holt african american history chapter 7. holt african american history chapter 7 section 1 section 1...

Holt African American HistoryHolt African American History Chapter 7Chapter 7


Section 1Section 1 The Jim Crow Era

Section 2Section 2 The Progressive Movement

Section 3Section 3 African Americans Move West

Section 4Section 4 Black Achievements After Reconstruction

The Separation of the RacesThe Separation of the Races


Reading Focus• What rights did black citizens lose after the end of

Reconstruction?• What court cases helped legalize segregation in the United

States?• What barriers were raised to keep African Americans from

voting?• What caused a rise in racial violence in the 1900s?

Main Idea By 1900 many of the gains made by African Americans during Reconstruction had been taken away, and relations between blacks and whites had grown strained.

Section 1:Section 1: The Jim Crow Era


Building Background

The period of Reconstruction had been an effort to heal

the United States after years of conflict and war. As part

of the healing, many Americans wanted to improve the

lives of African Americans and protect their rights.

These efforts were somewhat successful during

Reconstruction, but after the period ended

discrimination actually increased.


African Americans Lose Ground

Three different approaches to African American equality• Most African Americans favored social integration

– Sought to place blacks on an equal basis with whites

– Level social, economic, and political barriers

– Create equal opportunity among people of all races

• Many blacks and some whites called for racial separation– Respectful division of the races into their own communities

– Blacks would develop independent social, educational, and economic institutions

• Many whites looked for ways to keep races separate and unequal through voluntary segregation

– Called for separation of the races in daily life; developed into new era of discrimination called the Jim Crow era that lasted nearly 100 years


The Rise of Jim CrowJim Crow

• Name originally from song sung by black children at play

• Took on different meaning in 1820s with song-and-dance routine by blackface performer

• Soon became a racial slur used to demean blacks

• By late 1800s referred to laws and customs to oppress, discriminate against blacks, especially in the South


Redeemer governments• 1870s white Democrats who favored segregation began

to gain power in South• Were elected to state governments; replacing African

American politicians elected during Reconstruction • Southerners referred to new governments as Redeemer

governments• Thought the new leaders would “redeem” the South by

reversing Reconstruction policies • Firm believers in white supremacy, leaders wanted to limit

the power of black citizens


Jim Crow laws• Redeemer lawmakers passed laws to establish separate facilities

for black people; laws became known as Jim Crow laws

• Jim Crow laws spread across South from 1890 to 1910

• Throughout South blacks forced to ride in separate railway cars, eat in separate restaurants, attend separate schools, and live in separate neighborhoods

• In the North, laws less widespread; African Americans still dealt with prejudice; blacks denied admittance to hotels, restaurants, and theaters

• Blacks also faced prejudice at West Point; in 1870 malicious white cadets provoked J. W. Smith into striking a white cadet; the first black cadet at West Point was expelled as result


Sequence

What events led to the passing of Jim Crow laws in the South?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

Reconstruction ended; Democrats returned to power in the South; Democratic lawmakers passed laws restricting black rights.


Southern states began writing new constitutions that incorporated Jim Crow

principles. States used federal court rulings to support segregation.

Segregation is Legalized

The Slaughterhouse Cases• 1873 three cases regarding the

meatpacking industry in New Orleans brought before the Supreme Court

• Years before Louisiana decided to create a new corporation to run all slaughterhouses in New Orleans

• Slaughterhouse owners said it was an unlawful monopoly that threatened their livelihood

Case at Supreme Court• Slaughterhouse owners argued

Louisiana law violated 14th amendment rights; no state could impede the rights and privileges of its citizens

• Court did not agree; 14th only protected rights of national citizenship—not rights granted by states

• Cases later used to justify Jim Crow laws and creation of separate facilities in states


Plessy v. Ferguson• 1892 another case about discrimination

– Louisiana law prohibited blacks and whites from riding in the same railroad car; Homer Plessy, who was one-eighth black, challenged the law when he was arrested for riding in a white car

• Separate but equal – Louisiana courts determined separate facilities did not demean blacks, as

long as those facilities were equal; Plessy appealed

– In landmark case Plessy v. Ferguson the Supreme Court sided with the Louisiana court; agreed segregation was lawful as long as blacks and whites had access to equal facilities

– John Marshall Harlan only justice to disagree; arguing the decision would only worsen racial tension; “separate but equal” doctrine used to keep blacks in the position of second-class citizens

– Facilities available to blacks were seldom equal to those used by whites


Describe

What were the results of the Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

Separate and supposedly equal facilities were accepted for blacks and whites.


Voting rights for African Americans a major concern for white politicians. Some whites wanted to control black vote; others wanted to deny it.

Barriers to Voting

Black Disfranchisement• New black codes included unfair

voting laws; adding literacy tests to their voting restrictions

• Many blacks had received no education; could not pass tests

• States voting fee called a poll tax

• Poor and illiterate whites were exempted by grandfather clause; if grandfather eligible to vote, then that person could vote as well

Other Methods• Other states used a so-called

clause of understanding; waived literacy requirements if could explain clause

• Some southern states banned blacks form taking part in primary elections

• Black voters had little say in who was elected to office in the South

• Once again unable to vote; with little say in the government


Farm movement

• Members of Populist movement supported voting rights for blacks

• Started in 1880s to support and protect farmers

• In 1892 Populists officially banded together as new political party

• To gain support for their programs Populist leaders turned to black voters

• Populists worked on behalf of black citizens trying to win back lost voting rights

Candidates

• Blacks voted for Populist candidates; angered conservative white Democrats

• Fearing increased political power of black voters, conservative leaders tried to find new ways to prevent African Americans citizens from voting

• A few black politicians elected in the South, with support from Populists

• George Henry White from North Carolina only black representative in U.S. Congress when elected

The Populist Movement


Identify

What were two common practices used to keep African Americans from voting?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

Literacy tests, poll taxes, clauses of understanding, banning from primaries


Life under Jim Crow was dangerous. Jim Crow laws and customs were backed with threats of violence.

Racial Violence on the Rise

Lynching

• Most common forms of racial violence in late 1800s—lynchings, murders of individuals without a trial

• Nearly 900 blacks lynched from 1882 to 1892; many committed no crime

• Black journalist Ida Wells- Barnett fought to expose and end the practice

Race Riots

• Number of race riots increased; in cities large numbers of whites took to the streets to punish blacks accused of crimes

• 1st major riot in Wilmington, NC in 1898, another in Atlanta, GA in 1906

• Lynchings and race riots more common in the South; both occurred in the North as well


Jim Crow era imagery is shown in this French artist’s conception of the 1906 race riot in Atlanta, Georgia.


Analyze

What was the cause of most lynchings and race riots?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

general dislike of African Americans and perceived slights toward whites


Reading Focus

• What was the Progressive movement, and what did Progressives want to achieve?

• Why did some black activists protest the Progressives?

• What goals were black Progressive organizations founded to achieve?

Main Idea

Countless individuals and groups worked tirelessly to improve the lives and situations of African Americans during the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Section 2:Section 2: The Progressive Movement


Building Background

By 1900 African Americans had seen the denial of their

political rights. Even worse, they had witnessed the

destruction of basic human rights. But African

Americans were not alone in noticing the hardships they

faced. At the beginning of the century, reformers from

all over the country—mostly white members of the

middle class—banded together to fight injustice in

society.


Black Self-Reliance

• Reform movement of the late 1800s and early 1900s• Called the Progressive movement; key issues were terrible poverty,

unfair business practices, the lack of rights for women, and racial discrimination

• Progressives published photos of horrible living conditions faced by the urban poor; wrote moving pieces about the unfair treatment of black Americans

• Many black activists among Progressives; heart of message was idea of self-reliance, that blacks should not have to depend on anyone else to succeed

• To attain self-reliance, black people needed the same educational and economic opportunities that whites enjoyed


Examples of Black Progressives

• Black Progressives included both men and women; most prominent supporters of African American rights were two black women

• Ida Wells-Barnett, an outspoken critic of lynching she also wrote passionately for increased rights for blacks and women

• Mary Church Terrell traveled around the country calling for the same rights

Booker T. Washington

• Vocal black Progressive, Booker T. Washington; had been born a slave in 1856 in Virginia to a black mother and a white father

• His dream was to learn to read and write; a black school finally opened

• At the age of 16, he went to the Hampton Institute in Virginia; after graduation, Washington got a job as a teacher


Washington’s Speech• On September 18, 1895,

Washington made a speech in Atlanta; mesmerizing his audience

• “Learn a trade” enthusiastic advice to black citizens

• If black people efficient workers, would be granted rights as citizens; philosophy known as vocational education

• His Atlanta Compromise declared blacks and whites had to work together to achieve racial equality; tolerance could not be forced

Booker T. Washington


Tuskegee Institute

• Washington felt he could help black people succeed by teaching them; accepted the chance to open the Tuskegee Institute in 1881

• At that time Tuskegee was nothing more than a rundown old plantation and a barn; by his death in 1915, the institute had an annual endowment in excess of $2 million

• The Tuskegee Institute founded to train teachers and to teach poor blacks trades so they could succeed; school was successful

• Eventually focus changed from vocational training to a more traditional college curriculum; began offering college degrees

• Now called Tuskegee University, the school today has an enrollment of more than 3,000


Black Education Movement• Many benefactors from around the country began to give money to support

black schools

• Rich northern business owners gave more than $2 million to open public schools in the South

• Oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller established schools in the South open to all students, black or white; other philanthropists paid to open schools only open to black students

• Anna Jeanes, the daughter of a Philadelphia merchant; in the early 1900s donated $1 million to black schools in the South

• Julius Rosenwald established a fund dedicated to building and improving rural black schools

• Many wealthy individuals worked to help black students gain new opportunities and improve their lives


Explain

What role did education play in Booker T. Washington’s vision of African American success?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

He thought education was the key to better jobs, better lives, and better relations between the races.


Many felt black Americans should fight bitterly against discrimination and segregation, protest the status quo and work for a positive change in society.

The Black Protest Movement

W. E. B. Du Bois• One of the leaders of the Black

Protest movement; a brilliant economics professor at Atlanta University

• Du Bois feared if blacks just waited to gain full equality they would be headed back to slavery

• Du Bois was born to free parents in 1868 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.

Scholarly Brilliance• At early age won a scholarship to

Fisk University; earned a Ph.D. from Harvard University, the first black student ever to do so

• Du Bois gained fame as a scholar; 1899 published The Philadelphia Negro, the first in-depth sociological examination of African Americans

• In 1903 penned The Souls of Black Folk


Washington and Du Bois• Like Booker T. Washington, Du Bois wanted better lives

for African Americans; the two men differed on how to achieve that dream– Washington focused on getting the black working class what it

needed to survive

– Du Bois believed the black middle class was the only group with the resources, both material and mental, to pull the working class out of poverty

– Du Bois dubbed those young black people with the most potential for leadership the Talented Tenth

• Du Bois thought that the skills and talents of the Tenth could pull all black citizens up from hardship


Du Bois set out to change the problems in society. Black Americans should have three things: the right to vote, civic equality, and the education of youth according to their ability.

The Niagara Movement

Fort Erie Meeting• July 11, 1905, Du Bois and 29

others met in Canada

• Du Bois’s originally wanted to hold the meeting in Buffalo; the hotel refused to rent rooms to African Americans

• These men were determined to create an organization which would aggressively push for full civil rights for all African Americans

Incorporation• The group incorporated itself as

the Niagara Movement

• Met the following year at Harpers Ferry; in 1907, met in the old abolitionist stronghold of Faneuil Hall in Boston

• In 1908 after a major race riot in Springfield, Illinois, liberal whites took up the civil rights banner; joining with their black counterparts


Identify

What was the goal of the Niagara Movement?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

The movement wanted to secure black rights, including the right to vote, civic equality, and education.


Economic Organizations

• Booker T. Washington organized first successful national black business association of the early twentieth century

• At the 1900 meeting, he urged delegates to start as many businesses as possible

• 1907 the National Negro Business League had 320 branches

• Between 1906 and 1910, three different organizations were formed in NYC to press for economic advancement for blacks

Joining Forces

• By 1911 three organizations centralized their efforts; new organization called the National League on Urban Conditions Among Negroes

• It exists today as the National Urban League; devoting itself to helping African Americans in cities make progress in all walks of life

• Has helped newly arrived southern blacks adjust to the North; made training programs to help people progress beyond unskilled jobs

Progressive Organizations


On February 12, 1909, the 100th anniversary of Abraham Lincoln’s birth, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was born.

The NAACP

NAACP

• W. E. B. Du Bois and the Niagara Movement joined with white reformers to found the NAACP

• Among the white founders were Mary White Ovington and Oswald Garrison Villard

• In May 1910 Du Bois created a magazine so the leaders of the new organization could share their views

The Crisis

• The magazine was called The Crisis; by 1920 it was selling as many as 100,000 copies a month

• Du Bois explained, “its editorial page will stand for the rights of men, irrespective of color or race”

• NAACP attorneys began waging the battle against injustice—a battle that continues today


The lawyers of the NAACP won three landmark cases in the NAACP’s first 15 years of existence.

Guinn v. United States (1915), in which the Supreme Court declared the “grandfather clauses” in Oklahoma to be illegal

Buchanan v. Warley (1917), in which a Louisville, Kentucky, law that had forced black people to live only in certain sections of town was declared unconstitutional

Moore v. Dempsey (1923), in which 5 black men convicted of murder in Arkansas who protested that their rights had been violated due to public pressure on the judge and jury were given a new trial

These precedent setting cases allowed attorneys in other parts of the country to argue the rights of African Americans more successfully.


• Both the National Urban League and the NAACP attracted black professionals and activists as members

• To help get what they needed black farmers and workers formed unions, business organizations, and banks

• Efforts to integrate unions failed and racial separation remained the order of the day; in 1866 the National Labor Union was formed

• The NLU made overtures toward black workers about joining; but old attitudes hard to change and the union accepted black members only in separate local chapters

• Isaac Myers then organized the Colored National Labor Union in 1869; but within three years the CNLU had virtually disappeared

Labor and Political Organizations


Labor and Political OrganizationsKnights of Labor• One of two major unions formed

in the 1880s; Knights of Labor agreed to welcome black workers

• Membership dropped sharply after unpopular strikes; by 1890s union declined

AFL• With American Federation of Labor

(AFL) few blacks actually allowed to join; many joined affiliated unions

• Congress of Industrial Organizations first major integrated union

Politics• Black Americans began to rethink

their political affiliations; most still sided with the Republican Party

• Some black citizens felt Republicans taking their support for granted; left Republicans for Democrats

Knights of Labor• Blacks in northern cities could get

concessions in exchange for support of Democrats

• Black Democrats formed National Independent Political League to encourage Democratic voting


Identify Cause

What was the purpose of the creation of organizations such as the NAACP and the National Urban League?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

The organizations were founded to fight for and protect African American rights.


Reading Focus

• Why did many black southerners move west in the 1870s and 1880s?

• What were some achievements of black cowhands in the Old West?

• Who were the Buffalo soldiers, and for what were they known?

Main Idea

Beginning in the 1870s thousands of African Americans moved west to escape discrimination and to find new opportunities.

Section 3:Section 3: African Americans Move West


Building Background

In the mid-1800s Congress passed two bills that ended

up creating new opportunities for African Americans.

Called the Homestead Act and the Morrill Act, these

bills opened up the American West for settlement. As a

result of these two bills, people from all over the country

began to move westward in search of new lives. Among

those who moved were thousands of African

Americans, mostly from the South, who saw the West

as a land of new possibilities.


“The whole South—every single state in the South—had got into the hands of the very men that held us as slaves . . . We said there was no hope for us and we better go.”

The Move West

The Exodusters

• 1879 more than 15,000 black southerners headed to Kansas

• Led by a former slave named Benjamin “Pap” Singleton; mass migration was known as the Exodus of 1879

• Those who took part in the exodus called Exodusters

Reasons for Move• Singleton believed blacks in

the South would eventually gain freedom and equality

• Was convinced it would not occur during his lifetime; determined to find a place where he could enjoy his life

• “Well, my people, for the want of land—we needed land for our children…”


Black Communities in the West • African Americans created their own communities in Kansas

– Singleton responsible for two settlements before the exodus; people who moved to the Singleton colonies had little money and few possessions

– First colony failed, after rich deposits of lead were discovered in the area and real estate prices skyrocketed

– Second colony most people able to find work; community thrived

• Several more African American communities established with arrival of Exodusters; about 20 black towns founded in the 1870s and 1880s

– Largest and most successful—Nicodemus, Kansas; founded in 1877 by six black and two white settlers; had 500 people by 1880

– Crop failures and hostility from nearby towns took toll; by 1910 only 200 people in what was the only all-black town in Kansas


Explain

Why did many African Americans move west in the late 1800s?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

They wanted to escape the discrimination they faced in the South and hoped to find happiness in the West.


Blacks in the Old West • Historians estimate black cowboys represented 25% of this country’s

cowhands around the turn of the century

• Most of the Old West’s black cowboys remain nameless; they lived undocumented solitary lives

• Information about a few has survived

Nat Love

• One of best-known black cowboys of 1880s; born a slave in Tennessee in 1854, ventured west in 1869

• Love taught himself to ride wild horses and shoot with deadly accuracy; earned a reputation as the champion rider in the West


Bill Pickett• Inventor of the modern rodeo sport of steer wrestling

• Born in southern Texas around 1870; most famous for subduing bulls using a trick he learned by watching herd dogs

• To stop an angry bull, Pickett would sink his teeth into the animal’s tender upper lip

Black Women in the West

• Mary Fields ran stagecoach line through Montana Territory; for more than eight years Fields responsible for getting the mail through the Montana wilderness

• Artist Leonora Russell was another noted black westerner


Draw Conclusions

Why do you think the life of a cowboy appealed to many young black men?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

The freedom of life on the range was a nice change from the discrimination they faced in towns and cities.


The West was home to four regiments of African American troops known as the buffalo soldiers. An 1866 law allowed the army to form regiments of black soldiers in peacetime, but these regiments had to be led by white men.

Buffalo Soldiers

Fighting in the West• Based in Kansas, Montana, and

Utah, the buffalo soldiers served mostly in the West

• Escorted stagecoaches and trains and hunted down cattle rustlers; main job to protect settlers from hostile Native Americans and bandits

• Name buffalo soldiers given to the troops by Native Americans

Widely Respected• Courageous in battle and had

strict discipline; between 1870 and 1890, 19 members honored with the Medal of Honor

• Soldiers were well behaved; drunken behavior seldom seen in their ranks

• Few members of the buffalo soldiers ever deserted or committed crimes


The Spanish-American War• War lasted just over twelve weeks

• Five black soldiers received Medals of Honor for their service

• Despite continuing prejudice and discrimination, these soldiers won the admiration of many of their white counterparts

• Said one, “I’ve changed my opinion of the colored folks, for of all the men I saw fighting, there were none to beat the Tenth Cavalry, and the colored infantry at Santiago, and I don’t mind saying so.”

• Spanish-American War of 1898 started in Cuba, a Spanish colony with American business investments

• 1898 U.S. battleship Maine sunk in Havana Harbor; 22 black sailors among the 260 men who lost their lives; harsh response from the U.S.

• Assumed Spain responsible for the explosion; Congress quickly passed declaration of war

• Buffalo soldiers among the first army regiments sent to Cuba to fight


Summarize

What were the major achievements of the buffalo soldiers?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

They helped keep order in the West and helped win the Spanish-American War.


Reading Focus

• Where were black colleges and universities founded?

• In what types of writing did black writers and poets excel?

• What were some prominent black-owned businesses of the early twentieth century?

• What achievements could black scientists and explorers claim?

Main Idea

In the early twentieth century, black Americans made great advances in education, literature, business, and science, among other fields.

Section 4:Section 4: Black Achievements after Reconstruction


Building Background

Despite the hardships of segregation and discrimination,

black Americans of the early twentieth century made

great achievements. Some of the things they

accomplished helped shape life in the United States for

at least a century.


Colleges and Universities• In 1850 only one college available to black students, the Institute of

Colored Youth

• During Reconstruction, a number of colleges for black students had been established in the South; Howard University in Washington, D.C., and Morehouse College in Atlanta

• By 1877 other black colleges started mostly in the South; though many other Reconstruction programs ended, the establishment of black colleges did not stop

• Private universities like Tuskegee, Howard, and Morehouse continued to be established; public schools like Florida A&M University also created for African American students

• Some colleges created for the education of black women; Spelman College in Atlanta for example


Historically Black Colleges and Universities

HBCUs

• An HBCU is an accredited school founded before 1964 “whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans”

• HBCUs played a vital role in educating African Americans and shaping black culture; in 1999 nearly one quarter of all bachelor’s degrees obtained by African Americans were issued by HBCUs

• Many African American political, economic, and cultural leaders received educations at HBCUs

Black Fraternities and Sororities

• Many black students faced discrimination in Jim Crow era

• Needing a support system students banded together in fraternities and sororities

• Alpha Phi Alpha, was founded in 1906 by seven students at Cornell University

• Fraternity to provide moral support, housing, and study aid

• Other chapters opened

• Similar organizations were founded for black men and women


Infer

Why was the creation of black fraternities and sororities significant to African Americans?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

These organizations helped black students succeed in college and helped keep black culture vibrant on college campuses.


Writers and PoetsMemoirs

• Elizabeth Keckley was popular writer of period; wrote of her years with Mary Todd Lincoln

• In 1868 memoir described Mrs. Lincoln’s struggles after Lincoln’s death; Keckley outlined her own challenges as a young black woman

Stories and Novels

• Charles Waddell Chesnutt was prolific black short story writer and novelist

• Another novelist was Sutton E. Griggs, a Baptist minister who wrote novels he hoped would inspire cooperation between races

Poetry

• Paul Laurence Dunbar first widely recognized African American poet; his early poems widely published and he became a darling of liberal literary set

• Dunbar’s wife, Alice Moore Dunbar Nelson and Frances Ellen Watkins Harper were two talented female poets


Make Generalizations

What were some common themes in African American literature in the early 1900s?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

hardships faced by African Americans; the struggle for equal rights


By the turn of the century, a small percentage of African Americans built large businesses. Among the fields in which black business owners achieved great success were the press, manufacturing, banking, and insurance.

Black Owned Businesses

The Black Press• By 1900 three daily black newspapers and 150 black weeklies

• The Guardian, first published in Boston in 1901 by activists Monroe Trotter and George Forbes most influential

• The Guardian’s pages open to militants who argued for full and immediate civil and political rights for all African Americans; paper soon became the star of the black press

Chicago Defender• In 1905 Chicago Defender made its debut as a four-page weekly

• Publisher Robert S. Abbott wanted to print news not just for intellectuals but for the average black person

• The paper worked to defend the rights of black people by publishing accounts of discrimination and calling for social equality

• Still published today


Manufacturing• Jan Ernst Matzeliger, a black Massachusetts shoemaker, invented machine

to automate the shoemaking process; high-quality footwear became more affordable and thus available to the general public

• Sarah Breedlove Walker, better known as Madame C. J. Walker, was the first black woman to become a millionaire; before she was 40, Walker’s business had grown into a million-dollar cosmetic manufacturing company

Banking and Insurance • Maggie Lena Walker, an African American, was the first American woman to

become president of a bank; Walker also helped establish The Council of Colored Women and served on the board of the National Urban League

• In 1898 Dr. Aaron McDuffie Moore and John Merrick formed the North Carolina Mutual and Provident Association

• In 1905 Alonzo F. Herndon started the Atlanta Life Insurance Company


Identify

In what fields did African American business owners make significant contributions to society?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

Banking, insurance, manufacturing and sales


Scientists and Explorers

Safer Train Travel

• Another black inventor greatly improved railroad safety

• Granville T. Woods invented an automatic air brake and a method of sending telegraph signals between trains

• Both inventions significantly reduced collisions

• Woods helped invent the third rail which carries the electrical current used to power many modern trains

Black Inventors

• Blacks patented hundreds of inventions; by 1913 several hundred African Americans had taken out patents for inventions of their own, and hundreds more had contributed to the work of others

• Lewis Latimer worked with both Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison

• Elijah McCoy took out at least 72 patents with the U.S. Patent Office on the various devices he designed during his lifetime


George Washington Carver

• Brilliant scientist of the early 1900s; researcher at the Tuskegee Institute; interested in agriculture, particularly in the potential uses of three crops—peanuts, soybeans, and sweet potatoes

• Carver wanted to end the South’s dependence on cotton; growing peanuts and beans would restore nutrients to soil drained by years of cotton growing

• Carver developed over 400 products; some 300 of these products—including forms of cheese, milk, coffee, flour, ink, plastic, soap, and cosmetics—were made from peanuts; more than 100 more came from sweet potatoes

• Presidents Coolidge and Roosevelt visited Carver’s lab; turned down job offers from Thomas Edison and Josef Stalin

• Carver donated his fortune to establish the Carver Research Center at Tuskegee to continue his research

Science and Medicine


Black scientists

• Made history in medicine

• 1893 first successful heart operation by black doctor Daniel Hale Williams

• Williams had started the nation’s first unsegregated hospital, Provident Hospital in Chicago, as well as a school for black nurses

• Williams appointed head of Freedmen’s Hospital in Washington, D.C.

Exploration

• April 6, 1909 Matthew Henson one of the first to reach the North Pole with Robert E. Peary

• Spent years as chief guide to Peary; learned to speak the Inuit language

• 22 years of Henson’s life spent working with Peary in exploration

• 1944 Congress awarded Henson a medal for his service in the field of science


Draw Conclusions

How did advances by black scientists and explorers improve society?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

Their inventions made life easier, and their discoveries helped people learn more about their world.

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