hoskins' england class 4

W.G. Hoskins and the Making of the English Landscape

Class 4. Awaiting the sound of a human voice. Colonization and decay in the Middle Ages.

Tutor: Keith Challis

hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Recap: Last Week (Becoming a land of villages)

The Anglo-Saxons Origins• Post Roman settlement from Denmark and north

Germany• Co-existence with native Romanised British

populations• Complex social and racial mixingMaterial Culture• Highly distinctive material culture, largely evidenced

in grave goods• Architectural innovation• LanguageDeath and Burial• Large cremation cemeteries imply substantial

immigrant population• How much is a processes of acculturation of

collapsing Romanised British population?Settlements• Not villages!• Small clusters of simple dwellings (Hall

House/Grubenhaus)• Local clearance or adoption of existing agricultural

lands• Revealed by later 20th century archaeology (West

Stow, Mucking, etc)

Middle Saxon England• By mid 7th century emergence of larger polities• Kingdoms documented in Tribal Hidage• Increasing social complexity• Towns and tradeChristianity and the State• Promotion of ideal of kingship• Innovation in land holding (and influence on

organisation of land?)• Role in cementing emerging politiesScandinavian Settlement• Raiding, organised campaigns of conquest and

settlement• Socially complex• Uncertain impact on landscape• England part of Scandinavian hegemony of

northern EuropeLate Saxon England• Complex society part of European and

Scandinavian political and economic milieu• Beginnings of evidence for settlement continuity

(10th/11th century activity in many excavated village sites)

• Character of settlement remains uncertain

Hoskins’s England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Class Summary

• The Colonization of Medieval England• The Black Death and After

• 60 years on: Critique of Hoskins and a counterpoint

Coffee Break

• Working with aerial photographs• Laxton Group project: Working with photographs,

and published mapping


Class Summary Learning Outcomes

• Explore Hoskins’s view of 11th-16th century rural England

• Understand some of the fundamental aspects of medieval rural settlement

• Explore ways in which new evidence has revised our view of this period.

• Appreciate some of the uses of and evidence to be gleaned from aerial photography in landscape studies.


Section 1: Colonization and the Black Death

Colonization and the Black Death

• Enter the grand theme:

“I have a theme now: the old pattern of life slowly built up – describe at length – then the disintegration of the pattern, shattered beyond recognition...”

(Hoskins’s notebook, late 1940s)

Hoskins’ England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk


The Colonization of Medieval England

• The landscape of 1086

• The clearing of woodland

• Marsh, Fen and Moor• Buildings in a

Landscape

The Black Death and After

• The abandonment of villages

• New colonization• New buildings


•Two complex and multi themed chapters


1086 and all that…Hoskins on Domesday England

“Domesday book…does not tell us directly how much of each county had been colonized…but we can obtain a fairly good idea of the extent to which England had been colonized during the six hundred years since the first Old English landings…” (Hoskins 1955)




Domesday Book

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/domesday/

At Christmas 1085 William the Conqueror commissioned a great survey to discover the resources and taxable values of all the boroughs and manors in England. He wanted to discover who owned what, how much it was worth, and how much was owed to him as King.

The King (William) holds in demesne Earley (in lordship – that is, by and for himself; he has not let it out to a sub-tenant). Almar (an Anglo-Saxon) held it in alod (freehold) from King Edward. Then (in 1066, it was assessed for tax purposes) at 5 hides, now (in 1086 it is assessed) for (the equivalent of) 4 hides. (There is) Land for use by 6 ploughs. In demesne (on the lord’s land there is land for) 1 plough and(there are) 6 villans (villagers) and 1 bordar (smallholder) with 3 ploughs. There (are) 2 slaves (owned by the King) and 1 site (or close) in Reading (presumably owned by or part of the manor) and (there are)2 fisheries worth (rendering) 7s and 6d (per year) and 20 acres of meadow. (There is) Woodland for(feeding) 70 pigs. At the time of King Edward (1066) it was worth 100s, and afterwards (when William acquired the manor) and now (1086) it is worth 50s.

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/RdLeaflet.asp?sLeafletID=266



Lowerre, A. 2008. Mapping Domesday Book using GIS. Research News: Newsletter of the English Heritage Research Department. Number 8. http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/RN8_web.pdf


Making England• Re-emergence of population estimates• England awaiting,

“Though most English villages had made their appearance by the time of the Norman Conquest…vast areas remained in their natural state, awaiting the sound of a human voice.” (Hoskins 1955).

• Clearance and agricultural expansion“Around nearly every village stretched its open fields”



• The battle to bring wood and waste into production

“From rising ground England must have seemed one great forest before the fifteenth century, an almost unbroken sea of tree-tops with a thin spiral of smoke rising here and there at long intervals.”

“By the eve of the Black Death the population of England was about three times that of Domesday…it has been estimated that at the peak, just before…1348…there may have been four million people in all. Hundreds of thousands of acres of new land had been won from the waste and water…”



Hoskins on the Black Death“Successive outbreaks of the plague reduced the population of the country by somewhere between one third and a half…The pressure of population eased off and there followed a retreat from marginal lands.”

• Settlement desertion“There are more than thirteen hundred deserted villages in England”

• Both plague and economic decline can be blamed for desertion which was sometimes hastened by landlords.



• Discussion…


Section 2: 60 Years on: Finding A New England..?

Finding A New England..?


What constitutes the Medieval Landscape?



Typical lowland village form

Toft

Croft



Goltho, Lincolnshire – an archetype



Early phase

Buildings in croftsFrequent reorganisation



Late phase

Buildings in strongly demarked crofts organised around a crew yard for livestock



In upland areas and many regionsVillages are absent – why?

Different agricultural regimes (infield/outfield)

Pastoral farming dominates

Landscape determined

Regional Variations

Different social organisation



Analysis of village planforms from historic mapsmay reveal origins

Patterns of similar morphological formscan be identified

Eg …linear/regulated



Geographer B K Robertstook plan form analysis to its zenith

…but does it tell us anything?

Can we relate plan tofunction or agency

The Open Fields





Regional Variations: Infield - Outfield


Villages• The origins of the

nucleated village are complex and local impetus for nucleation vary

• The record of Domesday is not a record of villages but of legal jurisdiction and value

• Settlement form changed regularly and nucleation may be one phase in a village of changing form



Agriculture• The origin of the open

fields remains illusive• It is probably to be

linked with the emergence of nucleation and perhaps the growth of a service lead feudal society



Population and Economics

• Population estimates are dubious tools

• Population grew, land was cleared and agriculture expanded in the 12th and 13th centuries

• A strong feudal economy tied together by obligation and service



Decline and Change

• Decline and desertion have multiple causes– Economic decline– Climate change (colder,

wetter)– Feudal deterioration– Disease

• Agricultural and social reorganisation are a response to and catalyst for change




Two Good Books

Village and FarmsteadChristopher Taylor

The Countryside of Medieval EnglandEdited by Grenville Astill and Annie Grant


• Coffee Break


Section 3: Aerial Photography

Aerial Photography


Vertical Oblique

Aerial Photography


Vertical Photography

Usually for mapping or reconnaissance purposes, not often archaeological.

Fixed camera mounted on plane flying at constant height.

Photographs contain inherent distortions due to curvature of lens and irregularity of ground surface.

A series of overlapping photographs are usually taken for large area coverage. By overlapping photos by c.60% each part of the ground is covered by at least two images which can then be combined using a stereoscope to create a three-dimensional model.

Vertical photographs can be used for producing accurate plans, providing the images are adequately georeferenced.

However, since they are not flown specifically for archaeological purposes the information they contain may not always be as clear as with obliques.

Aerial Photography


Oblique Photography

Handheld camera used to record a specific site/monument as it is being flown over.

Provides a perspective view that can often emphasise and clarify the nature of a site far more than vertical shots.

The elevation and angle of the shot can be more easily manipulated to obtain the best conditions for the photograph.

Oblique photography is far more difficult to georeference, sometimes limiting the use of the technique in providing archaeological plans.

Oblique photography is most often taken from low flying light aircraft, but can also be taken from any elevated position (e.g. buildings/hilltops…).

Aerial Photography


Visible variation in the growth of plants due to buried features.

Positive cropmarks = The plants grow taller due to negative archaeological features such as ditches, pits, postholes. Provide increased moisture retention and higher nutrient content.

Negative cropmarks = The plants growth is reduced due to subsurface features which block the root system. Provide reduced moisture and nutrients than the surrounding soil.

The window of opportunity in which to see cropmarks depends on a variety of factors: soil type, crop, climate…

What we can see: Cropmarks

Aerial Photography


Some archaeological sites become visible in a field that has been ploughed in preparation of sowing.

Features are usually apparent through colour changes between the archaeology and the surrounding soil.

Negative features such as pits or ditches often contain humic-rich fills which show up as darker tones. Equally, plough damage to walls or rubble can bring some of this material to the surface.

Soil marks are at their clearest immediately after ploughing, with subsequent mixing of layers obscuring the newly revealed features.

It is important to note that soil marks reflect the actual archaeological deposits themselves, rather than their effect on overlying vegetation or topography. If a site is visible as a soil mark then it is already being eroded.

What we can see: Soilmarks

Aerial Photogrphy


Earthworks can be visible through aerial photography as shadow sites. The topographic changes cause variation in the extent and position of shadows.

The height and position of the sun is crucial in determining how well an earthwork site can be seen. Low winter sunlight (either early morning or late afternoon) is often the best, creating long shadows and picking out even microtopographic changes.

The direction of the sun in relation to the orientation of the earthworks is another key factor.

The presence of snow cover on archaeological sites can help to emphasise any earthworks due to the contrast between the highly reflective snow and the dark shadows. Likewise, standing water following heavy rainfall will accumulate in earthwork depressions.

What we can see: Shadow Sites

Aerial Photogrphy


• As well as the visibility of archaeological sites requiring very particular environmental and atmospheric conditions, the interpretation of visible features should be treated with caution.

• Potential pitfalls in interpretation can be caused by the presence of geological features, agricultural activities and modern land use practices.

Aerial Photogrphy


Soil marks of ring earthworks ENE of Bishop Wilton, Humberside (SE 825564), 12 May 1969.Photo : University of Cambridge, copyright reserved

Groups of ring earthworks similar to those shown in this photography are known from the Yorkshire Wolds, East Anglia and the Trent Valley south of Derby.

Site of searchlight batteries from WWII.

The eastern bias of their distribution is due to the direction of the perceived threat.

Aerial Photography


Crop marks WNW of Store Anst, Ribe amt, Jutland, 27 June 1967.Photo: University of Cambridge, copyright reserved

Densely concentrated arrangement of ring ditches suggestive of Iron Age / Migration Period cemeteries in Denmark.

But…arrangement and overlapping features reveals they are actually the effects of irrigation using lines of rotary sprinklers.

The two water jets were misaligned causing a ring of soil that was not as heavily watered.

Aerial Photography


The National Air Photo Library

Based at NMRC in Swindon.

Consists of c. 2.7 million photographs divided into vertical and oblique collections.

Vertical collection comprises reconnaissance and survey photography and covers whole of England. Most flown by RAF but others by OS, Meridian Airmaps Ltd, EA, etc.

Oblique collection contains photographs of particular sites, initially cropmark reconnaissance but now also industrial and agricultural developments. Oblique photography covers c.66% of England.

Oblique photographs from 1880 – present, mainly taken by RCHME/EH but also by independent fliers and from historical collections (e.g. OGS Crawford).

Aerial Photography


To access the NMR aerial photography a coversearch is carried out based on an OS NGR (e.g. SK423 890 + 500m).

Once a search has been made an appointment to view the photographs has to be made.

The oblique collection is open for public browsing at the NMRC.

The photographs can be supplied as photocopies (black+white, photographic and colour). These services incur a cost.

The NMR do not always hold copyrights for the photographs and so photocopies are not always available.

Aerial Photography


• The Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photographs (CUCAP) is held in the photographic library of the Unit for Landscape Modelling (ULM).

• The catalogue has its origins in the pioneering work of Dr J.K. St Joseph. As lecturer in geology at Cambridge University, St Joseph was provided with access to an RAF aircraft and pilot for ten days in July 1945. This process continued until in 1948 he was appointed Curator in Aerial Photography, a post designed to manage and control the increasing library of images.

• The library now contains c. 500,000 photographs, approximately half of which are vertical (blue) and half are obliques (red).

• Appointments have to be made to view the photographs and charges are applied for obtaining copies (digital or photographic prints).

Aerial Photography


http://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/cucap/

Aerial Photography


Open sources such as GoogleEarth/Maps and Bing Maps

Aerial Photography


1948

1971

2000

Using a time series of photographs reveals recent landscape change

Aerial Photography


Systematic transcription of evidence to a map is crucial

Laxton


Aims Today

• Examine maps and photographs

• Familiarise self with topography of Laxton

• Make observations


Self Assessment

Learning Outcomes

• Understand the broad historical pattern for England 1066 – 1500 described by Hoskins

• Be aware of some of the weaknesses in the arguments put forward by TMotEL

• Understand how aerial photography an be used in landscape studies


Further Study

Suggested ReadingC. Taylor 1983. Village and Farmstead

Self Study ThemesMaking of the English Landscape, Chapter 5


hoskins' england class 4

Documents

black death1086

black deathenter

black deathcolonization

uncertainhoskinss england

landscapethe black death

land of villages

new evidence

organisation of land