Hornet Toolbox

Handbook for Analytical Reading and Academic Writing

Enterprise High School 3411 Churn Creek Rd, Redding, CA 96002

www.enterprisehornets.com (530) 222­6601

Table of Contents

1. Reading Tools (page 2) a. Annotation (page 3)

i. Example Annotated Text #1: Lincoln’s Letter (page 4­5) ii. Example Annotated Text #2: Early Autumn (page 6­7)

b. SOAPSTone (page 8) i. Example SOAPSTone (Text #1) (page 9)

c. Rhetorical Précis (page 10) i. Rhetorical Précis Outline (page 10) ii. Rhetorical Précis Template (Example Only) (page 11) iii. Example Rhetorical Précis (Text #1) (page 12)

2. Writing Tools Introduction (page 13) a. Analytical Essays (page 14)

i. Example Analytical Essay Prompt (page 15) ii. Example Analytical Essay (page 16­18) iii. Example Works Cited Page (page 19)

b. Argumentative Essays (page 20) i. Counterclaims and Rebuttals (page 21)

c. Integrating Quotations (page 22) d. Citing Evidence (page 23) e. MLA Format (page 24) f. APA Lab Write Up Format (page 25­26)

i. Example Lab Write Up Excerpt in APA Format (page 27­28) 3. Appendices (page 29)

a. Appendix A: Tone Words (page 30­31) b. Appendix B: Common Themes in Literature (page 32) c. Appendix C: Dead Words (page 33­34) d. Appendix D: Transitions (page 35­36) e. Appendix E: Common Grammar Issues (page 37­39)

4. Glossary of Terms (page 40­44)

Page 1

Reading Tools

Familiarize yourself with these reading tools. Using these reading tools will help you improve as a reader, thinker, and even as a writer. The following tools will be

used repeatedly throughout your high school career.

This section includes: Annotation SOAPSTone Rhetorical Précis

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Annotation

Personal Annotation Personal annotation is the process of writing personal thoughts, opinions, questions, and connections with the text in the margins of the paper. Personal annotation keeps your mind engaged and focused as you read. Personal annotation is not necessarily an important part of academically analyzing a text, but it is a good strategy to use the first time you read a text to get the general idea of a text without having to think too critically about it yet.

Examples ­I visited the same city this story is set in during summer vacation! ­The main character is named Eric. Why does it seem like everyone is named Eric these days? ­This story starts on August 21st, my birthday! ­This article is about space travel; I would love to go into space someday.

Academic Annotation Academic annotation is the process of writing analytical notes about a text in the margins of a paper in order to critique the theme or thesis of a text. Academic annotation is rigorous and intense, and it often requires you to re­read closely to identify, question, explain, and/or critique the devices used in a text.

Examples ­I disagree with this author’s point here. I think he’s being unfair because.... ­What is the author’s tone here? Is he being sarcastic or serious? ­What is the purpose of this metaphor? Why would she compare this character to an oak tree? Is it because she’s mentally strong? Or because she’s an old soul? ­This symbol may represent purity, hope, or life. ­The author probably gave his background in this sentence to show that he’s credible, and that we should trust him because of his experience. ­The author seems biased here. What’s his/her purpose? ­This is odd word choice. Unusual. ­This description makes it seem like this situation is better than it really is. It feels like the author is trying to distort the truth a little. Why would he need to do that?

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Example Annotated Text #1: Lincoln’s Letter Purple Ink: personal annotations Blue Ink: academic annotations

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Example Annotated Text #2: Early Autumn

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SOAPSTone SOAPSTone is an acronym for s ubject , o ccasion , a udience , p urpose , s peaker , t one . SOAPSTone is a tool for analyzing the argument of an author. It helps you look at the author’s argument from a variety of perspectives. SOAPSTone is a summary tool, so you will not write your own opinion in a SOAPSTone.

Directions Subject The subject is the topics of the text or the main ideas. Be specific and accurate. Do not just get the general idea; be precise in your description of the subjects that the text covers. Occasion The events that inspired the author to write the text. Sometimes the occasion is a specific event, like after the riots in Ferguson, Missouri, an author may write a piece criticizing police procedures. Other times the occasion is a general event, like the change in American culture over the last 30 years, so an author may write a piece explaining how beliefs about gender equality have changed since he/she was a child.

Audience The audience is the specific group of readers that the author is trying to target. Never say the audience is the readers ; that is far too broad. Start with the specific base of readers who are most likely to be interested in the text. Purpose The purpose of the text is the goal the author has in mind. The author probably wants the reader to take action and/or change their opinion.

Speaker The speaker is the author of the text. Identify the credibility (trustworthiness) of the speaker and the bias of the speaker.

Tone The tone is the attitude of the speaker toward the subject. The author may have one consistent tone, or a shifting tone throughout the text. See list of tone words in the appendix.

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Example SOAPSTone (Text #1) Subject The subject of Lincoln’s letter is himself: his childhood, background, and growth as a politician before he became a popular figure in American politics. Occasion His friend, Jesse W. Fell, asked him to write about himself, so Fell could share it with the public. Certainly the occasion is because Fell asked him to write the letter, but the American public must have been putting some pressure on Lincoln to share some of his background with them. Audience The audience is Fell and the American public in 1859. Obviously, Lincoln did not intend the letter to be published directly because he crossed out some words, so it can be assumed Lincoln trusted Fell to proofread the letter and rewrite it before releasing it to a newspaper. Purpose The clear purpose was to inform. To inform the public of Lincoln’s past and familiarize him with them. But one has to wonder if there wasn’t another, sneaky reason. Maybe Lincoln’s popularity was dropping and he needed a boost, so he wrote a letter to make himself appear to be a tough person and a hard worker, someone the public could trust. Speaker The speaker is President Abraham Lincoln. He seems to be honest and trustworthy, and there is little evidence in the letter that would point to any reason to distrust him or his motivations. Tone The author has several tones: hesitant , reluctant , detached , cold, and direct . First, he is hesitant or reluctant in the way he seems slow to write this letter and give up information about himself. Also, the author’s tone is detached or cold in the way he gives details about the death of his mother and grandfather. Finally, he is direct in the way he gives details about his education, career, and appearance.

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Rhetorical Précis Explanation: A rhetorical précis is a highly structured four­sentence paragraph that summarizes the important persuasive elements of an argument. The précis is a precise type of a summary, so it does not include your opinion.

Rhetorical Précis Outline Sentence One Name of the author, a phrase describing the author, the type and title of the text, (the year published), an accurate verb (such as argues, suggests, implies, claims, questions) and a phrase that summarizes the author’s main point. Sentence Two A three­ or four­phrase explanation of how the author supports his/her thesis. (For instance, comparing, contrasting, explaining, illustrating, defining, appealing, etc). This is usually in chronological order. This is the longest and most complex sentence of the précis; be sure to be specific, yet concise. Sentence Three A statement of the author’s purpose followed by in order to and an explanation of what the author intends the audience to do or believe as a result of reading his/her work. Sentence Four Two or three specific audiences the author targets and a description of the tone of the author toward those audiences.

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Rhetorical Précis Template (Example Only) Sentence 1

______________________________, ______________________________________, in his/her

(author’s first and last name), (a phrase describing the author),

________________________________________________________________________ (year), (the type and title of the text),

________________ that __________________________________________________________ (an accurate verb) (a phrase that summarizes the author’s main point)

_____________________________________________________________________________. Sentence 2

He/she supports his/her ___________________ by first _________________________________

(same verb as above) (comparing, explaining, redefining, etc.)

_____________________________________________________________________________, then by ______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________, and finally by __________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________. Sentence 3

_______________________’s purpose is to __________________________________________

(author’s last name) (criticize…, persuade (someone) to…, prove that…)

_______________________________ in order to _____________________________________ (To accomplish what? A change in what?)

_____________________________________________________________________________. Sentence 4

He/she __________________ a(n) ______________________ and ___________________ tone

(adopts, establishes) (two tone words like: informative, critical, sarcastic, infuriated, sympathetic )

for the audiences of the ____________________________ and __________________________. (target audiences the text is directed at ­ the reader is not specific enough!)

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Example Rhetorical Précis (Text #1) Sentence 1 Abraham Lincoln, the President of the United States, in his letter to Jesse W. Fell (1859), explains that he has a modest background and that he does not want to draw unnecessary attention. Sentence 2 He supports his explanation by first describing his troubled childhood with the death of his mother and grandfather, then by listing his limited education, military experience, political accomplishments, and experience in law, and finally by giving a clear and direct physical description of himself. Sentence 3 Lincoln’s purpose is to inform the public of his background in order to appease their interest and put the public at ease with his leadership. Sentence 4 He adopts a detached and direct tone for the audiences of the American public in 1859 and his friend, Jesse W. Fell.

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Writing Tools Introduction

Familiarize yourself with these writing tools. Using these writing tools will help you improve as a communicator, writer, and thinker. The following tools will be

used repeatedly throughout your high school career.

This section includes: Analytical Essay Outline Example Analytical Essay Argumentative Essay Outline Example Counterclaim and Rebuttal Integrating Quotations MLA Format Citing Evidence

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Analytical Essays Outline

Introductory Paragraph Hook Background Information Thesis Statement

Body Paragraph #1

Claim #1 Supporting Point A

Evidence Explanation

Supporting Point B Evidence Explanation

Concluding Sentence

Note: Some essays require more (or fewer) supporting points, evidence, and explanation Body Paragraph #2

Claim #2 Supporting Point A

Evidence Explanation

Supporting Point B Evidence Explanation

Concluding Sentence

Note: Some essays require more (or fewer) supporting points, evidence, and explanation Body Paragraph #3

Claim #3 Supporting Point A

Evidence Explanation

Supporting Point B Evidence Explanation

Concluding Sentence

Note: Some essays require more (or fewer) supporting points, evidence, and explanation Concluding Paragraph

Rephrase Thesis Call to Action

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Example Analytical Essay Prompt In a well­developed five­paragraph essay, explain the impact Abraham Lincoln’s letter to Jesse W. Fell might have had on the American public after it was edited and published in a newspaper.

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Student Name

Mr. Smith

CP English II

5 May 2016

Example Analytical Essay

Certain people convey a naturally trustworthy feeling. President Abraham Lincoln was

one of those types of people, and he used the American public’s trust to try to unite the country

in the middle of difficult times. In 1859, before the American Civil War, Lincoln wrote a letter

to a close friend, Jesse W. Fell, about his upbringing and background. Lincoln understood that

the letter would be edited and released to a newspaper so the American public could learn more

about the personal life of their president. The impact of Lincoln’s letter likely created more

public support for him.

The tone of the letter is humble, which probably caused the public to respect Lincoln

more. Lincoln shows humility with his childhood education. Lincoln admits that where he grew

up “There were some schools, so called; but no qualification was ever required of a teacher”

(Lincoln). At one of these poor schools, Lincoln only learned to read, write, a cipher (which is

basic math), but probably nothing about business or politics. Admitting this shows his humility;

he did not make himself seem more qualified that he really was, which makes the public trust

and respect him more. Furthermore, Lincoln shows humility with his adult education. He

confesses that he did not attend college, stating that his only additional education he “picked up

from time to time” (Lincoln). It was expected that politicians should be well­educated. It is

humble to admit, as the President of the United States, that he had little significant education,

either as a child or as an adult. This humble representation of himself makes Lincoln seem like a

normal person, not some cold, politician, so this letter likely helped his public support.

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Lincoln appeals to the audience’s patriotism, possibly improving his public support

because it showed he supported the country. Lincoln was willing to risk his life for his country,

which is a patriotic act. He stated this clearly: “Then came the Black­Hawk war; and I was

elected a Captain of Volunteers” (Lincoln). American voters always like to have a president who

was in the military, because it shows his patriotic commitment to die for the country. This must

have increased Lincoln’s popularity. Moreover, Lincoln shows respect for his country, which is

also patriotic. He called being elected a captain “a success which gave me more pleasure than

any I have had since” (Lincoln). Since this point, Lincoln had some big successes – he was

elected President of the United States! But Lincoln showed his patriotism, his honor for soldiers,

by stating that being elected a captain by fellow volunteer soldiers was more of an honor.

Lincoln’s patriotism must have improved his public support because he did not act like a show

off, but he simply stated the facts about his service to his country.

Based on this letter, Lincoln appeared to have good work ethic – to have perseverance,

which is a quality the public must have appreciated. Lincoln’s mother died when he was young.

He states, “My mother…died in my tenth year” (Lincoln). He could have used that hardship as

an excuse, but Lincoln persevered. He lost his mother – a close connection, supporter, and

caretaker – but he did not allow that to limit him. In addition, Lincoln grew up doing hard

physical labor. He records, “I was raised to farm work, which continued till I was twenty two”

(Lincoln). Farm work is tough physical labor, and it shows perseverance to work long, hard days

on a farm. Lincoln could have abandoned his family’s farm sooner, but he continued to work on

it until he was twenty two years old, which is an act of perseverance. This letter probably

influenced the American public to respect Lincoln’s work ethic, and view him as a worthy leader

of the nation.

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Due to the humility, patriotism, and work ethic Lincoln displayed in the letter to Jesse W.

Fell, it likely had a positive impact, boosting Lincoln’s public approval. It must be considered,

though, that Lincoln was a brilliant speaker and lawyer, so he knew how to use language to paint

a good picture of himself, a picture that some skeptics consider to be too well­crafted.

Regardless, Lincoln will go down in history as the famous “Honest Abe”.

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Example Works Cited Page

Lincoln, Abraham. “To Jesse W. Fell, Enclosing Autobiography.” Collected Works of Abraham

Lincoln . The Abraham Lincoln Association. 11 September 2008. Web. 5 May 2016.

<http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln3/1:177.1?rgn=div2;view=fulltext>.

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Argumentative Essays Outline

Introductory Paragraph Hook Background Information Thesis Statement

Body Paragraph #1 Claim #1

Supporting Point A Evidence Explanation

Supporting Point B Evidence Explanation

Concluding Sentence

Body Paragraph #2 Counterclaim #1

Rebuttal #1 Evidence Explanation

Counterclaim #2 Rebuttal #2

Evidence Explanation

Concluding Sentence

Body Paragraph #3 Claim #2

Supporting Point A Evidence Explanation Counterclaim Rebuttal

Supporting Point B Evidence Explanation Counterclaim Rebuttal

Concluding Sentence

Concluding Paragraph Rephrase Thesis Call to Action

Note : Some essays require more (or fewer) counterclaims, supporting points, evidence, and explanation.

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Counterclaims and Rebuttals

Note: the counterclaim and rebuttal are the only additional parts of an argumentative essay. Other than that, the essay outline is the same.

Counterclaim Introductory Phrase Introduce counterclaims with phrases like:

Some may argue… Misinformed people believe… Those who misunderstand the truth argue that..

Counterclaims This is what someone may say against your argument. You must anticipate what they will say against you so you can phrase it how you like and come up with a comeback (a rebuttal). Rebuttal Introductory Phrase Introduce rebuttals with phrases like:

This perspective is flawed because… Although that may be true, the point to focus on is… That is only true in some cases, not when...

Rebuttals A rebuttal is a comeback for a counterclaim. In every argument, someone will argue the other side (counterclaims). You must be prepared to rebut those counterclaims. Example Counterclaim and Rebuttal Some may argue that although Abraham Lincoln was a captain of volunteers in the Black­Hawk war, it does not prove that he was a capable president, and simply because a person knows war does not mean they know politics. Although this may be true, it does at least show that Lincoln was brave, and he was willing to risk his life for his country, which are good and necessary qualities in a president.

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Integrating Quotations

The Introductory Phrase… You should never have a quotation standing alone as a complete sentence, or, worse yet, as an incomplete sentence, in your writing. Introductory phrases with the proper punctuation are the most common signals to a reader that you are presenting another author's ideas, a quotation. Without an introductory phrase, a quotation is what we call a quote bomb, a damaging "bomb" that "blows up" your paragraph and disrupts its flow. There are at least four ways to integrate quotations: 1. Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a colon. This is an easy rule to remember: if you use a complete sentence to introduce a quotation, you need a colon after the sentence.

Albert Einstein reminds us all to never waste our life being selfish: “Only a life lived for others is worth living."

2. Use an introductory or explanatory phrase, but not a complete sentence, separated from the quotation with a comma. You should use a comma to separate your own words from the quotation when your introductory or explanatory phrase ends with a verb such as "says," "said," "thinks," "believes," "pondered," "recalls," "questions," and "asks" (and many more). You should also use a comma when you introduce a quotation with an attribution phrase such as "According to Mr. Ditch."

Homer Simpson shouted, "I am so smart! I am so smart! S­M­R­T! I mean, S­M­A­R­T!" 3. Make the quotation a part of your own sentence without any punctuation between your own words and the words you are quoting. Notice that the word "that" is used in examples. When it is used as it is in the example, "that" replaces the comma which would be necessary without "that" in the sentence. You usually have a choice, then, when you begin a sentence with a phrase such as "Thoreau says." You either can add a comma after "says," or you can add the word "that" with no comma.

Jerry Seinfeld once said that there are “Four Levels of Comedy: make your friends laugh, make strangers laugh, get paid to make strangers laugh, and make people talk like you because it's so much fun."

4. Use short quotations­­only a few words­­as part of your own sentence. When you integrate quotations in this way, you do not use any special punctuation. Instead, you should punctuate the sentence just as you would if all of the words were your own.

An Irish saying reminds us that friends that “gossip with you” may also be friends that gossip about you.

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Citing Evidence

In­text Citation Each quotation must be cited immediately following the quotation with the author’s last name and page number in parentheses. With articles, cite the paragraph number. With poems, cite the line number. This is an in­text citation. Note that when citing a quotation the period falls outside of the citation.

Example In­text Citations In his letter to Jesse W. Fell, Abraham Lincoln admits that “[He] could read, write, and

cipher to the Rule of Three, but that was all” (Lincoln). Works Cited Page The purpose of a works cited page is to prove that the quotations you use in your essay are legitimate and accurate. If a reader has any doubts about how accurate your quotations are, they may use your works cited page to look up the quotations in the original source. Most teachers only require a full works cited page for research papers or projects. Website Works Cited Directions Author’s last name, author’s first name. “Title of the article in quotations.” Name of website in

italics . Publisher name. Publication date. Type of publication (web or print). Date of access. <website link>.

Book Works Cited Directions Author’s last name, author’s first name. Title of Book in italics . City of Publication: Publisher,

Year of Publication. Type of Publication (web or print). Works Cited Page Example Lincoln, Abraham. “To Jesse W. Fell, Enclosing Autobiography.” Collected Works of Abraham

Lincoln . The Abraham Lincoln Association. 11 September 2008. Web. 5 May 2016. <http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln3/1:177.1?rgn=div2;view=fulltext>.

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MLA Format

All typed English papers must be in MLA (Modern Language Association) format.

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APA Lab Write Up Format

All typed science papers must be in APA format (American Psychological Association).

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Example Lab Write Up Excerpt in APA Format

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Appendices Appendices are lists or tables of important additional information at the end of a document.

These appendices have been compiled and refined for your specific use with reading and writing. You will use the terms in these appendices frequently in your high school career.

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Appendix A: Tone Words

Positive Tone/Attitude Words

Amiable Amused Appreciative Authoritative Benevolent Brave Calm Cheerful Cheery

Compassionate Confident Consoling Content Dreamy Ecstatic Elated Elevated Encouraging

Energetic Enthusiastic Excited Exuberant Fanciful Friendly Happy Hopeful Impassioned

Joyful Jubilant Lighthearted Loving Optimistic Passionate Peaceful Playful Pleasant

Proud Relaxed Reverent Romantic Soothing Surprised Sweet Sympathetic Vibrant

Negative Tone/Attitude Words

Accusing Aggravated Agitated Angry Apathetic Arrogant Artificial Belligerent Bitter

Bored Brash Childish Cold Condemnatory Condescending Contradictory Critical Desperate

Disappointed Disgruntled Disgusted Disinterested Furious Harsh Hateful Haughty Hurtful

Indignant Inflammatory Insulting Irritated Manipulative Obnoxious Outraged Passive Quarrelsome

Shameful Snooty Superficial Threatening Tired Uninterested Wrathful

Humor­Irony­Sarcasm Tone/Attitude Words

Amused Bantering Bitter Comical Condescending Critical

Cynical Disdainful Facetious Giddy Humorous Insolent

Ironic Irreverent Joking Malicious Mock­heroic Mock­serious

Mocking Patronizing Pompous Ridiculing Sad Sarcastic

Satiric Scornful Sharp Silly Taunting Teasing

Sorrow­Fear­Worry Tone/Attitude Words

Aggravated Agitated Anxious Apologetic Apprehensive Concerned

Depressed Despairing Disturbed Embarrassed Fearful Foreboding

Hollow Hopeless Horrific Melancholy Miserable Morose

Numb Ominous Paranoid Pessimistic Pitiful Poignant

Resigned Sad Serious Sober Solemn Somber

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Confused Dejected

Gloomy Grave

Mournful Nervous

Regretful Remorseful

Upset

Neutral Tone/Attitude Words

Apathetic Authoritative Baffled Callous Candid Ceremonial Consoling Contemplative Conventional Detached

Disbelieving Dramatic Earnest Expectant Factual Fervent Formal Frivolous Haughty Humble

Incredulous Informative Inquisitive Instructive Judgmental Matter­of­fact Nostalgic Objective Obsequious Patriotic

Persuasive Pleading Pretentious Provocative Questioning Reflective Reminiscent Resigned Restrained Seductive

Sentimental Serious Shocking Sincere Unemotional Urgent Vexed Zealous

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Appendix B: Common Themes in Literature Ambition • Too much ambition leads negative results: self­destruction, envy, greed, neurosis, downfall. • We grow small trying to be great, losing ourselves the more we strive for greatness. Belief • As long as people believe in absurdities, they will continue to commit atrocities. • Moral skepticism can result in distance, coldness, and cruelty. Change • People are afraid of change but things always change. • It is impossible to be certain about things. Courage and Fear • One can be courageous and cowardly at the same time. • Courage is resistance to fear, mastery of fear, not absence of fear. • Where fear is present, wisdom cannot be. Good and Evil • Good is punished and evil is rewarded. • Greed leads to negative outcomes: suffering, disaster, catastrophe, evil, callousness, arrogance. • Jealousy leads to negative outcomes: guilt, resentment, loneliness, violence, madness. • Good and evil coexist. Growing up • Growing up is a challenge for everyone. • It takes a village to raise a child. • The more one grows up, the more they lose their innocence. • It is difficult to say who does you the most harm: enemies with the worst intentions or friends with the best. Love • Love is blind. • Love triumphs over all: hate, selfishness, cruelty, tragedy, death. • Love one another; love your neighbor. • Friends are a person’s most valuable possession. • Blood is thicker than water. • When in love, one must suffer. Politics • Personal freedoms, like those listed in the United States Bill of Rights, are good and necessary. • Freedom cannot exist without personal responsibility. Prejudice • Things are not always as they appear. • Prejudice leads to: wrong conclusions, violence, false perceptions, a vicious cycle, oppression. • Mercy triumphs over judgment.

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Appendix C: Dead Words Dead words are words that should not be used in academic writing

because they are cliche, vague, slang, or simplistic..

Dead Words Alternatives

1. you one, someone, others, people, some

2. I believe, I feel, I think, I know

It is your writing — a compilation of thoughts — so I already assumed these are your beliefs, feeling, thoughts, and knowledge. Do not insult my intelligence! Also, by using these phases it weakens your argument, because it implies the reader has an option to disagree with you (which is true), but you don’t want your reader to subconsciously disagree with you!

3. have got Many writers regard got as an ugly, unnecessary word, and they have a point. If you can avoid it in writing, do so. I have got to must begin studying right away. I have got two pairs of sneakers.

4. Awesome, cool, legit, lit, sweet

fine, wonderful, marvelous, fantastic, excellent, exceptional, exquisite, exciting, legitimate, enthralling, captivating, stupefying

5. kind of, sort of, kinda

These are OK in informal situations, but in formal academic prose, substitute somewhat, rather or slightly . We were kind of somewhat pleased with the results.

6. good excellent, exceptional, fine, marvelous, splendid, superb

7. great wonderful, outstanding, marvelous, fantastic, excellent

8. like such as, similar to, similarly, akin, in comparison with, in the same vein

9. mad angry, frustrated, furious, incensed, enraged, irate

10. nice pleasant, charming, fascinating, captivating, delightful, personable

11. pretty fairly, essentially, in essence, primarily, largely, moderately

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12. very extremely, exceedingly, unusually, incredibly, intensely, truly, fully, especially, shockingly, bitterly, immeasurable, infinitely, severely, surely

13. a lot, lots numerous, many, several, scores, innumerable, often, frequently

14. also moreover, besides, as well, in addition, additionally

15. got, get received, obtained, attained

16. lots or lots of In academic prose, avoid these colloquialisms when you can use numerous , several , many or much . Remember, when you do use these words, that lots of something countable are plural. Remember, too, that a lot of requires three words: "He spent a lot of money" (not alot of).

17. would of, should of, could of

Don't write would of , should of , could of when you mean would have , should have , could have .

18. plus Don't use this word as a conjunction. Use and, additionally, in addition, or also instead.

19. very, really, basically

Like basically , these words seldom add anything useful. Try the sentence without them and see if it communicates the exact same idea. If it does, remove it.

20. try and Don't try and do something. Try to do something.

21. wanna Want to

22. seen You saw something or you had seen something, but not seen

23. contractions Do not use contractions. Can’t should be cannot , won’t is will not , he’s should be he is , etc..

24. stuff, things Avoid these non­descriptive words; they rarely give any useful detail and they make you sound simplistic.

25. hella, hecka This slang is too informal and, again, non­descriptive. Try to use more creative descriptions. For example, instead of describing the Sears Tower as hecka tall, say that it dwarfs the other buildings in comparison.

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Appendix D: Transitions

Milder Stronger

Addition A further x And

And then Then Also Too Next

Another Other nor

Further Furthermore Moreover In addition Additionally Besides Again

Equally important First, second Finally, last

Comparison Just as…so too A similar x

Another x like

Similarly Comparable

In the same way Likewise

Contrast But Yet

And yet Still

Otherwise Though

But another Rather

However Still

Nevertheless On the other hand On the contrary

Even so Notwithstanding

In contrast Alternatively

At the same time Though this may be

Otherwise Instead

Nonetheless Conversely

Time Then Now Soon

Afterward Later Shortly Recently Earlier

First, second, third Next Before

Meanwhile At length Presently At last Finally

Immediately Thereafter At that time Subsequently Eventually Currently

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After Today

Tomorrow

In the meantime In the past In the future

Purpose To do this So that

In this end For this purpose For that reason Because of this

Place There Here Beyond Nearby Next to

At that point Opposite to Adjacent to

On the other side In front

Result So And so Then

Hence Therefore Accordingly Consequently As a result

In consequence

Example That is Specifically In particular For one thing

For example For instance

An instance of this This can be seen in

Summary and Emphasis In sum Generally After all

By the way In general Incidentally Naturally I hope At least It seems In brief I suppose

In short On the whole As I said

In other words To be sure In fact Indeed Clearly Of course Anyway

Remarkably I think

Assuredly Without doubt For all that On the whole In any event Importantly certainly

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Appendix E: Common Grammar Issues

Independent Clauses / Complete Sentences An independent clause is a complete sentence. Think about it as being independent, not requiring anything else to complete it. An independent clause has both a subject and a predicate. Ex: The meeting began at 4:00 a.m.

Subject: The meeting (the doer of the action—who/what is doing the action)

Predicate: began (the action)

Dependent Clauses / Sentence Fragments / Incomplete Sentences A dependent clause is an incomplete sentence—often referred to as a fragment. Think about it as depending on something else to complete it. A dependent clause often starts with one of the FANBOYS or another coordinating word like because, since, therefore, etc. FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Ex: And then I went home. So I wanted more. Because I was hurrying. Since she thought I had lied. Run­on Sentences A run­on is two or more complete sentences (independent clauses) strung together without punctuation or with the incorrect punctuation (i.e., commas → comma splices)

Ex: So I went to the store then bought some bread I also got some cheese. Most of us were taking the same classes, if someone had a question, we would

all help out. Colons Use a colon to join an independent clause (complete sentence) and a list.

Correct: He bought three posters to decorate his apartment: an old concert

poster, a view of the city, and a mural of San Diego.

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Incorrect: Volunteers aid biologists in: erosion control, trail maintenance, and clean­up.

Incorrect: Jessica’s wardrobe included: three pairs of pants, a nice skirt, and a party dress.

Semi­colons There must be a complete sentence on both sides of the semicolon! Correct: Police want to crack down on drug use at raves; they have started to

arrest more people. Incorrect: Internet retailers have a limited customer base; only those with Internet

access. If you have a conjunction after the semi­colon, you need a comma.

Correct: Police want to crack down on drug use at raves; thus, they have started to arrest more people.

Incorrect: There were several people I wanted to see at the party; however I didn’t see any of them there.

Homonyms and Other Misspellings

A lot = many, much Alot = not a word! Allot = distribute, give out

It’s = it is Its’ = not a word! Its = possessive form of it

Who = subject pronoun Whom = object pronoun

Your = possessive form of you

You’re = you are

Whose = possessive form of who

Who’s = who is

To = direction Too = also, in addition too Two = number

Defiantly = boldly, rebelliously

Definitely = certainly, no doubt

Whether = either, comparison of

Wether = a castrated sheep. It’s doubtful this is the word you’re trying to use.

Weather = through rain, sleet, and snow…

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Commas Commas often are subjective—they depend on the preference of the reader or the style guide for the audience you’re writing to.

1. Use a comma after an introductory phrase like however , therefore , nonetheless , finally , for example

a. For example, you would use a comma in this sentence. 2. Use a comma for phrases that you could take out of the sentence but still retain the

overall meaning a. Commas, however, would definitely go there.

3. Depending on your style guide, use the “Oxford comma” or “serial comma”: the optional comma before the “and” at the end of a list

a. I bought a shirt, a pair of pants, and a jacket. 4. Use a comma with dates and places

a. I first joined Monday, May 5, 2003. b. I was born in St. Louis, Missouri, a city in the Midwest.

5. Use a comma with brief interjections a. Have some coffee, won’t you? b. She said, no, she wouldn’t be having any coffee, thanks.

Hyphens Add a hyphen for a compound modifier (more than one adjective strung together) before a noun: The sixteen­year­old girl was a well­known celebrity.

Do not add a hyphen if the modifier comes after the noun: She was sixteen years old. The celebrity was well known. Being Verbs Aim to cut/replace as many being verbs as possible: be, being, been, is, was, were, am, are. These verbs are usually boring and simplistic, which makes your writing seem boring and simplistic, which makes you seem boring and simplistic, which is something to avoid altogether in life.

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Glossary of Terms

Green: Writing Terms Purple: Argument Terms Blue: Literary Terms

Antagonist: the character(s) who oppose (or stand against) the protagonist. Archetype: a very typical example of a certain person, like a jealous step­mother or a power­hungry dictator Audience: the specific group of readers that the author is trying to target Background Information: You must give background information about the text you are referring to in the introduction of an essay. This comes after the hook and before the thesis in the introductory paragraph. It must cover the title, author, genre, and give a basic summary of the text and/or situation. Bias: the opinion of a speaker or the prejudice of a speaker in favor of one thing. Most speakers have bias, but simply because a speaker has a bias, does not mean their opinion is necessarily wrong. Call to Action: The call to action is in the concluding paragraph. You should call your reader to do or believe something based upon the points you made in your body paragraphs. Did you argue that Germany was only partially responsible for WWII? Then in your conclusion, in your call to action, explain to the reader that humanity should be more understanding toward the losing party of a war, and countries should attempt to unite after conflict instead of divide. Citation: Quotations must be cited with the author’s last name and page or paragraph number where you found the quotation. The purpose of citing a quote is to show your reader that you have credible proof for your points, and that if the reader has any reason to question it, they may look up the exact page or paragraph. Claim: A claim is a main point that answers one aspect of the thesis. The purpose of this sentence is to direct the reader’s attention to the particular type of ideas you’ll be focusing on in the paragraph. Your claim must be something you can prove, discuss, or explain. Concluding Sentence: The concluding sentence ties your paragraph together and reminds the reader how the points you made support your thesis.

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Conflict: the problems or challenges characters face: physical, emotional, spiritual, etc. Usually the conflict is in the way of what the character wants. Connotation: the implications (sneaky, secret feelings or ideas) that are linked to a word. For example, both a king and a dictator are supreme rulers of their country, so their definitions are the same, but the connotation of king is more fair, kind and free, but the connotation of dictator is cruel, unfair, and restricting. Counterclaim: A counterclaim is what your reader will likely argue against your point. Anytime you bring up a point, a good reader naturally critiques it and looks for weaknesses in your point. A counterclaim is an argument that comes against your claim. It “counteracts” your claim. If you don’t anticipate counterclaims and come up with good rebuttals for counterclaims, your argument will be weakened. Credibility: the trustworthiness, or ethos of a speaker Detail: the details an author gives the audience are important, but also the details they choose to leave out are important. Does the author speak in precise detail or in vague generalizations? Does the author leave important or conflicting details out intentionally? Dialogue: conversation between characters, denoted by quotation marks. Diction: word choice. The diction of an author often reveals their bias, because they tend to use highly connotative words that show their perspective. Embed Quotation: To embed a quotation means to integrate it into a sentence, providing important context for the quotation. Sometimes the context needed is the name of the author of the quotation, the source of the quotation, and/or the plot surrounding the quotation. Ethos: a persuasive argument based on values, such as honesty, trustworthiness, work ethic, freedom, justice, peace, equality, etc. A speaker must convince the audience he has strong ethos and genuinely shares their values in order to persuade them. Evidence : Evidence is a quotation from a credible source that supports your point. When giving evidence, also include the name of the author and the type of source (article, novel, speech, etc.). Also, cite each quotation with the author’s last name and page or paragraph number. Explanation: Elaboration explains or clarifies the quotation and shows how it reinforces the supporting point in more detail. Analysis examines, scrutinizes, and/or breaks down the quotation, connecting it to the supporting point. Warrant explains how the evidence proves your supporting point and why it matters.

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Figurative Language: non­literal language (metaphorical, symbolic, or representative).

Allusion: a comparison or reference to a common text, often ancient literature (the bible, ancient drama, Greek, Roman, or Egyptian mythology) or Shakespeare.

Hyperbole: an exaggeration, such as I’m so hungry I could eat a cow. Metaphor: a direct comparison between two things. Often, at first, the comparison

seems odd, but upon examination the comparison has deeper meaning. Personification: giving attributes of humans (laughing, singing, thinking) to inanimate

objects, as in saying that the sun is angry today, or the door was screaming on its hinges. Symbol: a thing that represents a significant idea . For example, the color white often

represents purity , an apple often represents temptation , and water tends to represent life . Genre: the type of text (i.e., novel, play, poem, article, editorial, op­ed, etc.) Hook: The hook “catches” the reader’s attention and/or sets the stage for what your essay is about. There are a variety of hooks, some more “catchy” than others. Here are a few:

Bold Statement: A statement that seems a bit extreme, but when you explain it further, it makes sense and grabs the reader’s attention.

General Statements: Statements that broadly introduce the topic and slowly begin to narrow down to your specific point.

Startling Fact: A shocking statistic, quotation, or finding that is contrary to popular belief or knowledge.

Anecdote: A very brief story that relates to the topic. It can be used as a framework or point of reference for the remainder of your essay.

Humor: A quip, joke, or scene that is humorous and introduces your topic in some way. Imagery: descriptive language that paints a clear picture in the reader’s mind. Imagery is most often visual, but it may also include hearing, sight, taste, or touch. Irony: a conflict of expectations that is humorous, tragic, or unique.

Dramatic: when a character expects (or doesn’t expect) something that the audience is already aware of. This is common in Greek and Shakespearean plays.

Situational: when a situation arises that is opposite or nearly opposite what one would usually expect, like a fire station burning down.

Verbal: when a speaker states the opposite of what they mean. This is often confused with sarcasm. Sarcasm is verbal irony used to attack a person, but verbal irony is not malicious or mean, just ironic.

Logical Fallacies: false (or flawed) logic used in an argument Logos: a persuasive argument based on logic (reasoning) and logical assumptions (inferences)

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Mood: the atmosphere or “feeling” of a text. Narration: the telling of a story, not including dialogue between characters. Narration can be in first (not typical), second (extremely rare), or third person (common). First person uses I, me, my, we, us , etc. second person uses you, your, etc., and third person uses he, she, they, them, etc. to narrate the story. Occasion: the events or situation that inspired the author to write the text Pathos: a persuasive argument based on emotion, usually sympathy, anger, fear, or humor Plot: the series of events that makeup a story.

Exposition: introduces the setting, characters, and conflicts of the story. Rising Action: problems occur that complicate the conflict or make it more difficult for

the protagonist to get what he/she wants. Climax: the point where the conflict is at its highest point in the story. At this point, the

protagonist usually makes a significant decision, usually solving or ignoring the conflict. Often this reduces the tension in the story, but does not completely resolve it.

Falling Action: the events that occur after the climax. Sometimes the falling action and the resolution overlap.

Resolution: the part of the story that concludes the conflicts, but it is not always a “happy” conclusion, often it is tragic.

Protagonist: the main character to whom the events of the plot are connected. Not necessarily the “good” guy in the story. Purpose: the goal the author has in mind, usually to take action or change certain beliefs Rebuttal: A rebuttal is an argument that is a comeback from a counterclaim. If you claim that Converse shoes are in style and someone counterclaims that they look identical to the shoes their grandparents wear, you could give the rebuttal, “Perhaps you simply have stylish grandparents, because David Beckham still wears Converse, and he is the ultimate standard of modern style.” Sentence Variety: Sentence variety refers to the practice of changing the length and structure of sentences to avoid monotony (boring, repetitive writing) and to provide emphasis. Setting: the time (time of day, historical era, season of year) and location a story takes place. Speaker: the author of the text

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Subject: the topics of the text or the main ideas Supporting Point: A supporting point is a point that focuses on a particular aspect of the main point. Syntax: the structure of a sentence (length, organization of ideas, word order, etc.) Theme: the message an author has about a subject in the text. A theme must be a complete sentence , so it is impossible to have a one word theme. Love is a subject, but love is blind is a theme. Revenge is a subject, but obsession with revenge will destroy one’s happiness is a theme. See the appendix for a list of common themes in literature. Thesis Statement: A thesis statement answers the writing prompt in 1­2 sentences. It takes a clear stance on an issue and/or presents the main topic of the essay. The thesis always has a subject and an opinion on that subject. In this example, the subject is the morality of George’s actions, and the opinion is that they are reasonable. Tone (also a literary term): the attitude of the speaker toward the subject. Transitions: Transitions link ideas, sentences, or paragraphs together by showing how they are related. Transitions can show addition, comparison, contrast, time, purpose, place, result, example, summary and/or emphasis. For example, sometimes a transition will compare two ideas, or introduce the slight differences between the arguments in two different paragraphs. A list of transitions is provided for you in the appendix. Writing Prompt: A writing prompt is the focus of the essay. It is usually 1­2 paragraphs long, and tells the student what to address in an essay. A prompt may ask you to explain, argue, analyze or summarize. Note: in high school, it is rare that a prompt will ask you to summarize. Some teachers ask students to also include a preview of the main points in the thesis statement.

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