Biology Final Exam Review SheetName __________________ Date _______________ Per. __Exam Date _______________The following review sheet is to be used as a guide to help you study for the final exam. Keep in mind that this is only a review of the major concepts covered and does not include all of the details from this year that may be on the exam.

Study your: Bring to the exam:Midterm review sheet Two or more sharpened #2 pencils Previous exams and quizzes EraserClass notes Something to work on after the examSection reviews and end of chapter reviews Your BRAIN!!!LabsOld tests and quizzes

Chapters 1 – The Science of BiologyVocabulary – biology, observations, data, inference, hypothesis, spontaneous generation, independent variable, dependent variable, control variable, theory, cell, sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction, metabolism, stimulus, homeostasis, evolution, stereoscope, compound light microscope.

Key Concepts:o Identify the steps of scientific method (including testing hypotheses & developing theories).

o Make an observationo Make a hypothesiso Test a hypothesis (perform an experiment)o Draw conclusionso Develop theories over time and multiple hypotheses

o Distinguish between resolution and magnification.o Magnification is increasing size, resolution is clarity. o Resolution decreases with an increase in magnification

o Describe the difference between independent, dependent and control variables.o Independent variables are changed during an experiment to see if they have an effect on the

dependent variables that are being measured in an experiment.o Control variables make sure that the only thing changing the dependent variable is the

independent variableo Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

o Prokaryotes are one-celled bacteria that do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound structures

o Eukaryotes are all other organisms that have cells with nuclei and other organelleso Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.

Type of reproduction Asexual SexualNumber of parents 1 2Number of offspring Many at one time One to few at one timeType of offspring Clones of the parent Genetically different than the

parent

o List the characteristics of all living things.o Cellular organization

All living things are made of cellso Reproduction

A species survives through reproduction but an individual does not need to reproduce to survive

o Metabolism All of the chemical reactions in an organism

o Homeostasis Maintaining an internal environment

o Heredity Passing along traits from parent to offspring

o Responsiveness The ability of an organism to respond to an outside stimuli like a lizard moves to a

shady spot to cool down.o Growth and Development

The ability of an organism to grow and change over time.

Questions:1. A number of rats are divided into two groups: One group is fed a normal diet, whereas the other group is fed the

same diet but with one necessary mineral left out. The animals receiving the normal diet remained healthy; those in the other group grew weaker. Formulate a hypothesis based on this experiment.

2. Why is energy needed for living things?

3. You are observing a red blood cell under a compound light microscope. The ocular lens of a microscope is 10x and the objective lens is 40x. What is the total magnification of the cell?

4. Describe how metabolism and homeostasis are related in living organisms?

5. What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

6. What is the purpose of using a control variable in an experiment?

7. Explain how Redi’s experiment disproved the idea of spontaneous generation.

8. Which characteristic of living things is important to the survival of a group of animals rather than an individual member of the group? Why?

9. Using proper equipment is necessary when testing hypotheses. How was the flask Pasteur used in testing the hypothesis of spontaneous generation essential to his success?

10. Explain the difference between an inference and an observation.

11. As the result of an experiment, you reject your hypothesis. Explain why you should not consider your efforts a waste of time.

12. Can a theory change over time? Explain your answer.

13. Under what conditions would you use a compound light microscope? When would you use a stereoscope?

Chapter 2 – The Chemistry Of lifeVocabulary: atom, nucleus, electron, element, isotope, compound, ionic bond, ion, covalent bond, molecule, hydrogen bond, cohesion, adhesion, solution, solute, solvent, pH scale, acid, base, monomer, polymer, carbohydrate, monosaccharide, polysaccharide, nucleic acid, nucleotide, lipid, amino acid, RNA, DNA, protein, chemical reaction, reactant, product, activation energy, catalyst, substrate, enzyme, active site

Key Concepts:o Describe the structures of an atom. (i.e. the location & charge of protons, electrons and neutrons)

o Protons (+) are found in the nucleus = the atomic numbero Neutrons (o) are found in the nucleuso Protons + Neutrons = mass number

o Explain how isotopes of an element are similar and how they are different.Isotopes are atoms with the same Atomic number (number of protons) and different mass numbers (different number of neutrons

o Compare & contrast ionic, covalent and polar covalent bonds.Ionic is the strongest bond because the metal “steals” the electron from the non-metal and the ions are held together by opposite chargesCovalent is the weakest bond because the electrons are shared equally among two non-metalsPolar covalent is in between the two other bonds because it shares electrons unequally so that one side is positive and one side is negative. Water is an example of a polar covalent bond.

o Describe what happens to chemical bonds during chemical reactions.

During chemical reactions chemical bonds are broken and remade causing the absorption and release of energy during a reaction.

o Explain the pH scale.Tells the concentration of hydrogen in an acid or a base0-6.9 acid: Has an H in it (stronger acids have a lower pH7 neutral 7.1 to 14 base: has an OH in it. (stronger bases have a higher pH)

o Explain the unique characteristics of water (polarity, universal solvent, insulator of water bodies and high heat of vaporization). The hydrogen side of water is slightly positive, the oxygen side of water is slightly negative. This makes water a polar molecule. It is called the universal solvent because polar substances dissolve in water. It takes a lot of heat to break the bonds of water making it a great insulator and allows it to stay in liquid form on earth which is helpful to living things.

o Explain the functions of the four major organic compounds in biology. Give an example of each.o Identify the building blocks of the four major organic compounds.

Organic compound Building block functionProtein Amino acid Makes up many

structures in the bodyEx: hemoglobin

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Provide energy: glucose

Lipids Fatty acids Insulation and energy: saturated and unsaturated fats

Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Information and energy: ATP, DNA, RNA

o Understand why enzymes are important to living things.o Help control chemical reactions.

o Describe the role of an enzyme as a biological catalyst.o Enzymes decrease the amount of energy needed to start a reaction (activation energy)

allowing to happen faster at a lower temperature

Questions:1. Why are atoms considered neutral?

2. Why are ions considered charged?

3. Explain water’s properties of adhesion and cohesion? Use plants as an example.

4. Why is water considered a polar molecule?

5. What is the difference between a covalent bond and a polar covalent bond?

6. Describe the difference between a solute, a solvent and a solution.

7. Use the terms solvent and solute to describe how to prepare a salt solution.

8. According to the figure above, which enzyme would you expect to find in a bacterium growing in a hot spring?

9. What makes a compound organic?

10. List two factors that affect the rate of enzyme action.

11. Compare enzyme activity to a lock and key.

12. Identify three specific functions of proteins.

13. Draw the graph of a reaction with and without an enzyme. Explain why these are the results.

Label the graph

Chapter 3 – The Cell and Cell TransportVocabulary: cell, cell theory, cytoplasm, nuclear envelope, chromatin, chromosome, nucleolus, lysosome, cytoskeleton, centriole, compound light microscope, organelle, prokaryote, eukaryote, nucleus, cell/plasma membrane, lipid bilayer, diffusion, equilibrium, osmosis, isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, transport protein, passive transport, concentration gradient, phospholipids, flagella, cilia, cell wall, ribosome, ER, Golgi apparatus, vacuole, chloroplast, mitochondrion, cell specialization, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.Key Concepts:

o Explain the three tenets of cell theory.o All cells come from other cellso All living things are made up of cellso The cell is the basic unit of life.

o Distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.o Eukaryotes have membrane-bound structures ie organelles like the nucleuso Prokaryotes do not have membrane bound organelles.

o Describe the function of the cell nucleus.o Where chromosomes are located.o Control the processes of the cell

o Describe the functions of each of the major cell organelles.Cell membrane: controls what goes in and leaves cellCytoplasm: where the chemical reactions take place in the cellCytoskeleton: provide structure and used during cell divisionRibosomes: found on the endoplasmic reticulum in the cytoplasm, make proteinEndoplasmic Reticulum: internal membrane tubes that move proteins and other substances throughout the cell.Golgi Apparatus: packages and distributes proteins and other substances

Lysosomes: vesicles with digestive enzymesMitochondria: make energy for the cell, found in animal AND plant cellsChloroplast: ONLY in a plant cell, where photosynthesis takes placeCentral Vacuole: ONLY in a plant cell, where water and other nutrientsCell wall: provides structure and protects the cellFlagellum: tail that moves a one-celled organismNucleus: the brain of the cell

o Identify the main roles of the cytoskeleton.o Provide structure, support and assistance during mitosis

o Identify the main functions of the cell membrane and the cell wallo Cell membrane serves as a selectively permeable membrane, the cell wall provides support.

o Describe why the cell membrane is considered “selectively permeable”.o Some substances are allowed in and out of a cell, and others are not.

o Describe what happens during diffusion.o Particles move WITH the concentration gradient from an area of high concentration to low

concentration, where no energy is requiredo Explain the process of osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.

o Osmosis: the diffusion of watero Facilitated diffusion: the diffusion of particles from an area of high to low concentration that

require assistance from a carrier protein.o Active transport: when particles move AGAINST the concentration gradient, from an area of

low to high concentration, requires energy.o Identify each of the following protein types: cell surface marker proteins, transport protein, ion channel, receptor

protein, carrier protein.o Cell surface markers: proteins found on the cell membrane that identify the cell typeo Transport proteins: proteins found on the cell membrane that act as a channel for materials

going into and out of the cello Ion channels: a channel protein that allows polar molecules in and out of the cell.o Receptor protein: a protein that binds to a specific molecule signaling a change in the cell

membrane.o Carrier protein: a protein that binds to a substance and carries it across the cell membrane

during facilitated diffusion or active transporto Identify the organization levels in multicellular organisms.

o organelleso Cello Tissueo Organo Organ systemo Organism

Questions:1. How are highly folded membranes in the mitochondria and ER an advantage for the functions of cellular parts?

2. Explain the theory about the origin of eukaryotic cells using the theory of endosymbiosis.

3. Compare and contrast the structure of a plant cell with that of an animal cell.

4. Who were the early scientists that made contributions to cell theory and the theory of biogenesis?

5. What advantages do cell walls provide plant cells?

6. What would happen if the cell membrane became impermeable?

7. Why are smaller cells more efficient than large ones?

8. Why do you always want to have a large surface-are to volume ratio?

9. Match the picture with the function of the organelle.

A B C D E

found only in plant cells: chloroplast transforms energy in all eukaryotic cells: mitochondria packages and processes proteins for transport out of cell: golgi

apparatus controls cell activities: nucleus manufactures proteins: ribosomes

10. Explain what is happening to the cells below: use terms like hypotonic, hypertonic, diffusion, osmosis, swell, shrink, etc.

A B C

11. A paramecium expels water when it is in fresh water. What can you conclude about the concentration gradient in the organism’s environment?

12. Label the microscope and create a chart of what each part does. Use the following terms:

Chapter 4 – Cellular Growth & DivisionVocabulary – cell division, mitosis, cytokinesis, chromosome, cell cycle, cell checkpoints, interphase, G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, M phase, cytokinesis, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, sister chromatids, centromere, spindle fibers, tissue, organ, organ system, cancer, centriole, meiosis, asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, crossing-over, gametes, somatic cell, homologous chromosomes, genetic variation, oogenesis, spermatogenesis

Key Concepts:o Draw & explain all stages of cell cycle

o Look in textbook: g1 the cell grows, S: DNA replication, G2 the cell grows some more, M, mitosis and cytokinesis

o Identify the stages of the cell cycle that comprise “interphase”

o G1, S, G2, Mo Draw & explain all steps of mitosis

o Look in the textbook: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophaseo Describe how the cell cycle is regulated.

o By the G2, mitosis and G2 checkpointso Explain how cancer cells are different from other cells.

o Do not have checkpoints that are working correctly and therefore the cells never stop dividing.

o Summarize the events that occur during meiosiso The way that sperm and egg (haploid sex cells) are made from diploid body cells. During

meiosis I homologous chromosomes are split into two diploid cells. During meiosis II, diploid sister chromatids are split into four haploid cells.

o Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes, diploid cells and haploid cells.o Somatic cells are body cells that are diploid (double-stranded chromosomes), they are made

during mitosis. haploid cells are sex cells, AKA gametes AKA sperm and egg. Gametes are made during meiosis.

o Describe what happens during segregation.o Segregation means separation, it occurs when sister chromatids separates during meiosis.

o Explain the principle of independent assortment.o That genes on different chromosomes go to sperm or egg randomly.

o Contrast the chromosome number of body (somatic) cells and gametes.o Somatic cells = body cells = diploid = in human = 46o Gametes = sex cells = haploid = 23

o Relate crossing-over, independent assortment, and random fertilization to genetic variationo Crossing over is when homologous chromosomes switch genetic information where the

chromosomes from mom and dad touch, this causes genetic differences in their offspring.o Independent assortment means that an offspring may get either the genetic material from

mom or dad.o Random fertilization means that the parents are not related, so there is diversity among

parents and offspringo Compare spermatogenesis and oogenesis

o Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperm, at the end of meiosis II you end up with FOUR sperm.

o Oogenesis is the formation of egg, at the end of meiosis II, you end up with ONE egg and THREE polar bodies.

o Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproductiono Asexual reproduction happens when one parent produces one offspring

Budding, fragmentation, binary fissiono Sexual reproduction happens when two parents produce an offspring

o Identify when asexual reproduction is used Simple organisms or used in animals for growth and repair

o Evaluate the relative genetic and evolutionary advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproductionType of Reproduction Advantages DisadvantagesAsexual One parent (does not

have to find mate)Many offspring with low energy output

Only one parent (NO GENETIC DIVERSITY)

Sexual Two parents: (GENETIC DIVERSITY)

Few offspring with high energy output

Questions:1. Think about the cell size and its surface area-to-volume ratio. Explain how a small change in cell size can have a

huge impact on cellular processes such as diffusion.

2. Relate cells to each level of organization in a multicellular organism.

3. Place the cells of the cell cycle in the correct order by writing the numbers 1-7 on top of them. Begin with the cell’s appearance as it begins its new life. Some phases are represented twice – once as early and again as late in the phase.

4. What is the difference between sister chromatids and chromatin?

5. Which diagram shows cancer cells? How do you know? How do cancer cells differ from normal cells?

6. Discuss the relationship between mitosis and cytokinesis. What would be the result if one happened without the other?

7. Assume that prophase of mitosis begins with eight chromatids in the nucleus of a cell. When telophase ends, how many chromosomes will be present in each new nucleus? Explain your answer.

8. Name the stages in meiosis. When does crossing-over take place?

9. What happens to the chromosome number in a cell as a result of meiosis?

10. Name three distinct differences between mitosis and meiosis.a. Differences between meiosis and mitosis

Meiosis – sexual reproduction

Mitosis – asexual reproduction

11. How does sexual reproduction produce genetic variation in cells? Include in your discussion the process of crossing-over.

12. Compare and contrast oogenesis and spermatogenesis.Oogenesis Spermatogenesis

13. List the advantages and disadvantages to sexual and asexual reproduction.Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

Chapter 5 – Mendelian Genetics

Vocabulary – genetics, fertilization, true-breeding, trait, hybrid, gene, allele, segregation, gamete, probability, Punnett square, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype, independent assortment, incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, polygenic traits, karyotype, sex chromosome, autosome, pedigree, sex-linked gene

Key Concepts:o Describe how Mendel studied inheritance in garden peas.

o He crossed garden pieces and counted how many exhibits specific traits.o Summarize Mendel’s conclusion about inheritance.

1. For each inherited trait, an individual has two copies of the gene, one from each parent.2. There are alternative versions of genes called alleles3. When two different alleles occur together, one of them may be completely expressed,

while the other may have no observable effect on an organism’s appearance.4. When gametes are formed, the alleles for each gene in an individual separate

independently of one another, Thus gametes carry only one allele for each inherited trait. When gametes unite during fertilization, each gamete contributes one allele.

o Explain the principle of dominance.o When one allele is dominant, that is the trait that will be expressed. The only time the

recessive trait is expressed is when the dominant allele is not present.o Explain how geneticists use the principles of probability.

o Geneticists can use probability to discuss the likelihood of a trait inherited by an offspring.o Describe how geneticists use Punnett squares.

o Geneticists use Punnett squares to show the possible alleles of offspring and the probability of traits being expressed.

o Describe the different inheritance patterns that exist including complete dominance, incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic inheritance and multiple alleles.

o Complete Dominance When only one allele is expressed: example: If Tall is dominant to short in pea plants:

TT and Tt are tall, tt is short.o Incomplete Dominance

When two different alleles are expressed at the same time. The traits are BLENDED. If Red is incompletely dominant to White in flowers: RR = red; WW = white; RW is pink

o Codominance When both alleles are expressed at the same time AND the traits are not blended. If

Red is co-dominant to white in horses: RR = red; WW = white: RW = red and white AKA Roan.

o Polygenic Inheritance: When a gene’s expression is controlled by more than one allele on more than one

chromosome: i.e., Acneo Multiple Alleles

When there are more than two alleles for a gene i.e., there are three different alleles for blood type. IA, IB and i.

o Explain how Mendel’s principles apply to all organisms.o His principles are the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment.

o Identify the two types of human chromosomes in a karyotype.o Autosomal Chromosomes: Chromosomes 1-22o Sex Chromomes: Chromosomes 23

o Explain how sex is determined.o XX is a female, XY is a male.

o Explain how pedigrees are used to study human traits.o From studying offspring you can determine the pattern of inheritance of traits in a family.

o Explain how small changes in DNA cause genetic disorders.o A change in the sequence of DNA in a chromosome, will change the genes expressed and will

cause a mutation.o Identify the sex-chromosomes and define a sex-linked trait.

o The sex chromosomes are the X and Y’s. Sex-linked traits are found on the X and Y chromosomes.

o Describe some sex-linked disorders and explain why they are more common in males than in females.o Hemophilia: bleeding disordero Color-blindess: inability to see coloro They are more common in males, because the disease is the recessive trait. A male only

receives one copy of the alleles on the X chromosome, so there NO chance for there to be a dominant copy to cancel out the recessive copy, like there is for a female.

o State the goal of the Human Genome Project.o The goal of the human genome project was to map the entire Genome of a human. To know

exactly where and what each gene is. That goal was reached.o Describe how researchers are attempting to cure genetic disorders.

o To replace bad/recessive genes with good genes using gene therapy.

Questions:1. What attributes of the garden pea plant made it an excellent organism for Gregor Mendel’s genetic studies?

2. What might happen if the gametes (sex cells) had the same number of chromosomes as the somatic cells (body cells)?

3. Explain whether the alleles in the figure below show dominance, incomplete dominance, or codominance.

4. A heterozygous male with brown eyes marries a woman with blue eyes. Give the genotypes of the man and his wife as well as the genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring in percentages. (let B = brown and b = blue).

Bb x bb

Genotypes phenotypes

5. In azaleas red and yellow flowers show incomplete dominance = blending. If a pure red flower is crossed with a pure yellow flower, what are the percentages of the genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring. (let R = red and Y = yellow)RR = red; YY = yellow; RY = orange

RR x RY

R RRYGenotypes Phenotypes

6. In tulips, white and purple flowers when crossed exhibit codominance = both. If a purple flower is crossed with a white flower determine the genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring in percentages. (let W = white and P = purple)

PP = purple; WW = white; PW = purple and white

Genotype Phenotype

7. Hemophilia is a sex-linked trait. If a carrier female marries a normal male, give the phenotypes of their children and the % chance that their offspring will have hemophilia. (let XH = the normal gene and Xh = gene for hemophilia)

Carrier female =

Normal make =

Genotypes: Phenotypes:

8. Muscular dystrophy is a sex-linked disorder that largely affects the male population. If a male with muscular dystrophy marries a woman who is a carrier what are the phenotypes of their offspring. What % are affected and what % are carriers? (let XD = the normal gene and Xd = gene for muscular dystrophy)

Genotypes: Phenotypes

9. In humans, freckles are dominant over no freckles. A man without freckles whose mother had freckles marries a woman with freckles. Give the phenotypes and genotypes of the following in respect to freckles. (let F = freckles and f = no freckles).

10. Blood type in humans displays codominance. A man whose is blood type A marries a woman who is blood type O. The man’s mother was type O as well. Give the genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring. (Remember the possible genotypes for all the different blood types: Type A = IAIA/IAi, Type B = IBIB/IBi, Type AB = IAIB, Type O = ii)

Genotypes Phenotypes

11. A pea plant with yellow seeds was crossed with a plant with green seeds. The F1 generation produced plants with yellow seeds. In the F2 generation there was a 3:1 ratio of yellow: green pea plants. In the F2 generation, there was a 3:1 ratio of yellow:green seeds. Explain why green seeds reappeared in the F2 generation using Punnett squares to show the results of the F1 and F2 generation (let G = yellow and g = green).

G=yellow; g = green

F1 = GG x gg

Genotype Phenotype

Genotype Phenotype

12. What is the difference between multiple alleles and polygenic traits? Give examples of each.

13. When making a pedigree that shows the inheritance of a recessive allele for a trait within a family, how do you know whether a certain individual should be represented by a shaded symbol?

14. A person who has type AB blood is sometimes referred to as a universal recipient. Why?

15. Explain why the father of a girl who is colorblind must also be colorblind. (let XB = the normal gene, Xb = the color-blind gene)

The pedigree shows the inheritance of free earlobes and attached earlobes in five generations of a family. Attached earlobes are caused by a recessive allele (f).

16. Is individual #2 in the figure above homozygous or heterozygous for free earlobes? Male or female? How do you know?

To determine a person’s blood type, a drop of anti-A serum and a drop of anti-B serum are placed at either end of a microscope slide. Then, a drop of the person’s blood is added to each drop of serum. Clumping in anti-A serum or anti-B serum indicates the presence of antigen A or antigen B in the blood, respectively.

17. In the figure to the right, what is the genotype or genotypes of the person whose blood is shown in slide #1?

18. In the figure below, which slide shows the blood of a person who can safely receive any type of blood in a transfusion? Identify the person’s blood type.

Chapter 6 – DNA, RNA and Protein SynthesisVocabulary – transformation, bacteriophage, nucleotide, base pairing, chromatin, replication, DNA polymerase, gene, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, transcription, RNA polymerase, promoter, intron, exon, codon, translation, anticodon, mutation, point mutation, deletion mutation, insertion mutation, translocation mutation, operon, operator, lac operon, inducer, promoter, operator

Key Concepts:o Summarize the relationship between genes and DNA.

o Genes are made of DNAo Describe the overall structure of the DNA molecule.

o DNA is a double helix that is compared to a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are phosphates bonded to sugars with covalent bondes. The sugars are bonded to bases with covalent bonds. The Bases are the rungs of the ladder and are held together with hydrogen bonds.

o Identify the bonds between nitrogen bases in a molecule of DNA.o Phosphates and sugars are held together with covalent bonds.o The bases are held together with hydrogen bonds.

o Summarize the events of DNA replication including any enzymes that are involved.o DNA helicase unwinds the DNA at the replication forko DNA polymerase attaches the correct bases to both of the unwound strands of DNA and then

proofreads them to make sure the order is correct. o Relate a molecule of DNA to chromosome structure.

o The DNA is wound and the chromosomes are wound tightly to make sure that all of the DNA is able to fit into the nucleus of the cell.

o Compare and contrast the structures that make up DNA & RNA.DNA RNA BothDouble stranded Single Stranded Made up of nucleotidesSugar is deoxyribose Sugar is riboseBases are ATCG Bases are AUCG, T is replaced

by UFound only in the nucleus Found in the cytoplasm and

the nucleusOnly one type Three types: rRNA, tRNA,

mRNA

o Know the three forms of RNA that exist and their function.o mRNA carries the information transcribed from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome.o rRNA makes up the ribosomeo tRNA carries amino acids to the mRNA at the ribosome.

o Describe transcription.o DNA is transcribed into RNA.

o Explain what makes up a codon and how it relates to translation.o A codon is made up of three bases of mRNA, which is used to code for the correct Amino Acid

to be attached by tRNA.o Summarize translation.

o During translation the mRNA goes from the nucleus to the ribosome. The tRNA reads the mRNA for the correct start codon AUG which codes for MET to start the process. tRNA’s continue to read the mRNA codons and bring the correct amino acids until the stop codon is reached: UAA, UGA, UAG.

o Explain the relationship between genes & proteins.o Genes code for mRNA, mRNA codes for tRNA, tRNA, brings the correct amino acids, so that a

protein can be formed from the information provided by the genes.

Questions:1. Explain how the bacteria in Griffith’s experiment were transformed.

2. Explain how the experiments of Hershey and Chase discovered that DNA not protein is the genetic material.

3. What is a bacteriophage?

4. Of the following diagrams, which one represents

a. mRNA= ______ transcribes DNA and moves from nucleus to ribosome

b. tRNA = ______ brings amino acid to the mRNA at the ribosome

c. rRNA = ______ makes up the ribosome where proteins are made. State the function of each.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Use this diagram for question 4.

5. Label the structure and processes in the figure above.a. A = b. B = c. C = d. D =e. X =f. E = g. F = h. Y =

6. What would happen to structure F in the figure above if structure C were deleted? What would be the new strand of amino acids?

7. In the figure above, what happens when methionine and asparagine are joined? What do those two amino acids form when they are linked? What kind of bond forms between them?

8. In the figure above, what does structure A represent?

9. Identify the types of mutations in each of the situations above.A = B = C =

Chapter 7 – EvolutionVocabulary: radiometric dating, radioisotope, half-life, miscrosphere, cyanobacteria, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, endosymbiosis, protist, extinction, mass extinction, mycorrhizae, arthropod, vertebrate, evolution, fossils, homologous structures, analogous structures, vestigial structures, Lamarck, acquired traits, Darwin, natural selection, adaptations, gradualism, punctuated equilibrium, gene pool, allele frequency, genetic equilibrium, genetic drift, gene flow, stabilizing

Use this diagram for questions 5 and 6.

selection, directional selection, disruptive selection, speciation, geographic isolation, reproductive isolation, divergent evolution, convergent evolution, adaptive radiation

Key concepts: o Summarize how radioisotopes can be used to determine the Earth’s age.

o Using the half-life of an isotope you can figure out how much of the isotope has decayed and how old the substance is.

o Identify the key models that describe how life originated.o Primordial soup model: inorganic molecules were given energy from lightening and made

organic moleculeso Miller-Urey confirmed with experimento Miller-Urey were wrong, the chemicals they used were not actually in the atmosphereo Lerman’s Bubble Model is the current model, gases were trapped in the oceans and

evaporated into the atmosphere.o Describe how cellular organization might have begun.

o Inorganic molecules made RNA, RNA made proteino Microspheres and coacervates made cells

o Identify the two groups of prokaryotes.o Archeabacteria and Eubacteria

o Describe how eukaryotes evolved.o Endosymbiosis

Eubacteria incorporated chloroplasts and mitochondria into their bodies and became eukaryotes

o Summarize how mass extinctions have affected the evolution of life on Earth.o The five mass extinctions killed organisms and led toward the evolution of others

o Relate the development of ozone to the adaptation of life on land.o Ozone protected organisms against ultraviolet radiation, so that they could survive on land

o Identify several observations that led Darwin to conclude that species evolve.o Fossils were similar to current organisms, Finches with different beaks because they eat

different things, information about population control from Thomas Malthuso Contrast the gradualism and punctuated equilibrium models of evolution.

o Gradualism: evolution occurs over time.o Punctuated Equilibrium: evolution occurs rapidly due to some catastrophic event

o Describe how the fossil record supports evolution.o Fossils show a pattern of development of a species over time

o Summarize how biological molecules such as proteins and DNA are used as evidence of evolution.o Gene sequences between organisms are compared to see how similar these sequences are

between offspringo Infer how comparing the anatomy and development of living species provides evidence of evolution.

o Similar species have similar structures. They may have different uses in each specieso Analogous structures: similar structures are found in organisms THAT ARE NOT RELATED

because the organisms are in the same environmento Homologous structures: similar structures are found in organisms THAT ARE RELATEDo Vestigial structures: structures in an organism that are not used: hind limbs in whales and the

appendix in humans o Relate natural selection to the beak size of finches.

Finches evolved different beaks over time because of the food they ate. The birds with the beaks that were better suited to eat food found in an area, survived, reproduced at a greater rate and passed those traits to their offspring.

o Summarize the process of species formation.o One species becomes two new species during divergence

Species are isolated by Geographic isolation

o Some physical barrier among species Reproductive isolation

o When organisms cannot reproduce with one anothero Two species become one species during convergence

o Distinguish among the three patterns of dispersion in a population.o The arrangement of the organisms of a population in a given area

Random Dispersion

Location is organism is random in an area trees

Even Dispersion Location of organisms are at regular intervals Birds

Clumped Dispersion Organisms are bunched together. Herding animals

o Buffaloo cattle

o Describe the four factors that allow for natural selection in a population.o Overproduction, competition, genetic variation, adaptation.

Questions: 1. Explain how radioisotopes can be used to determine the Earth’s age.

2. Discuss the Lerman Bubble Model, Miller-Urey experiment and the Primordial Soup Model.

3. Define the theory of endosymbiosis.

4. Discuss why the size and structure, genetic material, ribosomes and reproduction in chloroplasts and mitochondria are used as evidence to support the theory of endosymbiosis.

o Size and structure:

o Genetic Material:

o Ribosomes:

o Reproduction

5. Why was ozone so important in enabling organisms to live on the land?

6. Identify the first kind of animals that lived on land and the adaptations that enabled them to do so.

7. Describe the first kinds of vertebrates that inhabited the land and what adaptations they had that enabled them to do so.

8. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,700 years. If a sample originally had 26 g of C-14, how much would it contain after 22,800 years?

9. Define the process of natural selection?

10. Identify the four tenets of Darwin’s theory.

11. What is the difference between Darwin’s theory of natural selection and Lamarck’s theory of acquired traits?

12. What is the difference between analogous and homologous structures? Give an example of each.

o Analogous structures are

o Homologous structures are

13. What is a vestigial structure? Give an example.

14. Darwin used the Galapagos finches as an example of natural selection. Why were they a good example?

15. Name three types of evidence used to support the theory of evolution.