SPAIN

Spain is asovereign stateand amember of the European Unionlocated insouthwestern Europeon theIberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by theMediterranean Seaexcept for a small land boundary with theBritish Overseas TerritoryofGibraltar; to the north and north east byFrance,Andorra, and theBay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by theAtlantic OceanandPortugal.Spanish territory also includes theBalearic Islandsin the Mediterranean, theCanary Islandsin the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and twoautonomous citiesinNorth Africa,CeutaandMelilla, that borderMorocco. Furthermore, the town ofLlviais a Spanishexclavesituated inside French territory. With an area of 505,992 square kilometres (195,365 sqmi), it is the second largest country inWestern Europeand theEuropean Unionafter France, and the fourth largest country inEuropeafterRussia,Ukraineand France.Because of its location, the territory of Spain was subject to many external influences sinceprehistoric timesand through to its dawn as a country. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of theCatholic Monarchsand the completion of the reconquest, orReconquista, of the Iberian peninsula in 1492. Conversely, it has been an important source of influence to other regions, chiefly during themodern era, when it became aglobal empirethat has left a legacy of over 500millionSpanish speakerstoday, making it the world'ssecond most spoken first language.Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutionalmonarchy. It is adeveloped countrywith thetwelfth largest economy in the worldby nominal GDP, and very highliving standards, including the tenth-highestquality of life index ratingin the world, as of 2005. It is a member of theUnited Nations,European Union,NATO,OECD, andWTO.

EtymologyThe true origins of the nameEspaaand itscognates"Spain" and "Spanish" are disputed. Theancient Romanname for Iberia,Hispania, may derive from poetic use of the termHesperiato refer to Spain, reflecting theGreekperception ofItalyas a "western land" or "land of the setting sun" (Hesperia,inGreek) and Spain, being still further west, asHesperia ultima.It may also be a derivation of thePunicIspanihad, meaning "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign ofHadrianshow a female figure with aconeyat her feet. There are also claims thatEspaaderives from theBasquewordEzpannameaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian peninsula constitutes the southwest of the European continent.The humanistAntonio de Nebrijaproposed that the wordHispaniaevolved from theIberianwordHispalis, meaning "city of the western world". Jess Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the termspanis the Phoenecian wordspy, meaning "to forge metals". Thereforei-spn-yawould mean "the land where metals are forged".HistoryThe Iberian peninsula enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came under the rule of Rome. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe and the leading world power for a century and a half and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.Continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, whose rule oversaw a period of stagnation but that finished with a powerful economic surge. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. In 1986, Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.

Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples

Archaeological research atAtapuercaindicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated byhominids1.2million years ago.Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 32,000 years ago.The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in theAltamira caveof Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created about 15,000BCEbycro-magnons.Archaeological and genetic evidence strongly suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the lastice age.The two main historical peoples of the peninsula were theIberiansand theCelts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited the Atlantic side, in the north, center (Celtiberian), northwest and southwest part of the peninsula.Basquesoccupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas.In the south of the peninsula appeared the semi-mythical city ofTartessos(c.1100BC), whose flourishing trade in items made of gold and silver with thePhoeniciansandGreeksis documented byStraboand theBook of Solomon. Between about 500BC and 300 BC, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks foundedtrading coloniesalong the Mediterranean coast. TheCarthaginiansbriefly exerted control over much of the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, until defeated in thePunic Warsby theRomans.[14]Roman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom

During theSecond Punic War, an expandingRoman Empirecaptured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210BC to 205 BC. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian peninsula, though they had control of much of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and theRoman road.[15]The cultures of the Celt and Iberian populations were graduallyromanized(Latinized) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class[d][14]Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbors exportedgold,wool,olive oil, andwine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. EmperorsHadrian,Trajan,Theodosius I, and the philosopherSenecawere born in Hispania.[e]Christianitywas introduced into Hispania in the 1stcentury CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2ndcentury CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.The weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when theGermanicSueviandVandals, together with theSarmatianAlanscrossed theRhineand ravagedGauluntil theVisigothsdrove them into Iberia that same year. The Suevi established a kingdom in what is today modernGaliciaand northernPortugal. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity.The Alans' allies, theHasdingiVandals, established a kingdom inGallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to theDueroriver. TheSilingiVandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name Vandalusia, modernAndalusia, in Spain. TheByzantinesestablished an enclave,Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited underVisigothic rule.

Muslim Iberia (7111492)

TheIn the 8thcentury, nearly all of theIberian Peninsulawasconquered(711718) by largelyMoorishMuslimarmies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of theUmayyadIslamic Empire. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.UnderIslamic law, Christians andJewswere given the subordinate status ofdhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions aspeople of the bookbut they were required to pay a special tax and to be subject to certain discriminations.Conversion toIslamproceeded at a steadily increasing pace. Themuladies(Muslims of ethnicIberianorigin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.

The Muslim community in the Iberian peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. TheBerber peopleof North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies,clashed with the Arab leadershipfrom theMiddle East.[f]Over time, largeMoorishpopulations became established, especially in theGuadalquivir Rivervalley, the coastal plain ofValencia, theEbro Rivervalley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region ofGranada.[19]Crdoba, the capital of thecaliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city inwestern Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classicalGreek learningin Western Europe. TheRomanizedcultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture.[19]Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners, and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to a remarkable expansion of agriculture.[citation needed]In the 11thcentury, the Muslim holdings fractured into rivalTaifakingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival fromNorth Africaof the Islamic ruling sects of theAlmoravidsand theAlmohadsrestored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application ofIslam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state, experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.Fall of Muslim rule and unification

TheReconquista("Reconquest") was the centuries-long period of expansion of Iberia's Christian kingdoms. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with theBattle of Covadongain 722, and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the ChristianKingdom of Asturiasalong the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven fromGalicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites,Santiago de Compostelaand was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. Muslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees, but they were defeated by Frankish forces at theBattle of Poitiers,Frankia. Later,Frankishforces establishedChristian countieson the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia.[20]For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along theEbroandDuerovalleys.

The breakup ofAl-Andalusinto the competingtaifakingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city ofToledoin 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12thcentury, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13thcenturyCrdobain 1236 andSevillein 1248leaving only the Muslim enclave ofGranadaas atributary statein the south.In the 13th and 14thcenturies, theMarinidsMuslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13thcentury also witnessed theCrown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, toSicilyand even Athens.Around this time the universities ofPalencia(1212/1263) andSalamanca(1218/1254) were established. TheBlack Deathof 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.

In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms ofCastileandAragonwere united by themarriageofIsabella I of CastileandFerdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of theCanary Islandsand in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a781-year presenceof Islamic rule in Iberia. TheTreaty of Granadaguaranteed religious tolerance towardMuslims. The year 1492 also marked the arrival in theNew WorldofChristopher Columbus, during a voyage funded by Isabella. That same year,Spain's Jewswereordered to converttoCatholicismor faceexpulsionfrom Spanish territories during theSpanish Inquisition.A few years later, following social disturbances, Muslims were also expelled under the same conditions.AsRenaissanceNew Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralized royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the wordEspaa, whose root is the ancient nameHispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms. With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the firstworld power.

Imperial Spain

The unification of the crowns ofAragonandCastilelaid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire. Spain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first twoSpanish HabsburgsCharles I(15161556) andPhilip II(15561598). This period saw theItalian Wars, therevolt of the comuneros, theDutch revolt, theMorisco revolt, clashes with theOttomans, theAnglo-Spanish warand wars withFrance.TheSpanish Empireexpanded to include great parts of theAmericas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas ofItaly, cities inNorthern Africa, as well as parts of what are nowFrance,Germany,Belgium,Luxembourg, and theNetherlands. It was the first empire of which it was said thatthe sun never set.This was anage of discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of newtrade routesacross oceans, conquests and the beginnings of Europeancolonialism. Along with the arrival ofprecious metals, spices, luxuries, and new agricultural plants, Spanish explorers brought back knowledge from theNew World, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed is now referred to as theSpanish Golden Age. The rise ofhumanism, the Protestant Reformation and new geographical discoveries raised issues addressed by the influential intellectual movement now known as theSchool of Salamanca.

In the late 16th century and first half of the 17thcentury, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides.Barbary piratesunder the aegis of the rapidly growingOttoman empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through theirslaveraids and renewed the threat of anIslamic invasion.[30]This at a time when Spain was often at war with France.TheProtestant Reformationschism from the Catholic Church dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.By the middle decades of awar- andplague-ridden 17thcentury Europe the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in the continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the European economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scatteredHabsburgempire, and help the imperial forces of theHoly Roman Empirereverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise theseparation of Portugal(with whom it had beenunitedin apersonal union of the crownsfrom 1580 to 1640) and theNetherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wideThirty Years War.

In the latter half of the 17thcentury, Spain went into a gradual relative decline, during which it surrendered a number of small territories to France. However it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19thcentury.The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18thcentury. TheWar of Spanish Successionwas a wide ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent.During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, theBourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king,Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.The 18thcentury saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The newBourbonmonarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy.Enlightenmentideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in theAmerican War of Independenceimproved the kingdom's international standing.Napoleonic rule and its consequences

In 1793, Spain went to war against the newFrench Republic, which had overthrown and executed its Bourbon king,Louis XVI. The war polarised the country in an apparent reaction against thegallicisedelites. Defeated in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 and it effectively became aclient stateof that country; In 1807, the secrettreaty of Fontainebleaubetween Napoleon and the deeply unpopularGodoyled to a declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the kingdom unopposed, supposedly to invade Portugal, but instead they occupied Spanish fortresses. This invasion by trickery led to theabdicationof the ridiculed Spanish king in favour ofNapoleon'sbrother,Joseph Bonaparte.This foreignpuppet monarchwas widely regarded with scorn. The2 May 1808 revoltwas one of many nationalist uprisings against the Bonapartist regime across the country. These revolts marked the beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War of Independence, and to the British as thePeninsular War. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly coordinated Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanishguerrillasand armies, andWellington'sBritish-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrousinvasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from the Spain in 1814, and the return ofKing Ferdinand VII.The Frenchinvasionsdevastated the economy, and left Spain a deeply divided country prone to political instability. The power struggles of the early 19thcentury led to theloss of all of its coloniesin theAmericas(which stretched fromLas CaliforniastoPatagonia), with the sole exception ofCubaandPuerto Rico.SpanishAmerican War (1898)Amid the instability and economic crisis that afflicted Spain in the 19th century there arose nationalist movements in the Philippines and Cuba. Wars of independence ensued in those colonies and eventually the United States became involved. Despite the commitment and ability shown by some military units, they were so mismanaged by the highest levels of command that theSpanishAmerican War, fought in the Spring of 1898, did not last long. "El Desastre" (The Disaster), as the war became known, helped give impetus to theGeneration of 98who were already conducting much critical analysis concerning the country. It also weakened the stability that had been established during Alfonso XII's reign.Spanish Civil War (193639)The 20thcentury brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in thescramble for Africa, with the colonisation ofWestern Sahara,Spanish MoroccoandEquatorial Guinea. The heavy losses suffered during theRif warin Morocco helped to undermine the monarchy. A period of authoritarian rule under GeneralMiguel Primo de Rivera(19231931) ended with the establishment of theSecond Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women.

The Spanish Civil War (193639) ensued. Three years later the rebelNationalistforces, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco, emerged victorious with the support ofNazi GermanyandFascist Italy. TheRepublicanside was supported by theSoviet Union, Mexico andInternational Brigades, including the AmericanAbraham Lincoln Brigade, but it was not supported officially by the Western powers due to the British-led policy ofNon-Intervention.The Civil War claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens. Most of their descendants now live in Latin American countries, with some 300,000 in Argentina alone. The Spanish Civil War has been called thefirst battleof theSecond World War.[by whom?]Spain under Franco (1939-75)Main article:Spain under FrancoTheSpanish Stateestablished by Franco was nominallyneutralin the Second World War, althoughsympathetictothe Axis. The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was theFalangeEspaola Tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasisedanti-Communism,Catholicismandnationalism. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.After World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of theUnited Nations. This changed in 1955, during theCold Warperiod, when it became strategically important for the U.S. to establish a military presence on the Iberian peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth in what became known as theSpanish miracle, which resumed the much interrupted transition towards a modern economy.After Franco (1975)

With Franco's death in November 1975,Juan Carlossucceeded to the position ofKing of Spainandhead of statein accordance with the law. With the approval of the newSpanish Constitution of 1978and therestoration of democracy, the Statedevolvedmuch authority to the regions and created an internal organization based onautonomous communities.In the Basque Country, moderateBasque nationalismhas coexisted with aradical nationalist movementled by the armed organisationETA. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to imposea military backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.On 30 May 1982 Spain joinedNATO, following a referendum. That year theSpanish Socialist Workers Party(PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined theEuropean Community; what became theEuropean Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by thePartido Popular(PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.On 1 January 2002, Spain ceased to use thepesetaas currency replacing it with theeuro, which it shares with 15 other countries in theEurozone. Spain has also seen strong economic growth, well above theEUaverage; however, well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom that the extraordinary property prices and high foreign trade deficits of the boom were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse were confirmed by a severe property-led recession that struck the country in 2008/9.Aseries of bombs explodedin commuter trains in Madrid, Spain on 11 March 2004. After a five month trial in 2007 it was concluded the bombings were perpetrated by a local Islamist militant group inspired byal-Qaeda.[43]The bombings killed 191 people and wounded more than 1800, and the intention of the perpetrators may have been to influence the outcome of theSpanish general election, held three days later.[44]Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque groupETA, evidence soon emerged indicating possibleIslamistinvolvement. Because of the proximity of the election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the aftermath.[45]At 14 March elections, PSOE, led byJos Luis Rodrguez Zapatero, obtained aplurality, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodrguez Zapatero as the newPresidente del GobiernoorPrime Minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration.The bursting of theSpanish property bubblein 2008 led to the20082012 Spanish financial crisis.