selfexpression and selfrealization through physical
education and sport. The developing exercises are conducive to
acquire independent and conscious physical activity and general
physical literacy through laying down the basics in lower grades of
primary school (1-4.), then improving the already assimilated
knowledge in higher grades (5-8.) and orientating towards age
specificities in secondary schools.
107
National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2012
In December 2011, the Parliament approved the 2011.CXC.
Act on national public education. Some of the elements of the new
public education law are centralization of public education institutes
put into force in January 2013; cutting down schooling age limit
from 18 to 16 years of age; local syllabus of school may differ from
the NAT in no more than 10% of the content (Nemzeti Alaptanterv,
2012 ; Frame Curricula 2012). NAT 2012 was made in the spirit of
the Public Education Act. In NAT 2012, in contrast with NAT 2007,
competencies were de-emphasized and the contents of public
education received a central role. The change in this educational-
political approach had a positive effect on school physical education,
first and foremost on introducing daily P.E. In regard to the
infrastructural situation of P.E., schools were to choose from two
opportunities: 1) five classes of P.E. weekly within the confines of
the school timetable, 2) three classes of P.E. within the school time
schedule, plus adequate lesson of extracurricular sport activities (3+2
system). Legal specification meant a great leap forward, because
many schools had only enrolled two classes per week until then. A
frame curricula was made for both variations and all types of
schools.
Physical Education and Sport in NAT 2012
With regard to the novelty and vocational quality compared to
the previous curricula, we present NAT 2012 in more details. The
curriculum assigns its mission in two areas: holistic health promotion
in schools and talent management. Its novelty can principally be
caught in the act of having holistic prescriptions similarly to the
genre of prescriptive curriculum (detailed system of goals and tasks,
a full definition of the content). In respect of professionalism it
stands out from the other curricula with its coherent set of objectives
and contents outlining a type of physical education that has such a
new quality, in content and in methodology of school P.E.
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The definitions representing the most essential virtues of
NAT 2012 can be grouped around key expressions such as health
orientation, personal and social features. Both traditional and modern
contents of physical education that serve the realization of curricular
objectives are split into three age periods (1-4th.; 5-8th.; and 9-12th
grade), and into two years of content that are closely bound up with
each other (motor literacy - culture of movements; knowledge and
personality development). The coexistence of these two unities of
content express the complexity of motor skills and the tightly
connected cognitive, affective and social skill development, which
typical for the area of literacy. Linking the two main unities, the
essential feature of physical education can be revealed. Firstly, that
shaping up motor literacy/culture of movements can only be
performed thought knowledge connected to motor content. On the
other hand, it is unimaginable to socialize to a long lasting, health-
conscious lifestyle without empirical knowledge (Csányi & Révész,
2015). The content unity of knowledge and personality development
is one of the elements of recent and innovative curriculum. NAT
2012 is the first to handle the theoretical knowledge, information
transmiting role of the area of physical education and sport literacy
(Rétsági & Csányi, 2014) according to its significance.
Another novelty is the definition of the range of cross-
curricular, interdisciplinary knowledge (physiological, hygienic,
communicational, historical, ethnographic, recreational knowledge),
as well as the appearance of the developing field of “Prevention, life
management, health promotion”.
“Frame Curricula” 2012
Serving the developing approach of NAT and Frame
Curricula, the process of acquiring the motor content of P.E. and
sport is both the aim and the tool. Therefore the thematic units of
frame curricula can be grouped according to the aim, means and the
nature of the motions. Fundamental movements dominate in the 1-4th
grades, then the toolkit of motor literacy is progressively extended
by traditional and alternative sport specific motor skills in 5-8th
grade. Teaching playfully and through games is a leading
methodological principle, moreover communication that serves the
shaping up of cooperation, creativity and consciousness is highly
109
emphasized. Physical activities that are based on preliminary
knowledge appear as a developmental aim within the confines of
units of the mentioned frame curricula. As a consequence
educational and developmental objectives of the thematic unit –
based on the specific and typical educational and developmental
goals and objectives of P.E. – are solved by logically building on
each other. It consistently takes age and pedagogical features of the
subject and the sensitive periods of development into account. Not
only does it have an impact on physical components, but also on the
whole personality (mental, emotional, physical and social domains).
Motor literacy is attached to the expansion of knowledge and
personality development. It also indicates interdisciplinary linking
points of each thematic unit. The results expected by the end of
every two-year unit determine the most prominently expected
elements of knowledge and skills. The Frame Curricula also makes a
proposal on the number of lessons devoted to each topic in the
upcoming two years. Legally, local school curricula may only differ
from the Frame Curricula in 10% of the content, which, in principle,
represents a major limitation. However, the creators of Frame
Curricula have integrated so many options to choose from that every
school, considering local possibilities, can shape the local school
curricula to their own image.
The T.E.S.I. Project and the NETFIT® for helping the
implementation of the NAT 2012
Making the transition to the new curriculum and estabilishing
a new, health-related and criterion referenced physical fitness
assessment battery presented a huge challenge for the Hungarian PE
system. To ensure a positive outcome, the Hungarian School Sport
Federation (HSSF) proposed a training and education program that
would directly support the implementation of the new National Core
Curriculum. The specific HSSF initiative (Strategic Actions for
Health-Enhancing Physical Education or Testnevelés az
Egészségfejlesztésben Stratégiai Intézkedések [T.E.S.I.]) was
officially launched in 2012 with the financial help of the European
Social Fund and the Hungarian government, and it creates the
structure for the structured PE development in Hungary. The TESI
project focused on three important areas for enhancing P.E.. The first
110
area was the establishment of a formalized strategic plan called
Physical Education Strategy 2020. This comprehensive plan
includes four main strategic goals that capture the conditions for
quality PE (e.g. infrastructure, human resources, professional
qualifications and curriculum development). A second priority was
the creation of an educational training framework and resources
needed for Quality Physical Education. This included preparation of
books, creating videos, and the distribution of resources needed to
implement the new curriculum. The focus of these resources was on
content not traditionally covered in PE Teacher Education (PETE)
programs or in-service trainings in Hungary (e.g. a student centered
instructional models, tactical games approach in games, stress
control and relaxation, health-education materials, fundamental
movement education). The third component of the TESI project was
the development of a new, national school based fitness assessment
system. The health-related physical fitness assessment system was
planned to fulfill the long term need for a standardized evaluation
system in the Hungarian PE profession (see Csányi et al., 2015).
The qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the T.E.S.I. and
NETFIT® initiative will be an important work in the near future.
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alapjai – Középpontban a tanulás. (1. kiadás). Magyar
Diáksport Szövetség, Budapest.
Csányi, T., Finn, K.J., Welk, G.J., Zhu, W., Karsai, I., Ihász, F.,
Vass, Z. and Molnár, L. (2015). Overview of the
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Ms Andrea Ember for the for the
valuable comments that help improve the manuscript.
113
ITALY
THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRIMARY
SCHOOL IN ITALY
FROM THE PROGRAMS TO THE NATIONAL
GUIDELINES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
TEACHER TRAINING (PETE)
Dario Colella, Degree Course of Motor Activities and Sport
Sciences , University of Foggia
Amalia Tinto, S.U.I.S.M. - School of Physical and Sports Education
- University of Torino
Stefania Cazzoli, S.U.I.S.M. - School of Physical and Sports
Education - University of Torino
Correspondence
Colella Dario
Mobile: (+39)3476680998
Phone (+39)0881309334
Fax (+39)0881309346
Abstract
The Documents ministerial (Ministry of Education) for the
teaching of physical education in primary schools in Italy, in the last
thirty years, have shown significant changes in the structure and
terminology regarding disciplinary epistemology, aims and
objectives, didactics indications.
The historical evolution of school regulations has affected the
development of the physical education but are not there have been
specific measures for the training of teachers. The first evidence
regards the name: Moral, civic and physical education (1955); Motor
Education (1985); Sports Science and Sports (2004); Body and
Movement (2007); Physical Education (2012). The evolution of the
philosophical, pedagogical, psychological and educational theories
have characterized the programs and the teaching of the physical
education in schools. The Documents have expressed some essential
114
themes: the transition from planning for goals to the Programming
competences, the personalization of educational intervention, the
curricular organization for learning units, the specific learning
objectives for education to civil coexistence; the goals for the
development of competences and the vertical curriculum.The
generalist teacher education in physical education limits the
implementation of the teaching process and the various national and
regional projects are a partial answer to the problem.
Introduction
In Italy the teaching of physical education in primary school
was marked by profound changes: the evolution of the philosophical,
pedagogical and didactics theories, laws and organization of school,
the need to redefine teaching models, the need to respond to changes
in society.
The teaching of physical education in primary schools in Italy, from
the eighties to the present, has been marked by significant changes
resulting from various factors: the evolution of the laws and of the
school organization (self-government of school), the need to respond
to changes in society, the need to adapt education systems to the
latest scientific evidence, about the processes of teaching and
learning. The terms used in the programmatic documents are the
result of a long process but expressed uncertainty epistemological
and methodological and a difficulty in recognizing a real disciplinary
autonomy (Fig.1).
In the National Guidelines (2012) reappears finally the term Physical
Education (used worldwide) and reaffirms clearly of the disciplinary
the contribution to the educational process of the person. In fact, are
defined the goals for the development of competences at the end of
primary school and the learning objectives at the end of the fifth
class, for all schools in the Country
The implementation of the learning process requires the structure of
a vertical curriculum (kindergarten to middle school) and
personalized, through the learning units. An open question concerns
the generalist teacher education and cooperation with the specialist
teacher (Expert) for physical education in the curriculum in the
primary school.
115
The various national projects (2010-2014) and regional responses are
provisional and partial: concern some classes and for a limited period
of the school year.
The programs of primary school. Moral, civic and physical
education (1955)
The process of teaching and learning over the years, has been
conditioned by the philosophical and pedagogical theories. In Italy in
particular, in the programs of primary school the physical education
is with the moral and civic education (Moral, civic and physical
education). The name indicates a reference to the philosophical
dualist theories; the man expresses two ways of living and acting, as
body and spirit. According to the dualism in the individual there is
no continuity or possible cooperation between the activities sense-
perceptual-motor and cognitive functions.The programs contain
instructions and guidelines for the physical education activities for
the first cycle (first and second class) and the second cycle (third,
fourth, fifth grade). The program is a summary of the elaboration
time on the pedagogical way of thinking about the values of the
physical education in to a training project aimed at children. The
aims of the physical education are as follows:
Hygienic-physiological. Health promotion, prevention of
paramorphism, the development of respiratory and
muscular functions and motor executions correct;
Recreational and expressive. The various physical
activities, the exercises and the games are the motivations
for children to enable them to express themselves and
communicate;
Moral. Physical education is a way to adjust the physical
energies and direct them to the child's educational goals
ethical, personal and social.
The ministerial document expresses a particular attention to the
physical and corporeal aspects of the child. Such attention is
expressed as part of a vision implicitly dualist: between mind
and body, between the cognitive and motor functions are not
allowed mutual relations. In teaching the dualism expressed
with the physical education has two purposes, opposed to each
116
other: training technicist or the recreational activity
spontaneous.
The programs of primary school. Motor Education (1985).
The text of the programs of primary school (DPR 12
February n. 104;1985) of Motor Education [the term used in Italy has
expressed the teaching of physical education in primary school]
expresses a synthesis of various theories and practices of motor
activities for children and adolescents, present in years past.
In the Programs the motor education is an autonomous discipline and
with a clear identity didactic and pedagogical (Fig.2).
The scientific conceptions that have guided the program are,
essentially, the phenomenology (Merlea-Ponty,1945), the
cognitivism / structuralism (Bruner, 1967) that express the unity of
the person and the education and the overcoming of every dualism.
Each discipline is a tool of knowledge to learn how to learn.
Fig.1 – Physical Education in the primary school in Italy.
1955 •Moral, civic and physical education
1985 •Motor Education
2004 • Motor Sciences and Sport
2007 •Body and Movement
2012 •Physical Education
117
The innovation disciplinary is determined by the following factors
and perspectives:
a. the unitary conception of the person, considered in the
interdependence of functions and variety of experiences; b. the motor
experiences of the child gradually contribute the evolution and
development of cognitive, emotional and social-emotional during
childhood; c. physical education is not considered a marginal
discipline of the school curriculum, because it is characterized by
specific content and educational values are realized through multiple
interdisciplinary and transversals connections; d. motor activities in
the school curriculum are not sports premature nor recreation, to be
integrated into the development process of the person.
The Programs affirm the value of corporeality that expresses the
unity of the person and the levels of development cognitive, motor,
emotional, social-affective and mutual relations, in relation with the
motor experiences.
Corporeality is considered:
expression of the unity of the person;
mode of relating through the gestural expressiveness and
postures (language);
learning mode through the motor function.
All learning takes place through the body and movement: the
movement for all children is one of the languages (expression and
communication) through which mediation occurs between the person
and all learning (Giugni,1986).
The programs show that motor activities promote the development of
all aspects of the personality, cognitive, organic-motor, emotional
and social and indicate the directions of development curricular:
education through the body and movement;
education of the body and movement;
education to the body and movement
These directions will be a constant focus for the curriculum in the
subsequents documents (2004,2007,2012).
The education through the body and movement highlights the
function of mediation of the experience motor for cognitive,
emotional, motor and social development of each child and the
contribution of the discipline for promote learning in all areas of
curriculum (Arnold, 1988; Colella, 2011).
118
The motor activities promote learning of topological concepts
(space, time, quantity, quality and their relationships, in relation to
the body, the tool, the other, the environment), the resolution of the
problems, the development of relations interpersonal.
The structured motor activities conducted at school have a key role
in the processes of motor learning of the child and the experiences
are very related to the physical self-efficacy, at the perception and to
awareness of their skills and self-evaluation of the results achieved
(Bandura, 1993).
Through multiple and varied activities and organizational modalities,
it provides an essential contribution to emotional development,
particularly in the enjoyment and the learning intrinsic motivation
(Ryan & Deci, 2000; Chunlei & Buchanan, 2014).
The education of the body and movement expresses the gradual
process of learning skills and development of the motor abilities.
Motor activities have a fundamental role to enrich the language of
the engine and complete the process of literacy of the engine
(Gallahue & Cleland., 2003). The motor literacy is a learning process
that enables to all children to acquire a linguistic repertoire-motor,
used not only in motor activities but also in other areas of the
curriculum in close relationship with the learning of reading, writing,
mathematics, art and music.
The first stage of the process of education of the movement is the
development of perceptual motor skills, auditory, visual, tactile,
kinesthetic, which through the perception of multiple information
relating to the analyzers, allows the child to structure a correct
perception and self-awareness, develop many different answers
through the fundamental motor skills (crawling, rolling, walking,
running, jumping, throwing, grabbing, kicking, etc.). The
fundamental motor skills, are the alphabet of movement, the matrices
of each subsequent learning of motor skills, through the interaction
of variables executive, spatial, temporal, quantitative and qualitative,
and mutual relations. The concepts of space, time, quantity, quality,
and their relationship, when applied to one or more fundamental
motor skills are variants, or ways to perform the motor skill and
combine different motor skills (Sotgiu & Pellegrini, 1989; Wrisberg
& Schmidt, 2000; Gallahue & Cleland, 2003).
The variants of the movement are generalities, rules, concepts, for
the evolution of learning, interaction of fundamental motor skills,
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transferable in different languages and, therefore, transverse to the
learning of skills in different areas of the curriculum.
Through the execution of motor tasks in which they express the
relationships between the fundamental motor skills and the variations
of the movement, it realizes the process of learning of motor skills,
gradually more specific, in relation to sports and the development of
motor abilities coordinative and conditional (Wrisberg &
Schmidt,2000). The teaching process will tend to acquire each child
"the broadest base motor" of the fundamental motor skills (number
and variety), ie, a repertoire of motor skills, essential for motor
development and the educational process. The motor experiences
motor to school are among the essential determinants of the
educational process of each child: their reduction or absence limits
the opportunities for growth and development and affects the links
between cognitive, motor, emotional and relational.
The education in the body and movement indicates a rich and
articulated process that completes the curriculum and involves
various areas of pedagogical intervention with which motor activities
enter into relationship: nutrition education, environmental education,
road, citizenship, affectivity, health education, with the broader
meaning (Bertagna, 2004). The movement education indicates
interventions for understanding the preventive role of motor
activities, the promotion of physically active lifestyles and well-
being; a path that will accompany the child even in subsequent
educational levels.
The game-sports is an indication of absolute novelty for programs of
primary school (1985); methodological and teaching is an indication
for: a. realize the broader repertoire of individual motor skills; b.
develop motor experience in a playful, varied, investee; c. assist in
the conduct of activities gradually more organized (group games and
team, individual sports, dance, expressive activities, activities in
different contexts).
120
Physical Education in Ministerial Documents – Italy
Moral, civic and
physical
education
[1955]
Motor Education
[1985]
Motor Sciences
and Sport [2004]
Body and Movement
[2007]
Physical Education
[2012]
Finality Finality Objectives
Hygienic-physiological
Promote the
development of abilities related to the
sense-perceptual
functions.
Skills and
Knowledge For the first class;
the second and
third class (first two years); fourth
and fifth classes (second two years)
Specific learning
objectives:
Movement ;
Expression;
Game and
sport;
Education
and social
life
The body and perceptual functions.
The body and its relation to space and
time.
Recreational and expressive
Consolidate and
refine, a concrete
level, the fundamental motor
skills static and
dynamic essential to the control of the
body and to the
organization of
movements.
The movement of the
body and its relation to space and time.
Moral
Contribute to the
development of coherents relational
behaviors through
verification, lived in experience of the
game and sports, the
The body language as a
mode of communication-expressive.
The body language as a
mode of communication-
expressive.
The game, the sport, the
The game, the sport,
121
need for rules and playing by the same
rules also developing
the abilities of initiative and
problem solving.
rules and fair play. the rules and fair play.
Connect the motricity to the acquisition of
skills related to
communication and gestural mimic,
dramatization, to the
relationship between movement and music,
to improve the
sensitivity of expression and
aesthetics
Safety and prevention,
health and wellness.
Health and wellness.,
prevention and safety.
Fig. 2 - Aims and objectives for Physical Education in the Documents Ministerial (1955; 1985;
2004; 2007; 2012).
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The game-sport promotes the acquisition of a map of individual
knowledge, combining the motivations of the child and the general
and specific objectives of the primary school. The game-sports is an
opportunity to experiment with new methods of execution, new
rules, different ways of solving problems, it is not immediately sport,
is not related to the individual and team performances. The transition
from playing the sport can be realized when every child will have
understood the meanings of participation, rule, role, comparison,
competition, results and performance, through educational proposals
and teaching styles adapted and proportionate to the individual levels
of organic development, psychological, emotional and social
(Giugni, 1986; Arnold,1988).
The National Guidelines. Motor sciences and sport (2004)
The National Guidelines (2004) they renew the documents and
the discipline is called "Motor Sciences and sport". The change of
the term follows the development of standards for the Italian
universities and indicates an area of learning and education, from
primary school to university.
The pedagogical and psychological reference consists of the motor
competences teaching.
The school autonomy is the background and institutional innovation
most important legislation from 1985 to 2004. Each school sets its
own plan of training offer and a reference curriculum for all classes.
The National Guidelines contain specific learning objectives, broken
down by skills and knowledge to be achieved at the end of: first
class; second and third class (first two years); classes fourth and fifth
(second two years), in order to learn motor competences
The specific learning objectives, are prescriptive for all schools in
Italy, relate to the motor learning, the development of the motor
abilities, perceptual, conditional and coordinative (motor skills,
expression, game and sports) and are the basis for the drawing up of
educational objectives, peculiar to the curriculum of each school and
group of children (Bertagna, 2004).
The educational objectives - with an indication of the performance
standards for each group-class- are needed to the teacher to prepare
the learning units and personalized study plans.
123
In the Indications are confirmed in the directions of the development
of the previous curricular program but the teacher of primary school
will have to programme (and implement) a curriculum for
competences using motor skills and knowledge for each class-group.
The Programming for motor competences in the school curriculum
indicates a major breakthrough that highlights the cultural and
methodological formative values motor activities. Each motor
experience accomplished by the child, requires an understanding of
what has been done and the results achieved, the mastery of
concepts, terms and definitions, the application of skills and
knowledge in different contexts (Arnold, 1988; Colella, 2003;
Ubaldi, 2005). According to this perspective, the motor learning is a
process in which the child has an active role, is aware of the skills
performed, revises the information about the task and the context in
which it is located, expressed skills and knowledge.
The motor learning is influenced by the styles of teaching and
learning and the potential of individual development (Mosston &
Ashworth, 2002).
A process of motor learning, is achieved through the continuous
interaction of factors, motor abilities-skills, knowledge, attitudes of
the person that evolve according to different rates and vary according
to the individual processes of maturation - learning - individual
development (Malina, 2004; Gallahue & Cleland, 2003; Colella,
2011). The first stage for the structure of the curriculum in the
document is the definition of the objectives, in terms of motor skills
and knowledge resulting from specific learning objectives (the same
for all schools). The educational objectives confer organic unity and
direction of learning, (the temporal sequence of experiences of
teaching and learning), respond to specific individual needs and are
divided according to their greater or lesser correlation with the
motor competences. The teacher identifies the educational goals for
the group of children and proposes the learning units, to facilitate the
learning of motor skills and knowledge necessary to skills. A motor
competence is the practical use of knowledge, is the practical
application of one or more knowledge and indicates a close
relationship between knowledge, skills, interpersonal skills (Colella,
2003; 2011).
124
The Guidelines for the curriculum. Body and Movement
(2007)
The Document of 2007 presents the learning objectives
(Fig.2) that the teacher uses for programming of the curriculum; is a
document more concise than the previous.
Essential characteristics: a. identifies four core themes, each with a
different number of educational objectives; b. the targets for skills
development are established in two periods: at the end of the third
class and fifth class. The structure of the document providing for the
establishment of the curriculum starting from the objectives set at the
national level (the number is less than the previous document) and
gives the teacher a wide range of choice and adaptation the
objectives.
The core themes for define the objectives: a. the development of
perceptual motor skills; b. the development of motor coordination
through the execution of fundamental motor skills and variant
embodiments; c. learning and skill development of mimic-gestural
through activities, body expression and dramatization; d. motor
learning through games of pre-sport, individual and team,
cooperation, safety and prevention and health promotion (Fig.2).
The educational objectives show that motor competence is the
capability of the child to express appropriate behaviors to a broad
spectrum of areas (disciplinary) and situations (practices), through a
repertoire of motor skills, sports and mimic-gestural, knowledge and
individual motivations (Colella,2011; Pisot,2011).
The result of learning of the child, in the curriculum for
competences, is the use of motor skills and knowledge in a given
context. A motor competence expresses the integration of knowledge
(knowledge), motor skills (the skills) and behaviors.
The goals for the development of competences at the end of primary
school the child include: a. self-awareness through the performance
of fundamental motor skills and variability of the practice; b. skills
through experiences mimic-gestural experiences of expressivity and
rhythmic music; c. the relationship between physical activity and
healthy eating habits and lifestyles physically active according safety
and prevention; d. the experimentation of various motor skills. The
game remains a learning environment essential because it allows the
125
child to experience motor skills and adapt; is an opportunity to
experience relationships with others and develop the primary
motivations to move. Subsequently, the implementation of the game
requires the introduction of rules, fundamental for the development
of the social dimension of human behaviour. The sporting experience
is the process of the motor development, emotional and social
development of the child and the experience of the game and sport
expresses gradual stages of maturation and development of the
person until the age of puberty. The motor and sports activities
promote also the culture of respect for others and respect for the
rules (fair play) and are an area of social inclusion.
The national guidelines for the curriculum. Physical Education
(2012)
The National Guidelines (2012) express the return of the
name a shared in the various nations, Physical Education, also used
in the secondary school degree. The document highlights is the
continuation and the revisiting of previous welcoming the recent
scientific evidence and good practice more widespread.
The national guidelines for the curriculum of the school system are
the answer to rapid social change, the role of the school that interacts
with other learning contexts (not formal) and recognizes that the loss
of the monopoly of education and training (Ministry of Education,
2012).
In particular, the document is the educational background and
normative for allow each institution to draw up a curriculum
adapted to the needs of the different local school communities, while
respecting the freedom of teaching. The physical education has a
structure similar to the previous document, but with three differences
in content (Ministry of Education,2012).
The first difference concerns the core themes and learning
objectives: they are further reduced (Fig.2) and terminology to
indicate the skills and knowledge are precise and concrete, indicates
the person. The core themes and learning objectives are integrated
and interdependent on each learning unit and motor experience.
The second relates to the goals for the development of competences:
is it clear what the child should learn and express in various areas
(development of the motor abilities, the learning of motor skills and
126
mimic-gestural; the game-sport; promotion health through lifestyle
physically active).
The third difference is that in physical education (and the disciplines
of the non-verbal language) the objectives are achieved at the end of
the cycle of primary school (five years) to highlight the motor
literacy process. Consequences: the core themes and the
corresponding learning objectives allow in each school of decline the
objectives for the five classes; highlighting the vertical curriculum,
the educational continuity, progression of motor competences and
the cyclicity of learning. Finally, the core themes predispose possible
aggregations disciplinary necessary to achieve interdisciplinarity and
expand the formative values of physical education.
The term game sport is present between the learning objectives; is a
topic full of interdisciplinary relationships and cross. The process of
sports education starts in primary school through the proposal of the
variability of content and will continue during preadolescence,
through the evolution and consolidation of motor skills, the
development of emotions and interpersonal relationships, in relation
to learning opportunities proposals.
The sports experience at school is an opportunity to experience
motor skills through content and activities that mobilize the area
psycho-affective and social, for their cyclical nature (vertical
curriculum), become occasions for growth of the person (Seclì &
Ceciliani, 2014).
The core themes and learning objectives provide a complete
educational process. The motor activities, the game and sports, are a
primary need of the person in childhood and the school is a very rich
and privileged context to promote the self-perception, learning of
motor competences and to acquire physically active lifestyles for
throughout life, through proper disciplinary action.
The motor activities and sports promoting, since primary school, the
culture of respect for others and respect for the rules, are the vehicle
for social inclusion and contrast to issues related to the discomfort
childhood. In the various Italian regions have been planned and
implemented numerous measures of training and education of
teachers to guide the implementation of the national document; in
physical education the main problem concerns the generalist teacher
education and the ways of cooperation with the specialist teacher.
127
Physical Education Teacher Training (PETE)
The sport, exercise, physical activity and movement
educational dimension are general described as Physical education
(Borms, 2008). The term and the concept of Physical Education (PE)
changed and evolved in the time.
In the International document of UNESCO (1978) the PE was
became fundamental right of children. In the last MINEPS V (2013)
PE was declared part of the sport system as complementary
function in the society for educating the students versus the future
citizen. In the 2013 Unesco Berlin Declaration glossary has defined
the “physical education is understood as an area of the school
curriculum concerned with human movement, physical fitness and
health. It is focused on developing physical competence so that all
children can move efficiently, and safely and understand what they
are doing, which is essential for their full development, achievement
and for lifelong participation in physical activity” (ICSSPE, 2010).
The PE was became a multi-system paradigm by organization based
on different levels:
A. education by sport, exercise, physical activity,
movement.(cultural and value level);
B. physical education as school curriculum subject (educational
level);
C. physical education as science of the family of sport science
(scientific level);
D. physical education as profession and PE teacher training (Cazzoli,
2014).
In the West oriented country was used Physical Education for
scholarly physical activity. In the last decade there was orientation to
use “Sport pedagogy” and “physical Education” in all educational
activity, in different settings, target groups, in all the domain of
human movement and sport. The focus was extended from children
to the age of all life, from pre-school skills and abilities to all special
people (with disabilities, elderly), from the school environment to all
the institutions of the community (ICSSPE, 2008). The PE was
became the science of sport based on the teaching and coaching
(Borms, 2008;Cazzoli 2015) . The PE teacher training needs new
paradigm for improve the PE quality in the 3rd
millennium. “The
high quality teaching has become one of the key objectives of the
128
Strategic Framework for Education and Training (‘ET 2020)
(European commission, Eurydice,2013), as contribution to economic
recovery, growth and jobs. The high quality of teaching need to
provide development of multi-system teacher education in
longitudinal/vertical continuity (time continuity, in the long life
learning, perspective):
initial teacher education;
continuous professional development for teachers and
trainers;
make teaching an attractive career-choice.
And in transversal/horizontal continuity (place continuity, in the
education multi-agency and stakeholder perspective): University;
School; Professional Community; Culture and Society (Cazzoli,
2015).
In Italy the PE teachers are generalist, they are certificate for to
teach all the school subjects. They attend at the University Master in
Science Education for Primary and Pre-primary school. (5 academic
years, one cycle, 300 CFU -University Formative Credit). The
University curriculum parts are: Basic Discipline 78 CFU (
Pedagogy, Didactics, Psychology, Sociology); Area1 School
Knowledge disciplines 135 CFU (Biology, Chemistry, Physics,
Music, Literature, Linguistics first language, Mathematics, Physical
Education, Geography, History, Art); Area 2 Disciplines for Special
Needs and Students with disabilities 31 CFU ( Special Pedagogy,
Psychology , Legal disciplines and sanitary). Other activity:
apprenticeship in the schools setting 24 CFU; Technology
Laboratory 3 CFU; European Language Learning – Level B2 12
CFU; Final work for Master Thesis 9 CFU.
The Physical Education university course is 9 CFU (8 for lecture –
56 houres; 1 for Laboratory).
The "professional knowledge" as "the set of knowledge and skills
that are needed to operate successfully in a particular profession".
The knowledge necessary to the teaching profession are many,
diverse, composite, heterogeneous.
Professional competence is built with the transition from academic
knowledge to know act / action in the process of teaching and
learning (Cazzoli, 2015)
"Teachers' professional knowledge can be of 3 types: Disciplinary
Knowledge acquired in university education; Knowledge of
129
professional training in higher education; Knowledge of experience
acquired through practice in the school"
Knowledge professions are not only the combination / amount of
practical knowledge, technical, scientific but the 3 knowledge must
be reinterpreted according to the logic of taking account of: purpose,
values, inscription in temporal context. The teachers knowledge are
reconstructed in the work (working knowledge of M. Kennedy,
1983) (Cazzoli , 2015)
The pre-primary; primary and secondary school pre-service PE
teacher training was in according with : structure; training level and
duration; characteristics and duration of the internship in school;
treatment guidelines on training; methods and selection criteria for
access to teacher training; alternative track training to teaching.
The PETE needs the development across three questions:
1st Task of PE in the school in 3
rd millennium;
2nd
Competencies of PE teacher for in order to the task;
3rd
Consequence for drawn contents and structure of PETE (Cazzoli,
2015).
1st TASK
It is necessary the definition of basic issue of the concept of PE and
PETE by three domain:1. PE and the improvement of students
fitness training; 2. the PE is a pleasant and recreational in accordance
with the learning oriented school day; 3. teaching-learning enterprise
for facilitated the students acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes
and to develop emancipated, satisfying and lasting participation in
the movement culture. It is import emphasise the task of PE teacher
is a professional teacher and not fitness educator (fitness trainer,
entertainer/recreational guide).
The PE task aspects are summarize at three levels:
a) Micro tasks: the hearth of the profession by task of planning,
realization and evaluation of teaching-learning situation
concerning embodiment, exercise, games and sports in the
formal lesson dimension, classroom setting in the gym or
play/sport ground;
b) Meso-tasks: the internal professional relationship by tasks to
cooperate and to share with the frame of the school organisation
and school community;
130
c) Macro-tasks: the external professional relationship by tasks to
cooperate and to share with education agency (local, national,
international), professional and social networking with sport
clubs, fitness centre and other sport related agency.
The micro tasks contains are:
planning and development plan of lesson (single or
coordinated in a series) in according with the frame of the
national curriculum and with phases of mental, physical and
motivational student grow, development management and
organize positive learning climate and atmosphere in
according with the theory of communication, motivation
and warrants the psychological, social and physical safety
for all the students;
planning of clear learning setting goals in each lesson and
educative activity
predisposition, adaptation and flexibility arrangement of
learning situations (equipment, furniture, space division,
organization of the workgroups)
communication to the students, parents, school community
of the clear learning setting task
provision of instructional feedback and other support to the
students participation at the PE class, programme, curricula;
management of the conflicts between students, by
themselves;
evaluation planning and management of the process of
students learning, individual progress (qualitative and
quantitative);
evaluation planning and management of quality of the
teaching process (self-evaluation, external evaluation);
The meso tasks contains are:
participation at the PE department activity/consultation in
order at school PE programme, school educative
programme;
management the PE equipment, furniture, materials
(acquisition, surveillance, take care);
131
planning and management curricular and extracurricular
sport activities (in-outside, in-outdoor);
participation at the school staff meeting, commission,
bodies, events;
management the parents contacts, communication and
relationship;
management the tutoring on the students class.
The macro tasks contains are:
planning and management the contacts, communication and
relationship with the local sport authorities;
planning and management the co-operation with local
sports clubs and other sport agency;
planning and management the students sport orientation and
support the students involving in the local sport club;
management and organization the participation at the
extramural sport meeting (Cazzoli, 2015).
2nd COMPETENCE
The European education trend showed the curricula
translating from contents to the competencies paradigm. The national
education system give the general indications and the final standards.
The singular school institution became responsible of planning,
decision making and managing of local curricula in order at the
national guideline frameworks. The teacher degree freedom is
largely implemented (Darling-Hammond, Wise and Pease, 1983).
The teacher decision making responsibility is highly for arranging
the daily and local teaching with national standard. The teacher
profession become based on decision making profession as doctor in
medicine, advocate, manager. The teacher training needs new
competencies model and paradigm based on the knowledge,
understanding for resolution of problem in real and life in situations
(WHO, 1993-1997; Cazzoli, 2014).
The PE teacher decision making profession needs the development
of international and national support by line-guide, textbooks,
standardized test, examinations applications, professional evaluation
132
and feedback protocol, deontology code and professional protocol
shared by scientific and professional community (Cazzoli, 2015).
The PE teacher professional function in the high autonomy degree is
generally more complex for the specific teaching environment and
setting by knowledge, understanding and competencies about :
repertoire of teaching techniques, educational value and goals, self –
evaluation and judgment of professional decision making by the
function of “reflective professionals”(Shavelson & Stern, 1981).
The PE teacher reflective professionals is also oriented at the student
learning. The PE is education is focused on:
the physical education (education aimed to develop to physical
performance) the movement culture (education aimed to develop
by/thought the movement; to acquire the movement knowledge,
skills, attitude and competence; to emancipate, satisfying and lasting
participation at movement culture by social and cultural approach).
The PE school and PE teacher work are an intersection of schooling
and movement culture in the domain of embodiment, movement,
exercise, play, dance, sport (Crum J., 1995).
The movement culture is historical situated and social constructed.
The exercise and sport practices are oriented by movement-technical
issues, embody and reflect the ideological, political and economic
context.
The students point of view are continuing in change (Tinning &
Fitzclarence, 1992).
3rd CONSEQUENCE
The PE teacher is reflective professional in order to
movement and youth cultures: The PE teacher needs theoretical
support frames for inspection and judge of movement culture,
schooling phenomena. The pedagogical knowledge is special
amalgam of contents for foundation of PE professional knowledge
(Shulman L. 1987).
It is the theoretical base for understanding the transformations from
sport, performance skills, movement learning in the PE values and
attitude in according with the young age and the schooling context
(Feiman-Nemser S., 1990). The PE or Sport pedagogy became the
teaching and coaching science of the family of Sport Sciences
(ICSSPE, 2008;Cazzoli 2014).
133
The PETE program needs the curricula based on: sport sociology,
sport pedagogy, teaching methodology, teaching
supervision/tutoring, sport skills grounded in the social PE social
construction and students learning needs, cooperative teaching and
learning strategy in the educational departments (Academic and
school setting). The biomechanics, exercise physiology, physical
activity psychology, sociology, pedagogical, sport skills courses
needs focus on the relevance of contents and organization in order at
the teaching and coaching context (Cazzoli, 2015). In all
international documents the teacher and qualified training is
fundamental element for to develop the Quality of PE (QPE)
(ICSSPE, 2010). The recommendations asked to improve the
academic levels for enter teaching and the quality education
programs from early 1980s (US National Commission on Excellence
in Education, 1983).
The revolution was initiated gradually and in the time become the
evolution and it is stills ongoing. The reform changes shaped
contents and conduct of Physical Education Teacher Training
(PETE). The new structures of PETE programs: the initial
certification passed from 4 years to 5-years programs
path/curriculum. It is award of a Master’s degree. The standard-
based teacher education and accreditation defined the specific
content standards for preparing new teachers. The National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) wrote
standards for PE teacher in 1995. They were the base for
development of National Council for Accreditation of Teacher
Education (NCATE).The PETE programs are under NCAPE
accrediting process every five years. The university officials and
faculty prepare the NCATE standards review (Cazzoli, 2015). The
Pete license and program contents are oriented at the Curricula area
based on: University Core curriculum; Professional core; Sport
Science and movement content; Curriculum and pedagogical
methods; Practica and students teaching. The debate is open on
“profession versus discipline”: advocates of professional education
and advocates for disciplinary study. The debate influences the
distribution of university credit hours in teacher education programs.
(Metzler M., 2003).
The European model become the similar after the Process of
Bologna (1999) The criteria maybe it is balance between the sport
134
science discipline (power of scientific core) and the teaching science
(professional core, movement contents, curriculum, pedagogy, field-
experience) (Cazzoli, 2015).
The PETE conducts are based on students engagement strategies to
learn knowledge contents (sport science scientific core) and
pedagogical contents (sport pedagogy and teaching core) . The
evolution need shift model from traditional lectures methods
(students passive learner: attending at lectures, taking note, studying
on the text and preparing predictable types of examination) versus
active model students involvements (using interactive engagement
strategies, cooperative learning, sport education principles and rules,
authentic learning building with theory addressed at the practice
application in the teacher professional work-competence orientation;
self-assessments of personal learning process and understanding
(Cazzoli, 2015).
The students pedagogical knowledge engagement in PETE courses
for teaching was oriented at traditional methods with approaches:
historical (studying the history of the sport pedagogy); peer teaching
in the university location (adults aged). The new method is Field-
Based: pre-service teacher are instructed school aged children before
the formal student teaching experience. The field basing PETE in
based on: pre-service teacher learns curriculum and instructional
methods by teaching in PE classes of children, in the regular PE
school setting. The Field Based concept is the development of the
Professional Development School started in 1990s. The Field Based
became also university credit hours in the PETE curriculum and it
allowed more efficiently and efficacy pedagogy knowledge and
teaching science and competences development.
The regulation the teacher education was government developed by
fixing: entry qualifications for teacher education programs;
background check on students; require for teacher pass standardized
examinations; require test for approval certification; criteria for
teacher educator qualifications; teacher education programs scrutiny
by regular reports (Cazzoli, 2015).
The PETE needs researches for improve the efficiently and efficacy.
The government teacher education studying is in the general about
workforce teachers, demographics and qualifications trend data. The
teacher education researches are generally generated from
departmental, college and university support, but it wasn’t so
135
diffused the research on PETE. From 1980s the PETE scholarship
received impulse by: educational journal became included the
publication of PETE research; proliferation of association and
conferences focused on issue related PETE (NASPE, AIESEP); body
PETE knowledge was developed by perspectives based in
constructivism, post-modernism, critical and comparative pedagogy
(Metzler M., 2003; Cazzoli, 2015).
In the Italian primary school from 2010 were on-going national
projects for implementation of Physical Education. The projects
were based on the cooperation between the MIUR (Minister of
Instruction, University and Research) the CONI (Committee
Olympic National Italy) and Presidency of the Council of Ministers
of the Italian Republic. The project were focused on the participating
of generalist primary school teacher and specialist teacher of
Physical education and Sport Science (teacher training and
certification in the Faculty/department of Physical Education and
Sport). The project characteristics were: Alfabetizzazione Motoria
(Motor Literacy) 2010-2013,.on 2013 it involved 3500 schools,
25,000 classes, 500,000 students; Progetto Primaria (Primary
Project ) on 2014 (the data will be available on 2015): The project
2015 Sport di classe (Class Sport) is on-going and the data will be
available on 2016.
CONCLUSION
The analysis presented has traced the evolution of discipline
in the curriculum of the Italian school, to identify the constants and
the elements of innovation and the process of teacher education
The teaching quality of physical education in primary schools is a
much discussed topic among experts of the sciences of human
movement, the primary school teachers, school administrators,
parents of children, the world of sports associations territorial. In
recent years the scope of public health has demonstrated particular
attention to the teaching of physical education and to the
interdisciplinary relationships.
The time is ripe for a quality education in physical education; the
discipline has its own identity and a specific repertoire of
pedagogical content and organizational methods.
136
The current National Guidelines are a fundamental reference for
designing physical education at school and to propose interventions
related extracurricular physical activities and sports childhood and
youth and the necessary interactions and additions [school-
community].
Numerous and recent scientific evidence and claim that the
curriculum of physical education properly conducted, allows you to
to obtain benefits for motor development of the child (Lonsdale et
al., 2013). The most effective measures to prevent and combat the
sedentary habits, in fact, they start at school, privileged setting for
health promotion through lifestyle physically active (Chunlei &
Buchanan, 2014; Cripple & Faith, 2014; Colella, 2014).
Also is well demonstrated the contribution of physical activity
curriculum for the cross-cutting objectives, eg., cognitive
development and school performance, emotional-affective
development, motivation, self-efficacy and physical enjoyment,
basic constructs for the direction of life skills education (Bryan &
Solmon, 2007; Goudas, 2007; Hillman et al., 2014). The game and
sport are content and organizational modalities peculiar of physical
education that, through the fair play, accompanies the maturation of
the interpersonal relationships of the child and that the rules for civil
coexistence. The Indications to favor interdisciplinary relationships
and planning between school, sports and health, no longer put off.
137
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141
LITHUANIA
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LITHUANIANS
SCHOOL: SINCE ITS ORIGIN TO THE END OF
THE XX CENTURY
Arūnas Emeljanovas, Faculty of Sport Education; Lithuanian
Sports University
Daiva Majauskienė, Faculty of Sport Education; Lithuanian Sports
University
Correspondence
Arūnas Emeljanovas [email protected]
Phone: +37061540405
The Lithuanian state was established in the XIII century.
After the christening of Lithuania in the XIV century, schools were
established. The embryos of physical education in schools appeared
already after establishing the first school under Vilnius Chapter in
13871. It may be the beginning of organized physical education of
children although physical education as a separate subject did not
exist in schools for a long time.
The attention of the state to physical education in schools
only grew in the period of the Enlightenment. The physical activity
of pupils became higher in 1773 when the Educational Commission
established by one of the first world ministries of education in
Europe introduced physical education as a separate discipline in
schools2. It is said in the document issued in 1774: „It is said in the
instructions of the Educational Commission of the state of the Polish
Kingdom and Great Duchy of Lithuania that „... children should not
be pampered; children must adapt to cold, discomfort and troubles so
1 Šapoka, A. (1989). Lietuvos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas. 2 Ten pat.
142
that they become strong, mobile and enduring“3.Thus, according to
the decision of the Educational Committee, physical education of
children, especially in secondary schools, was legitimized as an
optional subject and it was mandatory in some schools. It was the
first case in Europe when the state started taking systematic care of
physical education of young people in schools.
In 1792 the children of Kraziai school exercised with sticks
(fenced), performed military duels and learned to use weapons. In
the period of the Education Commission, visitors took care of the
hygienic condition of schools and physical preparation of children.
Visitor J.Chodzka wrote in his report about Ukmerge school: “The
most popular games are games with a ball (maybe the games of the
type of battledore and square) because Lithuanian children like them
most and play by running. There are no exercises (...), little attention
is paid to physical education“4. It is obvious from the reports of the
Educational Commission that exercising is mentioned among other
forms of physical education at the end of the XVIII century.
In 1795 there was the first division of Poland-Lithuania and
Lithuania got into the composition of the Russian Empire. In 1803
the Tsarist Government following the political intentions did not
include physical education as a subject in the plans of schools. After
the rebellion of 1831, the regulations of schools compiled according
to the Russian model were introduced to Lithuania. The Tsarist
officials and officers, who worked in Lithuania, took care of physical
preparation of their children. They invited different foreign
specialists of physical education (especially from France) – these
were fencing, riding, shooting, lawn tennis or swimming
“professors” who organized small circles for lovers of these branches
of sport. Some Lithuanians also belonged to them. There were some
ads in the local press, especially in the magazine “Dziennik
Wilenski”, inviting to learn fencing, shooting, riding or art of
dancing.5
Bishop Motiejus Valancius preached a sermon in 1834 and
expressed a new attitude towards games and entertainments in
3 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. 4 Lukšienė, M. (1970). Lietuvos švietimo istorijos bruožai. Vilnius. 5 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija. (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai.
143
schools. M.Valancius recognized the significance of games and
physical exercises as means of relaxation after hard mental or
physical work.
The situation was better in the Small Lithuania which had
come to Prussia after the third division of Poland-Lithuania.
H.Cymus, who was a teacher in Klaipėda, started cultivating
swimming in the Dane river in 1831 and Vydunas, who was a
teacher in Kintai, taught physical education beside other subjects6.
After the Russian revolution of 1905-1907, the influence of
the empire was lower in Lithuania. The number of secondary and
semi-secondary schools and pupils was gradually growing in
Lithuanian gubernatorial places. However, there were no physical
education lessons in the learning plans of gymnasiums at the
beginning of the XX century7; there were exercising lessons as an
optional subject beside music, singing, dancing and handicraft
lessons. The specialists with special preparation taught in
gymnasiums, special secondary schools and cadet corps. 2-3 hours
per week were mostly intended for physical education. Physical
education in Lithuanian schools was based on Sakalai exercising and
the Swedish and German exercising systems were less popular.
During the World War I, Lithuania was occupied by the
German army and schools almost disappeared – most teachers and
pupils of secondary schools were evacuated to Russia. Then, the
German Government allowed organizing schools in the local
languages, but poor material conditions did not allow paying any
attention to physical education.
After the World War I ended, the Lithuanian state regained
its independence. According to the experience of other countries, the
physical education and sport system was started. A few physical
education programmes were developed.
The first programme of physical education for primary
schools was called ,,Gymnastics and games“ and issued in 19198. It
is quite simple but also difficult, because it was divided not into
periods according to children‘s age but according to months (month I
6 Ten pat. 7 Žukauskas, K. (1960). Iš Lietuvos mokyklos istorijos. 1905-1907 metai. Vilnius. 8 Dineika, K. (1935). Kūno kultūros raida mūsų pradžios mokykloje. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 1, 42-44.
144
– Swedish and Norwegian gymnastics, month II. – German
gymnastics, month IV – high jumps, long jumps, jumps over the
goat, climbing a rope, climbing a pole, months VII-X – football,
crocket, relay-race, swimming, principles of fence and so on. The
defect of this programme was the fact the material was chosen
without considering a child‘s age and it was not divided into periods
of age and forms.
In 1925 the second programme of physical education of
primary schools ,,Exercising, programs of games“ was passed9. Its
base was made of the system of pedagogical gymnastics by P. Ling,
however, the creators of the programme hesitated between a Swedish
method and a French method. This programme was already adjusted
to children‘s age and sex. The children whose health was weak had
to do exercises in separate groups, pull-ups, inter-struggle, climbing
were involved for upper forms.
The programme of physical education of 1935 was much
more perfect. It conformed with the purpose of the practice of
physical education for pupils - ,,to keep normal development of
pupils‘ body, to train their capability, to motivate for hygienic living
and implant habits of sociality“10
. The material taught in the
programme was divided following its purposes: I. Subjects of
hygienic habits had to give the necessary knowledge; besides, the
task of all kinds of gymnastics is to motivate for hygienic living. II.
The gymnastics of capability had to train an employable body and
train to keep one‘s ear open, to discipline and regulate. III. The
gymnastics of alignment had to eliminate and correct corporeal
defects. The forming gymnastics had to help to elaborate a good set
and a move form for gymnastics and work. IV. The part of jokes and
artistic moves had to train to use a move for a luxurious and artistic
play. The tasks above had to be implemented in lessons of physical
education and while organizing free time (games, camps, travelling).
In the programme the material was divided following the periods of
age: 7-9., 9-12, 12-15 years old, because the base of physical
education is a child‘s natural physical and psychical development.
9 Ten pat. 10 Ten pat.
145
This programme of physical education is quite concrete: it defines
both the content and the volume.
Thus, after the World War I, the physical education lesson
was included in the programmes of primary schools, however, it was
practically absent because there was a lack of teachers who were
able to teach these lessons, there were no rooms suitable for
gymnastics and other exercises. The teachers of physical education
were the people who had a bad understanding about this area. In
1923 there were just a few diplomate teachers of physical education.
Their work was also aggravated by the fact a unit system of physical
education had not existed for a long time. Teachers of physical
education had to prepare and plan everything. Everything depended
on teacher’s capability and ingenuity. There were no squares and
rooms for gymnastics near many schools. Because of a lack of
rooms, in winter physical education totally slept in schools.
In 1924 R.J. who learned at the third form of Marijampole
gymnasium remembers a lesson of physical education: „We usually
ranked in the yard of the gymnasium after ringing the bell. The
teacher came and greeted us: “Hello, fellows!” We answered:
„Hello, Monsieur“ and went to the square of the gymnasium accross
the road almost in front of our gymnasium. The square was small,
there were very few devices for gymnastics. We sometimes did some
exercises: arms forward, back, upward, downward (...). All these
moves were performed with the tensed muscles of our arms, legs,
waist. This gymnastics did not make our moves more flexible and
beautiful. These artificial tough moves were performed with the
compacted, tensed muscles in our lessons and they helped little to
improve moves by the youth. The pupils who had had stiff bodies
and moves remained like these.“11
While we were going or running during lessons, nobody took care
whether we waddled like ducks or lowered our heads as if we were
looking for lost money or the toes of one foot were turned outwards
and those of the other inwards – the teacher did not use to correct
those mistakes (...). We practised very few games except square
played by everybody or battledore. Besides, we tried to play
basketball, but we failed because we hardly observed any rules (...).
11 Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga.
146
The working conditions of our teacher were poor, especially in
winter, because there was no sport-hall. So, we used to have our
exercising lessons outside: after falling into line, we used to march a
little or run a kilometre and came back. While it was raining, we
used to spend our physical education lessons in the classroom, but
our teacher did not use them and did not provide the pupils with
theoretical knowledge about a certain branch of sport although they
were so necessary.“12
On 17 June 1923 the championship of track and field
athletics for Kaunas pupils was organized, a pupil of Kaunas
„Ausra“ national gymnasium D. Toliusis especially shone there by
doing a high jump 1,55 m, a long jump - 5,68 m, a high jump with a
pole - 2,315 m. The most sporty gymnasia were Kaunas „Ausra“
gymnasium for boys and Marijampole Rygiskiu Jono gymnasium
(A. Akelaitis, V. Razaitis, S. Sackus, A. Tamulynas and other good
sportsmen learned there). In 1923 in the latter one the first
Lithuanian sport clubs were established: a club for boys ,,Vaidotas“
and a club for girls ,,Mirga“.
According to K. Dineika, in 1932 a new epoch of school life
began13
: In 1932 the law of physical education was passed, in 1932
the House of Physical Education (HPE) began to take care of
physical education. The activity of the HPE involves two areas: a)
physical education in schools b) physical education and sport by the
organized youth.
The development of physical education in schools, summer
squares, kindergartens was arranged by the HPE in three ways: a)
material conditions suitable for physical training were created and
were stimulated to create; b) directly (attending schools, courses) and
indirectly (programmes, VKKZ) leading the school work of physical
training c) consequences of work were observed (health
examination, holidays, championships and so on).
According to A. Vokietaitis, in a primary school the subject
of physical education was still supposed to be as a secondary matter
12 Ten pat. 13 Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 8.
147
in 193314
. In many primary schools, especially in the country,
physical education was not taught at all.
The content and teaching methodology of lessons of
physical education changed slowly. In 1933 V. Augustaitis-
Augustauskas wrote: ”In our primary school the subject of physical
education still is a completely technological subject, its lessons are
isolated. It‘s time to relate lessons of physical education to social
pedagogy, to artistic, hygienic and cultural factors of national
politics.“15
After starting to implement the national system of physical
education ,,Sporuta“, under the law by the minister of education K.
Sakenis on 8 February 1933, two additional afternoon lessons by
„Sporuta“ were introduced in gymnasia, in teachers‘ seminaries and
secondary schools, all pupils were able to participate there after
turning 1416
.
In 1933 V. Augustaitis-Augustauskas stated “in schools, the
spiritual balance must be made; exercising corporeal forces by the
youth must equally help to mature a personality, give it real joy, so
that it becomes a man and dedicates for the nation‘s creation;
training a body cannot become “sportsmanship”, it must remain a
wide life for the youth where there is some place for expressing
sociality. (…) It is necessary to refuse of vain sport rivalry, it is
necessary to create new forms of physical education which are
related to the principles of social education. Then it is possible to
easily reach values of education by the House of Physical Education:
health, resistance, discipline, working capacity, love of fatherland.“17
At the end of the 3rd decade sport holidays were prepared
for primary schools, since 1930, they were also prepared for pupils
of districts and parishes. In 1934-1935 33345 children participated in
holidays of primary schools; 1935-1936 - 58189 children, 29110
participated in holidays, 29079 – in picnics; In 1936-1937 46949
14 Vokietaitis, A. (1933). Kūno kultūra kasdieniniam mokyklos darbe. Fiziškas
auklėjimas, 3, 190. 15 Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175. 16 Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga. 17 Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175.
148
children participated in holidays, 78827 – in picnics, 498 – in camps,
in total there were 126 274 children18
. These numbers show physical
education was improving in primary schools, its forms tended to
become more various by leaving the new programme of physical
education for a reformed primary school.
By the beginning of 1933, the holiday programmes of
primary schools consisted of exercises (mostly of a geometric form),
roundels, various games of running and with a ball, plastic exercises
and simple dances by girls. Somewhere songs were included. In
1927-1930 the primary schools of Kaunas city prepared even 2-3
holidays according to this programme, 500 - 1000 people
participated there. The purpose of these holidays is more
demonstrative– walking, parade, gymnastics, races.
After 1933 school holidays became more various, teachers
showed their creation there. There were holiday programmes of
separate schools, schools of country districts, children‘s camps,
districts and parishes: 1. The programme of a school holiday
consisted of these elements: hymn, explanatory word for parents,
songs, declamation; outside gymnastics, roundels, relay-races, comic
things, end; 2. The programme of a school holiday with a picnic:
roundels and dances for young people; short demonstrative lesson;
relay-races, dances and games for young people; fire, talking,
performance, songs, final word. 3. The programme of a country
school holiday: worship; walking in the village, putting a crown by
the monument in honour of casualties; speech; hoisting a flag; lively
word (initials of Lithuania or by the President); common gymnastics;
songs; team games by boys among schools; gymnastics by girls;
merry performances by separate schools; end of the holiday. 4. The
programme of a district or parish school holiday: the first day:
registration; accommodation in the places assigned; gymnastics
repetition; lunch; song repetition; free time; supper; sleep; the second
day: breakfast; repetition; worship; lunch; parade; hoisting a flag,
speech, hymn; initials by the President; songs; performances by
separate towns-villages; interschool relay-race; end.
The development of school holidays show the primary
school becomes more active: it gives children both the knowledge
18 Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 9.
149
and teaches to tidily communicate at holidays, picnics, camps. The
primary school entered a new kind of life. Physical education as a
factor of education gave a lot of various communication forms, they
just needed to be able to use them and create the material conditions
suitable for its development.
By 1937 the pupils who wanted to go in for sports
participated in the activity by sport organizations or clubs and in
championships. The government of the Ministry of Education
disagreed with it – it meant pupils ,,turned aside from the line of
pedagogical education“, but they tolerated it for a long time. On
22.01.1937 the minister of education forbid pupils to participate in
the activity of sport organizations and clubs. It was ordered to move
all events only to schools, pupils were just able to represent their
school at sport championships19
.
In spring of 1937 gymnasia started establishing sport
companies (circles). In 1938 41% of the boys and 37% of the girls of
state and private gymnasia to have these rights participated in sport
companies20
. Beside trainings and championships, these companies
organized trips, lessons, evenings of physical education. Companies
were divided into 2 groups - junior (by the IV form) and senior (from
the IV form) ones. In mixed gymnasia there were separate sport
companies for girls and boys.
At the end of the 4 decade physical education became
almost on an equality with other subjects in gymnasia. M. Baronaitė,
A. Jurgelionis, S. Sackus, A. Vokietaitis and the others contributed
to it much. In the 4 decade in the gymnasia that taught in Lithuanian,
there were four lessons of physical education and military
preparation for the boys of all forms, there were three lessons for the
girls of I-III, VII forms and two lessons for the girls of IV-VI forms.
Since 1935, pupils‘ Olympiads were organized, their
programmes consisted of basketball, volleyball, track and field
athletics and dancing (on 11-14.06.1935 about 1500 pupils
participated in the Olympiad).
After establishing the State Mark of Physical Education in
1936, schools paid much attention to the preparation and following
19 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija. (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. 20 Diržius, K. (1938). Gimnazijų fizinio lavinimo kuopos. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 12, 36.
150
its norms. In the schoolyear of 1937/1938 the norms of this mark
were passed by 522 pupils of 881 or 62,6% in gymnasia.21
In 1938
school-leavers of gymnasia had to obtain the State Mark of Physical
Education instead of the final examinations of physical education.
Some pupils achieved good sport results at the National Olympiad in
1938.
In 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Lithuania and started the
sovietization of the country. According to the programme of
comprehensive schools of the USSR, a new physical education and
military preparation programme was introduced to Lithuanian
schools in 1940-194122
. Since 1941, the pupils had to pass the
standards of BRWD (Be Ready for Work and Defence) and RWD
(Ready for Work and Defence).
In 1941 the Lithuanian territory was occupied by Nazis and
the sport movement was organized in the same principles as in the
independent Republic of Lithuania. Championships of town pupils
and students of different branches of sport as well as friendly
intertown competitions were organized. In 1942 about 5500 young
people participated in different competitions23
.
After the World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the
Soviet Union again. The soviet physical education and sport system,
which had started in 1940-1941, was restored and strengthened in
Lithuania. In 1947 the Ministry of Education issued the physical
education programmes for primary schools, progymnasiums and
gymnasiums. In 1954 the head of the division of physical education
of the Ministry of Education, A. Starovolskis took an initiative and
introduced new physical education programmes for primary, seven-
year and secondary schools which were mot adapted to Lithuanian
conditions. They were based on the requirements of the RWD
complex and sport classification, but they also had peculiar features.
2 hours per week were given for compulsory physical education in
schools. Every pupil leaving from the 8-year school had to pass
standards of BRWD and that leaving from the secondary school –
first-grade standards of RWD. Pupils improved their sport excellence
21 Dėka. (1939). Valstybinis kūno kultūros ženklas. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 12. 22 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F.933. Ap.1. B.1044. L.34. 23 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 976, Ap. 1 B.2. L.58.
151
in sport schools of children under the system of the Ministry of
Education and sport communities. Republican competitions of pupils
were organized every year since 1946 and every two years since
1964. Since 1954 the Lithuanian selection of pupils participated in
competitions of pupils of the Union. The first sport school was
established in 1946. In 1958-1959 there were 6 profiled sport schools
in Lithuania (Kaunas 23rd
school: swimming, diving; Marijampole J.
Jablonskis school: track-and-field athletics, swimming; Kaunas S.
Neries: basketball; Kaunas 6th
school: track-and-field athletics,
swimming; Kaunas A. Mickeviciaus school: football, volleyball;
Panevezys 5th
school: sport games).
In 1959 comprehensive schools started lessons from
exercising every day. Mobile games were organized during pauses if
possible; subject lessons involved physical education pauses and
there were physical education lessons twice per week. There were
physical education practices in day-boarder groups. In 1962-1963 the
implementation of universal eight-year teaching was completed and
the physical education system involved all 7-15-year-old children.
As compulsory secondary learning was implemented in 1971, almost
all young people until 18 obtained the elements of physical education
and sport. At the end of 1970s, the schools applied morning
gymnastics for pupils and recommended mobile pauses. In 1982, the
physical culture credit was introduced for pupils of the final classes.
It was the first time after the war that physical culture got among the
final examinations of subjects. In 1984 the physical education
programmes were specified in order to make physical education in
schools a harmonious, scientifically based and consistent system.
Attention should be paid that most pupils had an indifferent
attitude towards sport, especially physical education, in the years of
stagnation. Pupils of comprehensive schools exercised in two
physical education lessons per week. However, it was too little.
Besides, pupils often came to lessons unprepared and sat on the
bench. According to the data, the young generation was weaker and
weaker and fell ill more often every year. The research performed in
1989 showed especial worsening of physical condition of girls24
.
24Stakionienė, V., Mieželytė, A. (1989). Mielos mergaitės, susirūpinkite ir savo išvaizda ir sveikata. Sportas, vasario 14., 3.
152
Taking into account of it, a group of Lithuanian physical education
teachers applied to the Council of Ministers and Ministry of
Education and asked to increase the number of physical education
lessons in schools, provide them with sport facilities in the priority,
move the preparative groups of sport schools to schools and include
the checking of physical preparation in all matriculation
examinations25
. However, the above-mentioned suggestions were not
accepted although certain measures were taken: morning exercising
before lessons was introduced to schools and pauses became more
mobile. Unfortunately, these measures did not catch on. Schools only
consolidated the physical education credit.
Little attention was paid to physical education of pupils in
the years of reorganization. Although the Ministry of Education and
Ministry of Higher and Special Secondary Education aimed to
prepare physically strong conscripts for the Soviet Army, RWD
badges and rank holders and the Central Committee of the
Communist Party of Lithuanian controlled this work and adopted a
decision for the improvement of this work every year, it helped little.
In the reports submitted by these organizations, 99-100 per cent of
young people had badges of RWD and were rank holders of different
branches of sport, but it emerged after checking that fewer than one
half of these young people passed the compulsory standards. In 1988
the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Lithuania decided
to introduce the national checking of young people26
and compiled
the Republican Commission for the determination of physical
preparation of young people.27
It was decided to reorganize the sport
management of pupils. The Ministry of Education and the Sport
Committee adopted the decision „On the management of physical
education and sport activity of pupils and its“28
. On this basis, the
division of physical education and sport of the Ministry had to
manage the physical education process in comprehensive schools
and the sport community “Work Reserves” had to manage post-
school and out-school activities. Pupils were able to do sports in
25 Tūpienė, J. Ir kt. (1989). Kreipimasis į Lietuvos TSR Ministrų Tarybą, Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministeriją. Sportas, rugpjūčio 24, 2. 26 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.14.L. 41. 27 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.7.L. 385. 28 Kas vadovaus moksleivių sportui. (1989). Sportas, Vasario 2, 6.
153
sport clubs of children. However, the material condition of most
clubs was very bad.
In 1988 the Sport Committee adopted the decision “On the
tasks of the Republican sport organizations in the support of
children’s homes and boarding schools” in order to obligate sport
organizations to “turn around” to children’s homes and boarding
schools.
At the end of 1988 the conception of the national school
was declared29
and the forces of Lithuanian pedagogues, scientists
and artists were recruited in order to develop new educational
programmes based on the education of the own nation, textbooks and
means of teaching; the theoretical elements of the educational reform
(conceptions of types of schools and educational contents) and
juridical reform documents (Law on Education, regulations of
schools etc.) were prepared. In 1990, the independence of our
country was declared and the attitude towards physical culture also
changed. Physical culture was treated as a holistic trend of physical
education emphasizing the pupil’s physical nature, health, physical
endurance considering his/her age, gender, way of life and right of a
free choice, not only recording the results of physical preparation30
.
Mandatory physical culture practices are organized in schools
according to the teaching plans and programmes set for those
institutions.
To sum up, it can be stated that physical culture has deep
traditions in the Lithuanian school. However, it only became equal to
other school subjects in the XX century. The national experience of
physical culture and politics of adjacent countries in respect of
Lithuania as well as educational models had a big influence on the
total educational system of the country and physical culture in
schools.
29 Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija. (1992). Vilnius: Leidybos centras. 30Išsilavinimo standartai. (1999). Vilnius Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija.
154
REFERENCES
Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis.
Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175.
Dėka. (1939). Valstybinis kūno kultūros ženklas. Fiziškas
auklėjimas, 3, 12.
Dineika, K. (1935). Kūno kultūros raida mūsų pradžios mokykloje.
Fiziškas auklėjimas, 1, 42-44.
Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas
auklėjimas, 3, 8.
Diržius, K. (1938). Gimnazijų fizinio lavinimo kuopos. Fiziškas
auklėjimas, 12, 36.
Išsilavinimo standartai. (1999). Vilnius Lietuvos Respublikos
švietimo ir mokslo ministerija.
Kas vadovaus moksleivių sportui. (1989). Sportas, Vasario 2, 6.
Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija (1996). Vilnius: Margi
raštai.
Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija. (1992). Vilnius: Leidybos centras.
Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.7.L. 385.
Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.14.L. 41.
Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 976, Ap. 1 B.2. L.58.
Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F.933. Ap.1. B.1044. L.34.
Lukšienė, M. (1970). Lietuvos švietimo istorijos bruožai. Vilnius.
Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga
Stakionienė, V., Mieželytė, A. (1989). Mielos mergaitės,
susirūpinkite ir savo išvaizda ir sveikata. Sportas,
vasario 14., 3.
Šapoka, A. (1989). Lietuvos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas.
Tūpienė, J. Ir kt. (1989). Kreipimasis į Lietuvos TSR Ministrų
Tarybą, Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministeriją.
Sportas, rugpjūčio 24, 2.
Vokietaitis, A. (1933). Kūno kultūra kasdieniniam mokyklos darbe.
Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 190.
Žukauskas, K. (1960). Iš Lietuvos mokyklos istorijos. 1905-1907
metai. Vilnius.
155
LUXEMBOURG
THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN
LUXEMBOURG
Claude Scheuer, Faculty of Language and Literature, Humanities,
Arts and Education; University of Luxembourg
Correspondence
Claude Scheuer
Phone: +352/466644-9233
Abstract
Physical education was established in Luxembourg in the
19th century by the Germans Euler and Stammer, based on the ideas
and conceptions of Spieß. At that time, lessons in gymnastics were
first held on an optional basis (1848), then compulsory for
preparatory classes (1860), and finally compulsory for classes of
lower secondary school (1892). Back then, Gymnastics were
recognized as a subject mainly because of their recreative quality
compared to intellectual activities. In 1908/1909, physical education
became compulsory in all school grades at all levels. Objectives,
content, and methods were inspired by the Belgian example and
postulated the rational method of the Swede Per Hendrik Ling. This
concept did not experience significant changes until the beginning of
the 1970s, when the Ministry of Education defined two major strands
in the physical education curriculum: basic activities and sport-
oriented activities. This curriculum had different parts for boys and
girls, with a focus on traditional cooperative games for boys and
rhythm and dance activities for girls. It was only in 1980 that the
dualistic, utilitarian, and rational conceptions of the 19th century
were replaced by a new curriculum based on actual scientific and
pedagogical findings. This process led to a sport-oriented concept –
similar to the concepts in place in German-speaking countries at that
time – which was implemented in 1985 and remained in place until
2009, considering physical activities with educating, competitive,
156
exhilarant, and prophylactic aims. A new and very innovative
curriculum concept was finally implemented in 2009.
Keywords: physical education, Luxembourg, curriculum,
international relations
This chapter highlights the foundation and the development of
physical education in Luxembourg over the two last centuries.
Established in the beginning of the 19th
century by a German teacher,
physical education has known in Luxembourg – known well as one
of the smallest countries in Europe – a quite slow development for
several years, with more or less important influences coming from
the neighbour countries. It was only in the end of the 20th
century
that major changes, based on scientific evidence, were implemented
by the means of the curriculums for physical education. This
development finished – for the moment – with the implementation of
a very innovative and well-received curriculum by both the physical
education teachers in Luxembourg and the German-speaking
scientific community. This development over the years will be
described in the following, closing by a short section on the relation
between FIEP and physical education in Luxembourg.
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT
THE ATHENAEUM1 (1817-1970)
“Deutsches Turnen” (German gymnastics) is taught at the
Athenaeum in 1818
A year after its conversion in 1817, the Royal Athenaeum
already had physical activities in its programs. Indeed, in 1818, a
German teacher, Heinrich Stammer (1785-1859), recruited through
advertisements in major European newspapers of that time,
introduced games sessions and “Turnen” (gymnastics) at the
Athenaeum, during breaks and free afternoons for volunteer students.
However, these actions were not to the liking of everyone, as
evidenced by excerpts from a letter sent to The Hague by the
1 The Athenaeum is the oldest secondary school in Luxembourg and was founded in
1603 as a Jesuit college.
157
governor of Luxembourg at that time, mentioning, that the gymnastic
games that Stammer gave first on the “glacis”, a field close to the
city, were to take different attitudes of the body and make more or
less difficult jumps. These innovations initially displeased friends of
true education of youth, who could easily see the modesty of this age
in danger of being sacrificed to false assurance. These oppositions,
especially from the clergy of the nearby cathedral, were aimed
primarily against Stammer. But they did not prevent him to open on
its own, in 1837, a gymnastics school. It is interesting to see that a
few years after the publication in 1814 of “Turnkunst” (gymnastic
art) of the German “Turnvater” (father of gymnastics) Friedrich
Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), gymnastics and popular games were
already applied, on an optional and voluntary basis, with the sons of
the high bourgeoisie in Luxembourg attending the new Athenaeum.
At that time, there was no compulsory education (Decker, 2010a).
The official program of the Royal Athenaeum in Luxembourg
provided from 1836 to 1837 optional gymnastics courses for all
classes. Decker (2010a) mentions contents like
articulation exercises; walking and running; jumping
through a hoop, over ropes, sticks, students, a 4-12 feet
wide ditch;
impulse exercises on the horizontally laid tree and on the
through horse; bar exercises;
climb the greasy pole, the perpendicular and oblique pole
and to the hanging rope.; climb a rope, using or without
using the feet; climb the rope ladder;
fighting drills;
different cooperative games in the fresh air; short
excursions.
In the following years were added swimming and fencing.
This program carries the signature of Professor Stammer and reflects
completely the influence of Jahn, as well as that of Johann Christoph
Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) and his “Gymnastik für die
Jugend” (gymnastics for the youth). The goals of this gymnastics did
not follow purely hygienic purposes, as it was the case a few decades
later, yet we do not know if Stammer taught it in the same rebellious,
liberating and revolutionary spirit, that was rigor in the first
gymnastics clubs created in 1849 in the capital of Luyembourg: “La
Gym”, “La Fraternelle”, “La Libre” (Decker, 2010a).
158
In 1859, following Decker (2010a), gymnastics still appears
as a mandatory subject for two hours per week at the Athenaeum’s
program. As early as 1860-1861, gymnastic classes are mandatory in
preparatory classes. The program includes “preparatory exercises,
balance exercises and jumping exercises on the scale, parallel bars,
on the easel, the frame and the trapeze”. These exercise classes were
taught by gymnastics teachers, actually former non-commissioned
officers or gendarmes that have been formed hastily by the German
Charles Euler, born in Trier in 1809, and called for Luxembourg in
1847 to reorganize the gymnastics classes at the Athenaeum.
Although gymnastics becomes mandatory from 1892 on for
students of the two lower classes and optional for all other students,
and becomes compulsory in all secondary classes from the academic
year 1908-1909 on, its practical realization is disturbed by the lack of
both qualified teachers, adequate facilities and materials. Until the
1937-1938 years, gymnastics masters had neither the title nor the
rank of professor or tutor and were appointed by the government
member in charge of education, on the proposal of the conference of
teachers and paid by the body of the domestic service of the
Athenaeum using some of the money collected as tuition fees. They
were traditionally chosen among military or among other interested
teachers. It was not until a decree in the end of 1935 that the
conditions of appointment for master of gymnastics allowed the
arrival of young teachers holding the qualifications of maturity,
justified by a special preparation at foreign schools that have a one-
year internship and, at the end of the course, a practical test. The first
well trained teachers were Norbert Bourcy and René Bauler. They
added, since the 1945-1946 years, an extra year of advanced training
at the regional institute of physical education from the University of
Nancy, to become the first “real” gymnastics teachers of the
Athenaeum after the war. As for the sports facilities of the
Athenaeum, the situation has improved with the New Athenaeum
opening in 1964, with his two gyms, a swimming pool and a stadium
with athletics track (Decker, 2010a).
The reign of the Swedish rational gymnastics (until 1970)
As for the offered content or, better, imposed on students
throughout the first half of the last century as drills, it was primarily
159
rational Swedish gymnastics based on physiological and anatomical
knowledge of the human body and recommended by a committee
established by royal decree in 1906 for middle school reform of
higher degree. In a ministerial statement of 1907 on the gymnastic
and sporting exercises, it can be read that in schools, physical
exercises serve a dual purpose: first, they tend to develop the forces
of the body. On the other hand, they are called to oppose a welcome
counterweight to intellectual effort to be observed by the students.
The scientific or Swedish gymnastics – which Ling is the initiator of
– was specifically designed for this purpose. It only includes
exercises with helpful action on the body. These dualistic
conceptions reserving physical education only extrinsic functions,
countervailing and sanitary formed the theoretical basis until the
1970s (Decker, 2010a).
These ramblings have still been uttered 40 years later by the
Minister of Education, Nic. Margue, who writes in the foreword to
the second edition of the “Practical Guide to Physical Education”
published by Victor Decker in 1946:
“In our advanced civilization era, where the joy
that gives life is replaced by the enjoyments who
brutalize, the faith that animates by the superstition
that diverts, the outdoor movement by sedentary
occupations and natural and healthy diet by the use of
drugs and poisons, those became the benefactors of
humanity who drew their attention to the need for
physical education and the practice of muscular games.
By bringing back the man to nature, referring to the
inescapable demands of his body, they told him a way
that should never have been neglected and allow him
to be and act in the real world.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 23)
And Decker (2010a) continues, that
“a primary school physical education will not
be a branch of the program, called gymnastics and
taught for some hours a week. Its purpose is not to
teach a child the knowledge which he will use later in
life or to teach him the tricks that would be of use for
him. He does not run to get faster and when he climbs
it is not to avoid the use of a ladder. Even swimming is
160
not primarily intended to save from death those that
fall into water.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 24)
These abstruse views are far removed from current designs,
with the unity of man with the “learn to move and move to learn”,
with the acquirement of action competence in sports.2
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICAL
EDUCATION CURRICULUMS IN LUXEMBOURG (1970-
2009)
Modern physical education and sports and current trends
in curriculum development
Physical education lived, in recent decades, unprecedented
changes in its history. In schools nowadays, providing physical
education is not (only) to play sports. Although a large part of the
population confuses the one and the other: to have physical
education classes is not only to recreate and to have fun, even if the
students are in need of this. Today, physical education has its own
identity from kindergarten to university. It is a fundamental school
discipline for the holistic development of the individual. Reading,
writing, arithmetic do not help to learn to move. Just as there are
reading rules and principles, spelling or math, there are rules and
principles of motor action that students should know and use. The
school shapes fundamental ways of thinking and it has to help
building basic modes of action as well. Besides literacy and
numeracy, it is physical literacy that should be developed as well
(Decker, 2010a).
2 Indeed, in recent official documents from 1989 for primary education, the general
objectives of physical education are formulated as follows: “Physical education is a
fundamental discipline focused on the development of the person acting as a whole.
She leads the child into a world where it increases the knowledge of its capacity to act
and channels all his motor, cognitive and emotional resources needed to master the gesture. By allowing children to learn to move while moving to learn, it helps to
achieve common goals in all education, namely, integration with the personality of
different knowledge as disciplines, sometimes artificially separated, proposing to acquire, each achieving the objectives of its own.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 24)
161
With regard to a classification of the different stages the
curriculum development in Luxembourg passed through, a first look
across the borders into other countries, especially to Germany, where
the redesign of curriculums has a certain really diversified tradition
because of the federalism of the states, is undertaken. Overall, the
curriculum development in Europe is heavily dependent on the
current discussion on educational concepts in physical education and
sports pedagogy. Nowadays, there are four main influences in the
conceptual development of curricula, based on the current
dominating concepts of physical education in Europe: physical
education in the traditional sense, sports education, movement
education and health education. The boundaries between the
concepts in recent years become increasingly diffuse and lose
selectivity (Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).
Appearance of sports content in curriculums: “Education
Physique” (Physical Education) (1970 - 1985)
In 1970, the Ministry of Education issued a curriculum for the
seventh grade still dividing the content into two large blocks (Decker,
2010a; Scheuer 2010):
Basic activities; analytical and rhythmic exercises
exercises adapting to the natural environment and
professional practice;
Sports Orientation: Learn the essential motor practices
(traditional sports) and performing the basic activities
outdoor (like e.g. athletics: run fast, regularly, jump high,
away, throw away, precisely; apparatus: familiarization
with the equipment, first aid training and parades;
swimming: floating, breathing; propulsion; games:
learning a range of small games of increasing difficulty;
preparatory to the great games; learning the basic rules;
outdoor activities: physical activities based in nature:
introduction to folk dance and rhythm only for girls).
As can be seen in the curriculum for the secondary level
“Horaires et Programmes” (Schedules and Programmes) from
1972/1973 (Ministère de l’Education Nationale, 1972; Decker,
2010a; Scheuer, 2010), there were two different programs for boys
and girls from the 10th grade on. It is to be emphasized that the
162
traditional team sports were reserved for the boys, whilst
rhythmically dancing activities were designed exclusively for girls.
Thus can be identified on one side an insistence on the dualistic,
utilitarian and rational conceptions of the 19th century as well as a
certain eclecticism in the formulation, but on the other side
especially a more tense orientation on sports with games
progressions and exercises ranging from simple to more complicated,
with so-control criteria exercises for student assessment. Only in
1980 it came to a serious attempt at formulating, testing and
implementing a curriculum which leaned on one hand on the latest
scientific and pedagogical knowledge, but on the other hand, took
into account the characteristic of Luxembourgish circumstances and
resources.
“Education Sportive” (Sports Education) (1985 - 2009)
The result of this lengthy development and drafting process,
which began with the creation of a first document in 1977, was the
secondary school curriculum entitled “Education Sportive” (Sports
Education), which was published in March 1985 (Ministère de
l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985; Scheuer, 2010). A
modern interpretation of the term “sport” as a wide range of possible
physical activities with educational, competitive, exhilarating and
prophylactic purposes came to the foreground. This detailed new
curriculum, which from that moment on dominated extensively
physical education at the secondary level for nearly three decades.
Common among physical education teachers under the name “Blo
Bibel” (blue bible), the curriculum was divided into five main
chapters, which are summarized below.
Chapter 1 made general considerations to a specialist
curriculum for physical education at the secondary level. In a first
part, the global objectives of physical education were described
(Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/4):
Contribute to the development and maintenance of the
necessary skills to well-being, as well as body awareness,
coordination and perception
Contribute to the improvement of physical skills such as
communication and expression
163
Contribute to provide information on body-related and
sports activities, their rules, structure and effects, as well
as its possibilities and limitations
Another point dealt with the specific objectives of the
subject physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de
la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/6):
Contribute to the physical development of the individual
General motor education, resp. physical education
Specific motor education, resp. physical education
Education of psychological and sociological behavioral
factors
Theoretical knowledge and understanding of the
phenomenon “Sports”
Developing an awareness of the need for sporting
activities
In the next section, first considerations to contents were
made in a selection of subject contents at three levels (Ministère de
l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/7ff):
On the first level the subject content was divided for
practical reasons in the three blocks “collective sports
games”, “other sports” and “classic individual sports”.
A second level merged these sports activities in a
mandatory and an optional set of sport activities.
In the third and final level, these sports were
operationalized and the various levels of training and
objectives were defined, representing thus the actual
curriculum itself.
Chapter 2 represented the curriculum for the induction and
orientation phase in physical education (grade 7 to grade 10). This
comprehensive 121-page chapter began with some preceding
remarks which described this first of two phases characterizing
physical education with its main objective of the introduction,
observation and orientation of the students in their sports practice
(Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, II/6ff).
In the following, important remarks were made with regard to the
provision of quality physical education: adequate sports facilities and
164
sports equipment, realistic class sizes, as well as consistent three-
hours of sports in all grade levels. Furthermore, the creation of a
school-based curriculum in the various schools was advised. In the
fourth subsection, the largest part of the overall curriculum with 99
pages, the sports activities to be treated were shown and described,
with each giving teaching goals, methodological recommendations,
and instructions for the grading and recommended reading in detail.
Chapter 3 represented the curriculum for the decision phase
in physical education (grade 11 to grade 13). In this third part of the
curriculum, foregoing remarks followed a subchapter enumerating
the objectives of this phase (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de
la Jeunesse, 1985, p. III/3):
Increased motivation for physical activity, taking into
account the individual prerequisites of the students
Ensure the acquirement of knowledge about sport
Allow a progressive descolarization in practicing sports
Preventive counteract of the phenomenon of drop-outs in
sports
For these higher-level teaching goals, practical and
educational consequences revealed and were illuminated in a third
subchapter. Finally, the option system has been described in detail as
recommended educational organization form of instructional design
at this stage in the fourth subsection.
Chapter 4 made reflections on the evaluation and calculation
of the grades in physical education, whilst Chapter 5,
a comprehensive 67-page appendix, listed performance tables
for swimming and athletics to be used to calculate the sport note
grades in physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et
de la Jeunesse, 1985).
“Standards and competences for physical education”
(from 2009 on)
In 2006, a working group of the national program
commissions for the subject physical education received by the
National Ministry of Education the mission to develop a curriculum
based on competences. In the following are described the most
relevant features of the new curriculum framework (Ministère de
165
l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009;
Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).
Educational accentuation and profiling
In the first chapter on the mission of the new curriculum, the
educational profile of the educational concept in the form of a double
mandate is clear. On the one hand is represented “Education through
movement, games and sports”, on the other hand, the “Education for
mature participation in the movement, games and sports culture” is
focused on. Accordingly, it is on the one hand to promote
development of individuals through the provision of comprehensive
and attitudes. On the other hand, students should develop through the
mediation of sports-related abilities, skills and knowledge, a
participation and judgment against the broad field of action sports.
For the successful design of a respective accentuated physical
education, three principles of educational physical education are
essential: multiple perspectives, reflection and self-directed
autonomy (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation
professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).
Standard and competence orientation
According to the guidelines of the Ministry of Education, the
new curriculum defines, just like in other subjects in the school
curriculum, mandatory minimum standards, which specify the skills
that students need to have at the end of a particular learning cycle.
These subject-specific competency requirements are assigned to six
overarching areas of expertise in the new curriculum, which
highlight the options of multiple perspectives of physical education
(Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation
professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).
166
Table 1
Subject-specific areas of competence
Area nbr Competence area
Area 1 Health and perception-oriented movement actions
Area 2 Social and integrative movement actions
Area 3 Ability and achievement-oriented movement actions
Area 4 Game-oriented movement actions
Area 5 Shape and performing movement activities
Area 6 Adventure and risk-oriented movement actions
Consequently, competence-based physical education should
help the students to build skills that serve them to cope with
problem-oriented situations in the field of “movement, play and
sports”. So it is no longer considered to plan lessons in sports, but
these subject-specific competence expectations should be illustrated
with a selected content based on physical activities in general
(Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).
Opening up and variety of content
As a result, the sports and physical activities are no longer the
starting point for the content structure of the curriculum. The seven
content areas of the new curriculum are characterized by open and
enlarged “movement fields”, which represent the diversity and the
broadness of the movement, games and sports culture (Ministère de
l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009;
Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).
Table 2
Movement fields in physical education
Area nbr Competence area
Area 1 Health and perception-oriented movement actions
Area 2 Social and integrative movement actions
Area 3 Ability and achievement-oriented movement actions
Area 4 Game-oriented movement actions
Area 5 Shape and performing movement activities
Area 6 Adventure and risk-oriented movement actions
167
Arrangements for individual schools
Another major change in the concept of the new curriculum is
that the schools are granted scope for individual development for the
purpose of its own movement- and sports-related profiling. The
reduction of provisions and liabilities in the so-called “core
curriculum” is left to the schools in order to take decisions about the
content, the learning progression and the general organization, which
are recorded as a part of the school's curriculum work. These school-
based curriculums are designed in the professional community of
physical education teachers in a school in their own responsibility.
The following aspects should be described in the school's curriculum
of each school (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la
Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010):
Agreement on the minimum competencies to be achieved
at the end of a year cycle
Allocation of minimum competencies to be achieved to
grading years
Allocation of minimum competencies to be achieved to
content areas
Planning of teaching periods
Principles of assessment and development of specific
grading criteria
Subject-related appreciation of the current curriculum
In the frame of an empirical study on the acceptance and
reception of the new curriculum concept, Stibbe, and Ingelmann
(2009) agree on the following didactic appreciation of this
innovative concept in German-speaking countries and beyond.
Core Curriculum. The rough guide frame of the core
curriculum is made concrete in the school curriculum of the
respective professional community according to the specific
conditions of the individual school. In this way the schools are to
provide their own school-specific profile.
Minimum standards. The subject-related competences and
standards are, as required by the Ministry of Education, established
in the form of mandatory minimum requirements, unlike in many
168
standard based curricula in Germany, which are determined by
general standards.
General-independent standards and competencies. The
standards are not related to movement fields that are linked to a
specific content, but they are formulated as general-independent
standards and competencies. What movement-related content the
respective standards and competencies are implemented with in
physical education is decided by the professional communities in the
schools.
Development of a subject-specific competence model. The
objectives contained in the pedagogical perspectives are formulated
as competence expectations, and thus justify the development of a
subject-related competence model, even if this model remains a
pragmatic one and is not validated empirically. This linkage of
competence expectations and pedagogical perspectives guarantees
the essentials for the educational principle of multiple perspectives in
physical education.
Education theoretically-grounded educational “physical
education-parent”. The shift from a traditional “skill-oriented sports
program” to an education-theoretical justified “educating physical
education” reveals the new curriculum as innovative, contemporary
and educationally challenging.
Instruction schemes. The starting point for planning lessons
are not sports activities, but instruction schemes or teaching projects
as fixed points of a standard and competence-based curriculum
development, in which motion fields and areas of competence are
linked to each other.
Relations between APEP (Luxembourgish physical
education teacher association) and FIEP
FIEP was founded in 1923 in Brussels, Belgium, under the
name Fédération Internationale de la Gymnastique Ling (FIGL) by a
group of mostly European leaders from countries in which was
taught the formative-educational Gymnastics derived of the
fundamental principles of the Swedish Per Hendrik Ling. In 1953,
officials of the International Federation decided at the World
Congress in Istanbul, Turkey, to change their name and take the
name of Fédération Internationale d’Education Physique (FIEP).
169
This to mark on the one hand their international character and,
secondly, to emphasize their competence in all forms and content of
physical education lessons practiced in the world (Decker, 2010b).
The first contacts documented by Decker (2010b) between
physical education in Luxembourg and FIEP started in 1958, when
Robert Decker, as a young physical education teacher just sworn and,
on the private level, young married, and very interested in physical
education, participated in the World Congress of Physical Education
organized in Brussels on the occasion of the World Exhibition by the
Belgian Federation of Physical Education, specifically under the
auspices of FIEP. It was on this occasion that Robert Decker was
able to establish a first contact for Luxembourg with this
international organization bringing together national delegates from
most European national agencies of physical education, and even
worldwide.
These contacts were reinforced during the Physical Education
World Congress organized on the occasion of the Olympic Games in
Rome by the Italian Federation of Physical Education affiliated to
FIEP, conferences which Robert Decker had the privilege of
representing the APEP. It was at this conference that Robert Decker
got to know the French Pierre Seurin, director of CREPS Bordeaux-
Talence, Secretary General of the French Federation of Physical
Education and of FIEP, as well as editor of the Physical education
journal “Healthy Man”. Noticing that Robert Decker also spokes
English, he asked him, if he wanted to summarize English
publications for the readers of “Human Healthy”, as well as of the
“FIEP Bulletin”, which he agreed to do (Decker, 2010b).
Robert Decker had over the time some successive functions in
FIEP: delegate for Luxembourg from 1960 to 1996, President of the
School Section of FIEP from 1960 to 1994, Secretary General of
FIEP from 1995 to 1997, Vice-President for Europe of FIEP from
1997 to 2008 and, since then, Honorary Vice-President of FIEP. His
successor as delegate of FIEP Luxembourg was, from 1997 to 2009,
his colleague and friend Gaston Malané, named Honorary Delegate
of FIEP in 2009. The current FIEP Delegate for Luxembourg is
Claude Schumacher, President of APEP, with Claude Scheuer, also
APEP and current President of the European Physical Education
Association (EUPEA), alliance partner of FIEP-Europe, as Vice-
Delegate for Luxembourg.
170
For completeness, it can be said that FIEP Luxembourg has a
total of three institutional members, namely the association of
physical education teachers (APEP), the Olympic and Sports
Committee Luxembourg (COSL) and the Faculty of Literature,
Humanities, Arts and Sciences of Education of the University of
Luxembourg.
Conclusion
What is typical for Luxembourg, but also holds true in the
development of physical education over time, is that there were
significant influences both from French and German concepts of
physical education. Considering the developments of the last decades,
it seems that the actual conceptions are more likely nearby concepts
grown in German-speaking countries. From a special interest is also
the close relation between Luxembourg and FIEP, especially by the
person of Robert Decker. As described before, Robert Decker had
several important position in this world-wide organization,
highlighting the importance that has physical education for a holistic
development of the children and the adolescents and thus advocating
for the place of physical education in the school systems and beyond.
In the light of this close links between FIEP and physical education
in Luxembourg, the upcoming FIEP European congress to be hosted
by the University of Luxembourg in Luxembourg in September 2017
will certainly be a highlight.
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HISTORY of Physical Education in Europe. 1 / [editors Petar D.
Pavlovic
... et al.]. - Leposavić : University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and
Physical Education ; [Bratislava] : FIEP Europe, History of Physical
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