The 16th century Protestant Reformation led to a division of the ChristianChurch into the two main groups, as we know them today, namelyProtestantism and Roman Catholicism. (See articles: "Protestantism", "RomanCatholicism", "History of the Christian Church I - Apostolic Era to the Roman Era","History of the Christian Church II - Middle Ages" and " The Inquisition".)

History of the Christian Church: History of the Christian Church: (3) The Reformation(3) The Reformation (1500-1600 AD) (1500-1600 AD)

During the Roman Era (325-600 AD) Christianity became the official state religion of the RomanEmpire and since then the history of the Christian Church has been closely linked with that ofWestern civilization. This is due mainly to the fact that a close relationship developed between theChurch and State because of the absolute power that both wielded over ordinary people.

However, during and after the Protestant Reformation the protest against the absolute power ofthe Church and State stimulated new ways of thinking, which eventually led to unprecedentedgrowth and development in the West.

Early appeals failedEarly appeals failed

Various appeals for reform have been raised as early as the twelfth century because of the systematicspiritual decay and increasing secularity of the Roman Church. Between 1179 and 1512 the subjectof reform was discussed during at least eight Ecumenical Councils and various decrees were issuedappealing to the Church to leave its old ways, but in practice nothing much changed.

By the sixteenth century the resistance against the decay in the Church came from within its ownranks and was so strong that only a small spark was needed to cause an explosion. Early reformerssuch as John Wycliffe (1324-1384) and John Huss (1380-1414) died as martyrs for their efforts tobring the Church back to its biblical foundations on various issues (See “Early Reformers” in article"History of the Christian Church II - Middle Ages".)

LEFT: Early reformer John Wycliffe (1324-1384).

The spark: Forgiveness vs selling of indulgencesThe spark: Forgiveness vs selling of indulgences

Most historians agree that resistance against the Roman Catholic custom of selling forgiveness for sinsto the family members of dead relatives was one of the main factors that led to the Reformation. Thissystem basically meant that people (mostly rich people who could afford it) could buy forgiveness forsins or "indulgences" for their loved ones in purgatory.

By the sixteenth century the selling of indulgences was a very important source of income for theChurch as well as local clerics.

Reformation starts in GermanyReformation starts in Germany

In 1517 a Dominican monk, John Tetzel, travelled throughout Germany to "promote" the selling ofindulgences with the blessings of Pope Leo X. This was done to finance the building of the SaintPeter's Church in Rome. In October of that year he planned a special "jubilee service" dedicated to theselling of indulgences. This service was set to take place during the celebration of All Saints' Day inthe city of Wittenberg.

95 objections on a church door

This was too much for Martin Luther, a 34-year old Augustinian monk and lecturer at the Universityof Wittenberg. Luther had already protested against this system on previous occasions and a daybefore the planned services to sell indulgences he nailed a list of 95 doctrines or objections to thedoor of Castle Church in Wittenberg.

ABOVE: Luther nailing his objections to the door of the Castle Church.

In this document he complained publicly for the first time against the corruption in the RomanCatholic Church (for example the papal management of all finances), doctrinal distortions (forexample the selling of indulgences from the Church to ensure salvation) as well as religiousmalpractices (which later led Luther to reject the supposition that the Pope is infallible). This was alsothe spark that was needed to ignite the flame of the Protestant Reformation.

First conflict with the Roman Church

The Roman Church insisted that Luther withdraw some of his objections. Luther refused and insistedthat, instead, the Church should introduce reforms regarding the selling of indulgences, the sevensacraments, the enforced celibacy of clerics and the control of all church finances by the Papacy.

In June 1520 most of Luther's doctrines were officially rejected by the Papal Curia and on 3January 1521 Pope Leo X banned him from the Roman Catholic Church. In the Concordant ofWorms, issued in the same year after the Reichstag, Luther was officially declared a "heretic". The HolyRoman Emperor Carl V supported this. (See article: "Martin Luther and his Teachings".)

Religious schism and the struggle in Germany

The Reformation Movement in Germany grew very fast. The country was divided between theLutherans (a small number of princes from the northern territories, lower clerics, merchants andpeasants), who supported the Reformation, and those who chose to remain loyal to the Papacy (theEmperor, most of the princes and the higher clerics).

ABOVE: A picture of Luther trying to convince the peasants not to use violence.

In 1542 the German war broke out between - on the one hand - the peasants, who used Luther'sdoctrine to try and improve their political and economical situation, and - on the other hand - the richprinces and landlords. Although Luther at first supported the peasants, he turned against them whenthey started using violence as a means to achieve their goals. As a result, Luther lost a lot of supportand the war widened the schism between Reformers and Catholics.

First Protestants

In 1526 an agreement was reached during the Reichstag of Spiers, giving German princes thefreedom to choose whether or not to convert to Lutherism. Three years later this agreement waswithdrawn by the majority of Roman Catholics during a Reichstag in the same city. The Lutheranminority immediately revolted against this step.

After the withdrawal of the agreement the Lutherans became known as "Protestants" (because oftheir revolt or “protest” gaints the Roman Catholic Church) - a name that was later used to refer to allReformers.

Augustan Confession and peace

A Confession of Faith, known as the Augustan Confession of Faith, was issued by the Lutherans in1530 and presented to Emperor Carl V and supporters of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1546 theEmperor and the Pope joined forces to attack the armies of the Protestant Schmalkaldic League.

This German religious war continued for more than ten years and only ended in 1555 with thesigning of the Augustan Peace Accord. According to this treaty each of the approximately 300 rulersof the German states and their followers could decide for themselves whether or not they wanted tobe members of the Roman Catholic Church or the Protestant Movement.

Germany today

Today - more than 500 years after the Reformation gained support in Germany and spread to therest of Europe and other parts of the world - the German population is still divided equally betweenthese two Christian groups. Approximately 34% of all Germans are Protestants, while 33% aremembers of the Roman Catholic Church.

Reformation in SwitzerlandReformation in Switzerland

Huldrich Zwingli

At the forefront of the Reformation Movement in Switzerland was 34-year old Huldrich Zwingli, apriest - much younger than Luther, but just as strongly opposed to the selling of indulgences by theChurch.

ABOVE: Huldrich Zwingli.

Zwingli studied Theology at the University of Basle. He was very impressed by one of his lecturerswho emphasized the authority of the Bible, the death of Christ as the only sacrifice needed forforgiveness of sins and the uselessness of the selling of indulgences. Later he became chaplain off theSwiss mercenaries and during this time became involved in a physical relationship with a woman -something of which he was very ashamed, but which he attributed to the fact that priests wereforced to accept celibacy.

In 1519 Zwingli settled in Zurich, from where he advocated changes in the Church, but it wasonly in 1522 that he publicly became part of the Reformation Movement when he objected againstthe Roman Catholic use of enforced times of fasting.

Like Luther, Zwingli considered the Bible as the highest authority in all spiritual and moral matters.He also believed that only guidelines clearly stated in the Bible must be followed during worship anddevotions. As a result, he and his followers rejected the Papacy, monks, mass, the doctrine oftransubstantiation, purgatory, the veneration of saints and the use of sculptures and relics in theChurch.

Growth of Protestantism in Switserland

Under the influence of Zwingli the city council of Zurich introduced systematic reforms. They weresoon to be joined by the councils of other towns and cities like Basle and Bern.

Zwingli died in 1531 during one of two short armed struggles between reformers and Catholics inSwitzerland. After a peace agreement was reached, a decision was taken that allowed every district(canton) the freedom to practice the religion of their choice. In reality the Roman Catholic Churchremained dominant in the remote rural and mountainous areas, while the inhabitants of the citiesand fertile valleys joined the Protestant Movement.

Switzerland today

The situation in Switzerland today is similar to the one in Germany - the population is divided equallybetween Protestants (41%) and Roman Catholics (44%).

Reformation in FranceReformation in France

Faith replaces the Church

In France the doctrines of reformers such as Lefévre d'Etaples, a Christian humanist, led to conflictwith the Roman Catholic Church. Like Luther, d'Etaples came to the conclusion that a person canonly be saved and reunited with God through faith in His act of grace (the death of Jesus Christ onthe cross) and not as a result of membership to the Church.

ABOVE: French reformer Lefévre d'Etaples.

He also advocated the individual's right to interpret the Bible and, in an effort to empower morepeople to do just that, he translated the New Testament into French, using the original Greek text.

Because of the events that took place in Germany and Switzerland at the time, members of theRoman Catholic Church in France considered these to be a threat to their own position and startedto persecute people who supported the Reformation Movement. Many Protestant leaders wereforced to flee and hide in Switzerland, while many others, like John Calvin, settled in Geneva (seeinformation box: "John Calvin" and "Calvinism" at the end of the article).

First French Protestant Church

Motivated by the success and doctrines of Calvin and others, various leaders returned to France topromote Protestantism. In 1559, a national synod of 66 churches that supported the ReformationMovement was held in Paris. This synod was attended by many members of the nobility - much toanger of the Roman Catholic Church. During the Synod a Declaration of Faith was compiled andguidelines formulated for the establishment of the first French Protestant Church.

Protestants in France were called "Huguenots" and grew in numbers despite growing persecution.Speculation has it that approximately a third of the nobility left the Catholic Church to becomeProtestants.

Massacre of St Bartholomew Night

With the support of his mother, Catherine de Medici, the Catholic King Charles IV (1560-1574) ofFrance devised a diabolical plan to once and for all get rid of all Protestants in his kingdom.

ABOVE: A painting of the St Bartholomew Night massacre in Paris.

At midnight on August 24, 1572, soldiers descended on thousands of unsuspecting Protestantswho were celebrating St Bartholomew Day in Paris. The slaughter of thousands of Protestants lasteda few days. Bodies were cut into pieces and thrown in the rivers. According to reports, blood flowedthrough the streets of Paris. Approximately 10 000 Protestants - men, woman and children - werekilled during the first three days.

This rampage - accompanied by rape and horrendous torture methods - quickly spread to otherparts of France, including Augustobona, Avaricum, Troyes, Toulouse, Rouen, Barre, Penna, Orleans,Antsidor and Blois. Many nobles and high-ranking Protestants - among them the Prince of Navarre,senators and military leaders - lost their lives, along with members of the middle class and peasants.

When news of the massacre reached Rome, a day of celebration was proclaimed. For the RomanCatholic Church the massacre on St Bartholomew Night and the events that followed wereconsidered a triumph over the Protestants, whom they considered to be "heretics". For Christianity itwas one of the darkest nights in history.

Edict of Nantes

After the murder of thousands of Huguenots on Bartholomew Night the persecution of Huguenotsin every part of France increased. Thousands of Hugeunots were killed as heretics while many fled toother parts of Europe, America and South Africa. In South Africa, many settled in the Cape of GoodHope where they became the forefathers of todays Afrikaans families such as the Du Preez’s, DeVilliers, Duvenhage’s etc.

The conditions of the Huguenots in France improved only after Henry IV issued the Edict ofNantes in 1598.

While Protestantism in France strengthened the Huguenots position - especially amongacademics, trained craftsmen and members of the bourgeoisie - conflicts between Catholics andProtestant regularly flared up.

Drawn-out conflict

During the rule of King Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, a Roman Catholic, decided to curb the politicalrights of Protestants. The Protestant Rebellion of 1621 was quickly suppressed and in 1628 Richelieu'sarmy occupied the last Protestant stronghold -La Rochelle - after a siege lasting 14 months. With thePeace Accord of Allays, which was signed the following year, all the political rights of the Huguenotswere suspended.

In 1685 King Louis XIV recalled the Edict of Nantes. The Huguenots lost almost all their civil andreligious rights. Among other things, they were prohibited from converting others to their religion or

to criticize the Catholic Church. In reaction to this, approximately 200 000 Huguenots fled Franceover the next few centuries to settle in England (approximately 40 000), the Netherlands, Germany,Switzerland, America and even South Africa.

In 1789 the revolutionary National Assembly reinstated the Huguenots' civil rights. However, theyhad to wait until 1905 before the Freedom of Religion Bill was passed. This only happened after thejurisdictions of the Church and State were clearly defined.

France today

The Roman Catholic Church is still the largest religious group in France (67% of the population) whilethe Protestants are in the minority with only 1,5%. However, the influence of the doctrines of FrenchReformers such as John Calvin are still felt strongly today and form an integral part of the Confessionsof Faith of Protestant Churches around the world (see article “Protestantism”).

Reformation in EnglandReformation in England

The start of the Reformation in England can be traced back to the fourteenth century, whentheologians like John Wycliffe (1324-1384), sometimes called the "Morning star of the Reformation",openly declared that the Roman Catholic Church has "become sinful" and must mend its ways. (Seearticle: "History of the Christian Church II - The Middle Ages".) Wycliffe also supported the view that"ordinary people" should have access to the Bible and in 1382 his translation of the Bible into Englishwas published.

In keeping with the rest of Europe, the Reformation Movement in England only gatheredmomentum in the sixteenth century. While reform - followed by a split with the Roman CatholicChurch - in Germany and other European countries was the result of calls for change from withinthe Church, reform in England was the result of a political split with the Papacy.

The King becomes head of the Church

In 1531, King Henry VIII (1509-1547), who had considerable influence in the Catholic Church inEngland - decided to divorce his wife, Catharine of Argon. Pope Leo X refused to acknowledge thedivorce.

ABOVE: King Henry VIII (1509-1547).

Angry with the Pope, the King persuaded his parliament to approve the adoption of various lawsthat made the English Church independent from the Papacy. In 1533 the Archbishop of Kentdeclared King Henry's marriage to Catherine invalid and the King was free to marry Anne Bolin.

In reaction to this bold step, the Pope banned the English king from the Roman Catholic Church.This did not upset Henry and in November 1534 the Law of Supremacy was passed by parliament.This law allowed the English king to become the "the sole earthly leader of the Church of England".This signalled the establishment of an independent, national Anglican Church (Church of England).

Further developments

Although Henry VIII rejected the authority of the Pope over the Church in England, his reforms weremild and many Catholic uses and doctrines were still practiced. During the rule of his son, KingEdward VI, Protestantism started to gain in popularity. The Book of Common Prayer, whichintroduced uniformity according to Protestant doctrines during public worship, was widely publishedand law enforced compliance.

A new Anglican Confession of Faith, comprising 42 (later shortened to 39) articles, was issued andbrought the Anglican Church in line with Protestantism in the rest of Europe.

After the death of Edward, his successor, Queen Mary ("Bloody Mary"), tried to reinstate the RomanCatholic Church in England. Although many Protestants died on the stake during her rule, she didnot succeed in suppressing Protestantism. In 1563 Protestantism was restored under the rule ofQueen Elizabeth 1.

Small splinter groups

Although the Anglican Confession of Faith was in essence Protestant, the structuring of the Church,as well as its rituals, were adopted from the Roman Catholic Church. For many supporters of theReformation in England - some of whom were influenced by Calvinism - this was not good enough.They broke away from the Anglican Church to form smaller Protestant groups like Presbyterians,Puritans, Quakers and Separatists.

During the same time the Reformed and Lutheran Churches were established and enjoyed ameasure of success.

United Kingdom today

Members of the Anglican Church (43% of the population) still form the largest single religious groupin the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). Other Protestant groupsrepresent 7,5% of the population, while approximately 9,6% are Roman Catholics.

Reformation in ScotlandReformation in Scotland

The Reformation Movement in Scotland was originally started by Lutherans such as Patrick Hamilton,who was declared a "heretic" by the Archbishop of St Andrews and died as a martyr at the stake. Infact, it was the Calvinists, with John Knox (1513-1572) at the helm, who eventually persuaded theScottish people to support Protestantism (see information box: "John Knox" at the end of this article).

Influence of Calvin

Knox was a Catholic priest who converted to Protestantism during the 1540s. After his conversion hehad to work as a galley slave and later as chaplain to King Edward VI of England.

ABOVE: John Knox.

In 1553, when the Catholic-minded Mary I (1516-1558), also known as "Bloody Mary," took thethrone, Knox fled to Geneva. During his stay in Geneva he was impressed by the doctrines andchurch structures of French reformer John Calvin (see article: "John Calvin and Calvinism").

In 1559 Knox returned to Scotland, were nationalism and opposition against the Roman CatholicChurch were growing. Under the influence of Knox a large section of the population was mobilisedunder the banner of Protestantism to rebel against the rule of Mary of Guise.

Protestants take over

Because Mary of Guise (who ruled Scotland on behalf of her young daughter, Mary Stuart) enjoyedthe support of Catholic France, Knox appealed to the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) ofEngland for help. With her support the Protestant Party took over the Scottish Parliament.

This major breakthrough for Protestantism was validated on 17 August 1560, when theparliament officially accepted a Protestant Confession of Faith - known as the Scottish Confession. ThisConfession - written by Knox - was based on the doctrines of John Calvin. With the acceptance ofthis Confession, the authority of the Catholic Pope was officially rejected. They also did away with theuse of various Roman Catholic rituals.

In 1561 Mary Stuart - a Catholic like her mother - returned from France, where she grew up, totake the throne. This temporarily lent support to the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland and causedrenewed conflict between the Protestants and Roman Catholics. Due to political pressures, Mary wasforced to abdicate in 1567 and the Protestants were again in firm control of the Scottish parliament.

Presbyterianism

Calvin's system of Church management - known as Presbyterianism - was introduced countrywide.This basically meant that pastors and elders were divided into rings ("presbyteries"), and in turn theserings formed "synopses". Synopses formed part of the "General Assembly". The first General Assemblyof the Scottish Reformed Church - afterwards known as the Church of Scotland - was held inEdinburgh in 1560 (see article “Protestantism”).

Scotland today

Protestantism is still the biggest religious group in Scotland and the Church of Scotland is the biggestchurch, with approximately 615 000 members in 2001.

Reformation in the NetherlandsReformation in the Netherlands

During the Reformation of the sixteenth century the "Netherlands" or "Low Lands" - modern-dayNetherlands and Belgium - was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, member of the SpanishHapsburg as well as King of Spain. At the time the Low Lands was the richest and most progressiveterritory in Europe.

Inquisition employed

Luther's reforms divided the Low Lands into two. The Northern territories - today part of theNetherlands - excepted Protestantism with enthusiasm, while the southern parts - modern-dayBelgium - choose to remain Roman Catholic.

ABOVE: More than 50 000 Dutch Protestants died during the Inquisition.

Charles V considered the fast growth of Protestantism in the Netherlands's as a threat. In 1521 heissued a edict that ultimately led to the Inquisition (see article: "History of the Christian Church III – TheInquisition") against Dutch Protestants. According to some sources between 50 000 and 100 000Dutch believers died at the stake, were decapitated, buried alive, drowned, strangled and killed byinhumane methods over the next few decades. They were killed for the simple reason that they wereProtestants.

Eighty Years' War

In spite of this terrible persecution, the Protestants, in particular Calvinism, continued to grow. TheProtestants' striving to become independent from the Catholic Church became an integral part ofDutch nationalism, which had as its goal to gain its independence from Spain and its "Holy RomanEmperor".

ABOVE: William I, known as William of Orange.

A full-scale war between the Protestants - led by William I - and the forces of Phillip I, son andsuccessor to Charles V - broke out in 1568. This war, known in modern times as the Eighty Years'War, was dragged out until 1648, when the Spanish signed the Peace of Westphalia, grantingindependence to the Protestant-minded Northern territories (Netherlands).

The Netherlands today

Membership of Protestant Churches in the Netherlands declined sharply during the previous century,from 61% in 1900 to just over 21% by the year 2000. Currently the Roman Catholic Church is againthe single biggest religious group in the Netherlands. Approximately 33% of the population belongsto the Roman Catholic Church.

Worldwide divisionWorldwide division

The most visible result of the Reformation Movement from a Christian perspective was the divisionworldwide of Christianity into two main groups - Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.

From a Protestant perspective (see article: "Protestantism") the Reformation was a return to Biblicalprinciples and doctrines. This means that the individual's personal relationship with God enjoyedpriority above his membership to a Church. The form and rituals during devotions also differedgreatly.

From a Roman Catholic perspective (see article: "Roman Catholicism") the Reformation led to a lossin power, property, land and members. Reformers were considered by the Roman Catholic Churchas "heretics" who - because of their independence from the "True and only Universal Christian Church- no longer had any part in God's salvation and were therefore doomed to spend eternity in hell.

The Reformation also undoubtedly had an impact on a variety of other terrains and influenced thecourse of the history of Western civilization and the world. Politically, the Protestants gave identity toand became a medium for nationalist aspirations. In Scotland and Netherlands, Protestantismbecame the banner under which political and religious freedom was won.

This also contributed to a change in the political structures of many countries and the power offeudal landowners and the Catholic Church were transferred to the middle classes and monarchs.Democracy grew and personal freedom was promoted. The Reformation also had a significantimpact on art, science and philosophy.

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Article by Manie Bosman (E-Mail maniebosman@mweb.co.za)

Terms and conceptsTerms and concepts

Selling of indulgences: A system according to which the Church "sold indulgences" or forgiveness topeople whose loved ones had died and were spending time in purgatory.

Bartholomew: One of the twelve disciples who followed Jesus (Luke 6:14).

Bible: Holy manuscripts of Christianity. Comprises the Hebrew Old Testament (39 books) and theNew Testament (27 books). The Roman Catholic also recognises the Deutero-Canonical Books (9).(See article: "Composition of the Bible".)

Christianity: Originally used to refer to anyone living in a Christian country or community - especially ifChristianity was elected as the official state religion. Includes consecrated Christians as well as anyonewho had some connection to a Christian community.

Ecumenical Council: Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church has called together 21Ecumenical Councils with all its Bishops and office-bearers. The aim of these meetings was to conferabout, define and legalise the doctrines of the Church.

Gospel: The doctrine of salvation through Jesus Christ. It is also the recorded history detailing His life,His teachings as well as His work and comprises the first four books of the New Testament.

Catechism: A book or list containing the most import religious doctrines in the form of questions andanswers.

Communion: A celebration or imitation of the last meal shared by Jesus and his disciples (see "Mass"or "Holy Communion").

New Testament: The second part of the Christian Bible, comprising 27 books that can be divided intothe Gospels (4 books), Acts of the Apostles (1 book), Missionary letters from Paul (13 books), Letters tothe Hebrews (1 book), General Epistles (7 books) and the Revelations of John (1 book).

Ordination: Appointment of a priest or preacher as an office-bearer in a church.

Old Testament: The written Torah or Bible of Judaism. Forms the first part of the Christian Bible andcomprises 39 books that can be divided into three groups: The Law (Pentateuch), the Prophets andthe Scriptures.

Pope: Bishop of Rome and sovereign leader of the Roman Catholic Church. Considered to be a directdescendant of the apostle Peter.

Priest: An office-bearer in the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican Churches. Although priestsshare the responsibilities of bishops, they are firstly responsible for the administering of thesacraments to the congregation.

Protestants: See Protestantism.

Sacraments: Sacraments are the religious rituals of the Christian Church. Protestants have twosacraments - baptism and communion - that are considered as the visible signs or symbols of God'sgrace in the life of a believer. Roman Catholics acknowledge seven sacraments and consider these tobe the signs and ways through which God's grace is transferred onto participants.

Fall of man: Mankind's sinful nature or separation from God was the cause of Adam and Eve'sdisobedience to God. As a result of this, sin came into the world and ever since then man has beenborn as a sinner.

Transubstantiation: According to this doctrine, bread and wine become the flesh and blood of Christwhen served during the Roman Catholic Communion.

Purgatory: According to Roman Catholic doctrine, a place of torture (not hell) where souls ofdeceased believers have to stay for a time of purification before they can gain admittance to heaven.Babies who were not baptised, and therefore cannot go to heaven, remain indefinitely in thiscondition. (See: "Seven sacraments