how to write and speak correctly - devlin

8/2/2019 How to Write and Speak Correctly - Devlin

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Title:HowtoSpeakandWriteCorrectly

Author:JosephDevlin

ReleaseDate:September,2004[EBook#6409][Yes,wearemorethanoneyearaheadofschedule][ThisfilewasfirstpostedonDecember8,2002][Datelastupdated:September8,2006]

Edition:10

Language:English

Charactersetencoding:ASCII

***STARTOFTHEPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKHOWTOSPEAKANDWRITE***

ProducedbyTomAllen,CharlesFranks

andtheOnlineDistributedProofreadingTeam.

HOWTOSPEAKANDWRITECORRECTLY

ByJOSEPHDEVLIN,M.A.

EditedbyTHEODOREWATERS

THECHRISTIANHERALDBIBLEHOUSENEWYORK

Copyright,1910,byTHECHRISTIANHERALDNEWYORK

CONTENTS

CHAPTERIREQUIREMENTSOFSPEECHVocabulary.Partsofspeech.Requisites.



CHAPTERIIESSENTIALSOFENGLISHGRAMMARDivisionsofgrammar.Definitions.Etymology.

CHAPTERIIITHESENTENCEDifferentkinds.Arrangementofwords.Paragraph.

CHAPTERIVFIGURATIVELANGUAGEFiguresofspeech.Definitionsandexamples.Useoffigures.

CHAPTERVPUNCTUATIONPrincipalpoints.Illustrations.Capitalletters.

CHAPTERVILETTERWRITINGPrinciplesofletterwriting.Forms.Notes.

CHAPTERVIIERRORSMistakes.Slipsofauthors.Examplesandcorrections.Errorsofredundancy.

CHAPTERVIIIPITFALLSTOAVOIDCommonstumblingblocks.Peculiarconstructions.Misusedforms.

CHAPTERIXSTYLEDiction.Purity.Propriety.Precision.

CHAPTERXSUGGESTIONSHowtowrite.Whattowrite.Correctspeakingandspeakers.

CHAPTERXI

SLANGOrigin.Americanslang.Foreignslang.

CHAPTERXIIWRITINGFORNEWSPAPERSQualification.Appropriatesubjects.Directions.

CHAPTERXIIICHOICEOFWORDSSmallwords.Theirimportance.TheAnglo-Saxonelement.

CHAPTERXIVENGLISHLANGUAGE

Beginning.DifferentSources.Thepresent.

CHAPTERXVMASTERSANDMASTERPIECESOFLITERATUREGreatauthors.Classification.Theworld'sbestbooks.

INTRODUCTION



Inthepreparationofthislittleworkthewriterhaskeptoneendinview,viz.:Tomakeitserviceableforthoseforwhomitisintended,thatis,forthosewhohaveneitherthetimenortheopportunity,thelearningnortheinclination,toperuseelaborateandabstrusetreatisesonRhetoric,Grammar,andComposition.Tothemsuchworksareasgoldenclosedinchestsofsteelandlockedbeyondpowerofopening.Thisbookhasnopretensionaboutitwhatever,--itisneitheraManualofRhetoric,expatiatingonthedogmasofstyle,noraGrammarfullofarbitraryrulesandexceptions.Itismerelyanefforttohelpordinary,everydaypeopletoexpressthemselvesinordinary,everydaylanguage,inapropermanner.Somebroadrulesarelaiddown,theobservanceofwhichwillenablethereadertokeepwithinthepaleofproprietyinoralandwrittenlanguage.Manyidiomaticwordsandexpressions,peculiartothelanguage,havebeengiven,besideswhichanumberofthecommonmistakesandpitfallshavebeenplacedbeforethereadersothathemayknowandavoidthem.

Thewriterhastoacknowledgehisindebtednesstonoonein_particular_,buttoallin_general_whohaveeverwrittenonthesubject.

Thelittlebookgoesforth--afinger-postontheroadoflanguagepointingintherightdirection.Itishopedthattheywhogoaccordingtoitsindexwillarriveatthegoalofcorrectspeakingandwriting.

CHAPTERI

REQUIREMENTSOFSPEECH

Vocabulary--PartsofSpeech--Requisites

Itisveryeasytolearnhowtospeakandwritecorrectly,asforallpurposesofordinaryconversationandcommunication,onlyabout2,000

differentwordsarerequired.Themasteryofjusttwentyhundredwords,theknowingwheretoplacethem,willmakeusnotmastersoftheEnglishlanguage,butmastersofcorrectspeakingandwriting.Smallnumber,youwillsay,comparedwithwhatisinthedictionary!ButnobodyeverusesallthewordsinthedictionaryorcouldusethemdidhelivetobetheageofMethuselah,andthereisnonecessityforusingthem.

Thereareupwardsof200,000wordsintherecenteditionsofthelargedictionaries,buttheone-hundredthpartofthisnumberwillsufficeforallyourwants.Ofcourseyoumaythinknot,andyoumaynotbecontenttocallthingsbytheircommonnames;youmaybeambitioustoshowsuperiorityoverothersanddisplayyourlearningor,rather,yourpedantryandlackoflearning.Forinstance,youmaynotwanttocalla

spadeaspade.Youmayprefertocallitaspatulousdeviceforabradingthesurfaceofthesoil.Better,however,tosticktotheoldfamiliar,simplenamethatyourgrandfathercalledit.Ithasstoodthetestoftime,andoldfriendsarealwaysgoodfriends.

Touseabigwordoraforeignwordwhenasmalloneandafamiliaronewillanswerthesamepurpose,isasignofignorance.Greatscholarsandwritersandpolitespeakersusesimplewords.

Togobacktothenumbernecessaryforallpurposesofconversation



correspondenceandwriting,2,000,wefindthatagreatmanypeoplewhopassinsocietyasbeingpolished,refinedandeducateduseless,fortheyknowless.Thegreatestscholaralivehasn'tmorethanfourthousanddifferentwordsathiscommand,andheneverhasoccasiontousehalfthenumber.

IntheworksofShakespeare,themostwonderfulgeniustheworldhaseverknown,thereistheenormousnumberof15,000differentwords,butalmost10,000ofthemareobsoleteormeaninglesstoday.

Everypersonofintelligenceshouldbeabletousehismothertonguecorrectly.Itonlyrequiresalittlepains,alittlecare,alittlestudytoenableonetodoso,andtherecompenseisgreat.

Considerthecontrastbetweenthewell-bred,politemanwhoknowshowtochooseandusehiswordscorrectlyandtheunderbred,vulgarboor,whoselanguagegratesupontheearandjarsthesensitivenessofthefinerfeelings.Theblundersofthelatter,hisinfringementofallthecanonsofgrammar,hisabsurditiesandmonstrositiesoflanguage,makehisverypresenceapain,andoneisgladtoescapefromhiscompany.

ThepropergrammaticalformationoftheEnglishlanguage,sothatonemayacquithimselfasacorrectconversationalistinthebestsocietyorbeabletowriteandexpresshisthoughtsandideasuponpaperintheright

manner,maybeacquiredinafewlessons.

Itisthepurposeofthisbook,asbrieflyandconciselyaspossible,todirectthereaderalongastraightcourse,pointingoutthemistakeshemustavoidandgivinghimsuchassistanceaswillenablehimtoreachthegoalofacorrectknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage.ItisnotaGrammarinanysense,butaguide,asilentsignal-postpointingthewayintherightdirection.

THEENGLISHLANGUAGEINANUTSHELL

AllthewordsintheEnglishlanguagearedividedintoninegreat

classes.TheseclassesarecalledthePartsofSpeech.TheyareArticle,Noun,Adjective,Pronoun,Verb,Adverb,Preposition,ConjunctionandInterjection.Ofthese,theNounisthemostimportant,asalltheothersaremoreorlessdependentuponit.ANounsignifiesthenameofanyperson,placeorthing,infact,anythingofwhichwecanhaveeitherthoughtoridea.TherearetwokindsofNouns,ProperandCommon.CommonNounsarenameswhichbelongincommontoaraceorclass,as_man_, _city_.ProperNounsdistinguishindividualmembersofaraceorclassas _John_,_Philadelphia_.Intheformercase_man_isanamewhichbelongsincommontothewholeraceofmankind,and_city_isalsoanamewhichiscommontoalllargecentresofpopulation,but_John_signifiesaparticularindividualoftherace,while_Philadelphia_denotesaparticularonefromamongthecitiesoftheworld.

NounsarevariedbyPerson,Number,Gender,andCase.Personisthatrelationexistingbetweenthespeaker,thoseaddressedandthesubjectunderconsideration,whetherbydiscourseorcorrespondence.ThePersonsare_First_,_Second_and_Third_andtheyrepresentrespectivelythespeaker,thepersonaddressedandthepersonorthingmentionedorunderconsideration.

_Number_isthedistinctionofonefrommorethanone.Therearetwonumbers,singularandplural;thesingulardenotesone,thepluraltwoor



more.Thepluralisgenerallyformedfromthesingularbytheadditionof _s_or_es_.

_Gender_hasthesamerelationtonounsthatsexhastoindividuals,butwhilethereareonlytwosexes,therearefourgenders,viz.,masculine,feminine,neuterandcommon.Themasculinegenderdenotesallthoseofthemalekind,thefemininegenderallthoseofthefemalekind,theneutergenderdenotesinanimatethingsorwhateveriswithoutlife,andcommongenderisappliedtoanimatebeings,thesexofwhichforthetimebeingisindeterminable,suchasfish,mouse,bird,etc.Sometimesthingswhicharewithoutlifeasweconceiveitandwhich,properlyspeaking,belongtotheneutergender,are,byafigureofspeechcalledPersonification,changedintoeitherthemasculineorfemininegender,as,forinstance,wesayofthesun,_He_isrising;ofthemoon,_She_ issetting.

_Case_istherelationonenounbearstoanotherortoaverbortoapreposition.Therearethreecases,the_Nominative_,the_Possessive_ andthe_Objective_.Thenominativeisthesubjectofwhichwearespeakingortheagentwhichdirectstheactionoftheverb;thepossessivecasedenotespossession,whiletheobjectiveindicatesthepersonorthingwhichisaffectedbytheactionoftheverb.

An_Article_isawordplacedbeforeanountoshowwhetherthelatteris

usedinaparticularorgeneralsense.Therearebuttwoarticles,_a_or _an_and_the_.

An_Adjective_isawordwhichqualifiesanoun,thatis,whichshowssomedistinguishingmarkorcharacteristicbelongingtothenoun.

DEFINITIONS

A_Pronoun_isawordusedfororinsteadofanountokeepusfromrepeatingthesamenountoooften.Pronouns,likenouns,havecase,number,genderandperson.Therearethreekindsofpronouns,_personal_, _relative_and_adjective_.

A_verb_isawordwhichsignifiesactionorthedoingofsomething.Averbisinflectedbytenseandmoodandbynumberandperson,thoughthelattertwobelongstrictlytothesubjectoftheverb.

An_adverb_isawordwhichmodifiesaverb,anadjectiveandsometimesanotheradverb.

A_preposition_servestoconnectwordsandtoshowtherelationbetweentheobjectswhichthewordsexpress.

A_conjunction_isawordwhichjoinswords,phrases,clausesandsentencestogether.

An_interjection_isawordwhichexpressessurpriseorsomesuddenemotionofthemind.

THREEESSENTIALS

ThethreeessentialsoftheEnglishlanguageare:_Purity_,_Perspicuity_ and_Precision_.



By_Purity_issignifiedtheuseofgoodEnglish.Itprecludestheuseofallslangwords,vulgarphrases,obsoleteterms,foreignidioms,ambiguousexpressionsoranyungrammaticallanguagewhatsoever.Neitherdoesitsanctiontheuseofanynewlycoinedworduntilsuchwordisadoptedbythebestwritersandspeakers.

_Perspicuity_demandstheclearestexpressionofthoughtconveyedinunequivocallanguage,sothattheremaybenomisunderstandingwhateverofthethoughtorideathespeakerorwriterwishestoconvey.Allambiguouswords,wordsofdoublemeaningandwordsthatmightpossiblybeconstruedinasensedifferentfromthatintended,arestrictlyforbidden.Perspicuityrequiresastyleatonceclearandcomprehensiveandentirelyfreefrompompandpedantryandaffectationoranystrainingaftereffect.

_Precision_requiresconciseandexactexpression,freefromredundancyandtautology,astyleterseandclearandsimpleenoughtoenablethehearerorreadertocomprehendimmediatelythemeaningofthespeakerorwriter.Itforbids,ontheonehand,alllongandinvolvedsentences,and,ontheother,thosethataretooshortandabrupt.Itsobjectistostrikethegoldenmeaninsuchawayastorivettheattentionofthehearerorreaderonthewordsutteredorwritten.

CHAPTERII

ESSENTIALSOFENGLISHGRAMMAR

DivisionsofGrammar--Definitions--Etymology.

InordertospeakandwritetheEnglishlanguagecorrectly,itisimperativethatthefundamentalprinciplesoftheGrammarbemastered,fornomatterhowmuchwemayreadofthebestauthors,nomatterhowmuchwemayassociatewithandimitatethebestspeakers,ifwedonot

knowtheunderlyingprinciplesofthecorrectformationofsentencesandtherelationofwordstooneanother,wewillbetoagreatextentliketheparrot,thatmerelyrepeatswhatithearswithoutunderstandingtheimportofwhatissaid.Ofcoursetheparrot,beingacreaturewithoutreason,cannotcomprehend;itcansimplyrepeatwhatissaidtoit,andasituttersphrasesandsentencesofprofanitywithasmuchfacilityasthoseofvirtue,sobylikeanalogy,whenwedonotunderstandthegrammarofthelanguage,wemaybemakingegregiousblunderswhilethinkingwearespeakingwiththeutmostaccuracy.

DIVISIONSOFGRAMMAR

TherearefourgreatdivisionsofGrammar,viz.:

_Orthography_,_Etymology_,_Syntax_,and_Prosody_.

_Orthography_treatsoflettersandthemodeofcombiningthemintowords.

_Etymology_treatsofthevariousclassesofwordsandthechangestheyundergo.

_Syntax_treatsoftheconnectionandarrangementofwordsinsentences.



_Prosody_treatsofthemannerofspeakingandreadingandthedifferentkindsofverse.

Thethreefirstmentionedconcernusmost.

LETTERS

A_letter_isamarkorcharacterusedtorepresentanarticulatesound.Lettersaredividedinto_vowels_and_consonants_.Avowelisaletterwhichmakesadistinctsoundbyitself.Consonantscannotbesoundedwithouttheaidofvowels.Thevowelsare_a_,_e_,_i_,_o_,_u_,andsometimes_w_and_y_whentheydonotbeginawordorsyllable.

SYLLABLESANDWORDS

Asyllableisadistinctsoundproducedbyasingleeffortof[Transcriber'snote:1-2wordsillegible]shall,pig,dog.Ineverysyllabletheremustbeatleastonevowel.

Awordconsistsofonesyllableoracombinationofsyllables.

Manyrulesaregivenforthedividingofwordsintosyllables,butthebestistofollowascloselyaspossiblethedivisionsmadebytheorgansofspeechinproperlypronouncingthem.

THEPARTSOFSPEECH

ARTICLE

An_Article_isawordplacedbeforeanountoshowwhetherthenounisusedinaparticularorgeneralsense.

Therearetwoarticles,_a_or_an_and_the_._A_or_an_iscalledthe

indefinitearticlebecauseitdoesnotpointputanyparticularpersonorthingbutindicatesthenouninitswidestsense;thus,_a_manmeansanymanwhatsoeverofthespeciesorrace.

_The_iscalledthedefinitearticlebecauseitpointsoutsomeparticularpersonorthing;thus,_the_manmeanssomeparticularindividual.

NOUN

A_noun_isthenameofanyperson,placeorthingas_John_,_London_, _book_.Nounsareproperandcommon.

_Proper_nounsarenamesappliedto_particular_personsorplaces.

_Common_nounsarenamesappliedtoawholekindorspecies.

Nounsareinflectedby_number_,_gender_and_case_.

_Number_isthatinflectionofthenounbywhichweindicatewhetheritrepresentsoneormorethanone.

_Gender_isthatinflectionbywhichwesignifywhetherthenounisthe



nameofamale,afemale,ofaninanimateobjectorsomethingwhichhasnodistinctionofsex.

_Case_isthatinflectionofthenounwhichdenotesthestateoftheperson,placeorthingrepresented,asthesubjectofanaffirmationorquestion,theownerorpossessorofsomethingmentioned,ortheobjectofanactionorofarelation.

Thusintheexample,"JohntoretheleavesofSarah'sbook,"thedistinctionbetween_book_whichrepresentsonlyoneobjectand_leaves_ whichrepresenttwoormoreobjectsofthesamekindiscalled_Number_;thedistinctionofsexbetween_John_,amale,and_Sarah_,afemale,and _book_and_leaves_,thingswhichareinanimateandneithermalenorfemale,iscalled_Gender_;andthedistinctionofstatebetween_John_,thepersonwhotorethebook,andthesubjectoftheaffirmation,_Mary_,theownerofthebook,_leaves_theobjectstorn,and_book_theobjectrelatedtoleaves,asthewholeofwhichtheywereapart,iscalled _Case_.

ADJECTIVE

An_adjective_isawordwhichqualifiesanoun,thatis,showsorpointsoutsomedistinguishingmarkorfeatureofthenoun;as,A

_black_dog.

Adjectiveshavethreeformscalleddegreesofcomparison,the_positive_,the_comparative_andthe_superlative_.

The_positive_isthesimpleformoftheadjectivewithoutexpressingincreaseordiminutionoftheoriginalquality:_nice_.

The_comparative_isthatformoftheadjectivewhichexpressesincreaseordiminutionofthequality:_nicer_.

The_superlative_isthatformwhichexpressesthegreatestincreaseordiminutionofthequality:_nicest_.

_or_

Anadjectiveisinthepositiveformwhenitdoesnotexpresscomparison;as,"A_rich_man."

Anadjectiveisinthecomparativeformwhenitexpressescomparisonbetweentwoorbetweenoneandanumbertakencollectively,as,"Johnis _richer_thanJames";"heis_richer_thanallthemeninBoston."

Anadjectiveisinthesuperlativeformwhenitexpressesacomparisonbetweenoneandanumberofindividualstakenseparately;as,"Johnisthe_richest_maninBoston."

Adjectivesexpressiveofpropertiesorcircumstanceswhichcannotbeincreasedhaveonlythepositiveform;as,A_circular_road;the_chief_ end;an_extreme_measure.

Adjectivesarecomparedintwoways,eitherbyadding_er_tothepositivetoformthecomparativeand_est_tothepositivetoformthesuperlative,orbyprefixing_more_tothepositiveforthecomparativeand_most_tothepositiveforthesuperlative;as,_handsome_,_handsomer_,_handsomest_ or_handsome_,_morehandsome_,_mosthandsome_.



Adjectivesoftwoormoresyllablesaregenerallycomparedbyprefixingmoreandmost.

Manyadjectivesareirregularincomparison;as,Bad,worse,worst;Good,better,best.

PRONOUN

A_pronoun_isawordusedinplaceofanoun;as,"JohngavehispentoJamesand_he_lentittoJanetowrite_her_copywith_it_."Withoutthepronounswewouldhavetowritethissentence,--"JohngaveJohn'spentoJamesandJameslentthepentoJanetowriteJane'scopywiththepen."

Therearethreekindsofpronouns--Personal,RelativeandAdjectivePronouns.

_Personal_Pronounsaresocalledbecausetheyareusedinsteadofthenamesofpersons,placesandthings.ThePersonalPronounsare_I_, _Thou_,_He_,_She_,and_It_,withtheirplurals,_We_,_Ye_or_You_ and_They_.

_I_isthepronounofthefirstpersonbecauseitrepresentsthepersonspeaking.

_Thou_isthepronounofthesecondpersonbecauseitrepresentsthepersonspokento.

_He_,_She_,_It_arethepronounsofthethirdpersonbecausetheyrepresentthepersonsorthingsofwhomwearespeaking.

Likenouns,thePersonalPronounshavenumber,genderandcase.Thegenderofthefirstandsecondpersonisobvious,astheyrepresentthepersonorpersonsspeakingandthosewhoareaddressed.Thepersonalpronounsarethusdeclined:

FirstPerson.M.orF.

Sing.Plural.N.IWeP.MineOursO.MeUs

SecondPerson.M.orF.

Sing.Plural.N.ThouYouP.ThineYoursO.TheeYou

ThirdPerson.M.



Sing.Plural.N.HeTheyP.HisTheirsO.HimThem

ThirdPerson.F.

Sing.Plural.N.SheTheyP.HersTheirsO.HerThem

ThirdPerson.Neuter.

Sing.Plural.N.ItTheyP.ItsTheirsO.ItThem

N.B.--IncolloquiallanguageandordinarywritingThou,ThineandTheeareseldomused,exceptbytheSocietyofFriends.ThePluralformYouisusedforboththenominativeandobjectivesingularinthesecondpersonandYoursisgenerallyusedinthepossessiveinplaceofThine.

The_Relative_Pronounsaresocalledbecausetheyrelatetosomewordorphrasegoingbefore;as,"Theboy_who_toldthetruth;""Hehasdonewell,_which_givesmegreatpleasure."

Here_who_and_which_arenotonlyusedinplaceofotherwords,but _who_refersimmediatelytoboy,and_which_tothecircumstanceofhishavingdonewell.

Thewordorclausetowhicharelativepronounrefersiscalledthe _Antecedent_.

TheRelativePronounsare_who_,_which_,_that_and_what_.

_Who_isappliedtopersonsonly;as,"Theman_who_washere."

_Which_isappliedtotheloweranimalsandthingswithoutlife;as,"Thehorse_which_Isold.""Thehat_which_Ibought."

_That_isappliedtobothpersonsandthings;as,"Thefriend_that_ helps.""Thebird_that_sings.""Theknife_that_cuts."

_What_isacompoundrelative,includingboththeantecedentandtherelativeandisequivalentto_thatwhich_;as,"Ididwhathedesired,"i.e."Idid_thatwhich_hedesired."

Relativepronounshavethesingularandpluralalike.

_Who_iseithermasculineorfeminine;_which_and_that_aremasculine,feminineorneuter;_what_asarelativepronounisalwaysneuter.

_That_and_what_arenotinflected.



_Who_and_which_arethusdeclined:

Sing.andPluralSing.andPlural

N.WhoN.WhichP.WhoseP.WhoseO.WhomO.Which

_Who_,_which_and_what_whenusedtoaskquestionsarecalled _InterrogativePronouns_.

_Adjective_Pronounspartakeofthenatureofadjectivesandpronounsandaresubdividedasfollows:

_DemonstrativeAdjectivePronouns_whichdirectlypointoutthepersonorobject.Theyare_this_,_that_withtheirplurals_these_,_those_,and _yon_,_same_and_selfsame_.

_DistributiveAdjectivePronouns_useddistributively.Theyare_each_, _every_,_either_,_neither_.

_IndefiniteAdjectivePronouns_usedmoreorlessindefinitely.Theyare _any_,_all_,_few_,_some_,_several_,_one_,_other_,_another_,_none_.

_PossessiveAdjectivePronouns_denotingpossession.Theyare_my_,_thy_, _his_,_her_,_its_,_our_,_your_,_their_.

N.B.--(Thepossessiveadjectivepronounsdifferfromthepossessivecaseofthepersonalpronounsinthatthelattercanstand_alone_whiletheformer_cannot_."Whoownsthatbook?""Itis_mine_."Youcannotsay"itis_my_,"--thewordbookmustberepeated.)

THEVERB

A_verb_isawordwhichimpliesactionorthedoingofsomething,oritmaybedefinedasawordwhichaffirms,commandsorasksaquestion.

Thus,thewords_Johnthetable_,containnoassertion,butwhentheword _strikes_isintroduced,somethingisaffirmed,hencetheword_strikes_ isaverbandgivescompletenessandmeaningtothegroup.

Thesimpleformoftheverbwithoutinflectioniscalledthe_root_oftheverb;_e.g.love_istherootoftheverb,--"ToLove."

Verbsare_regular_or_irregular_,_transitive_or_intransitive_.

Averbissaidtobe_regular_whenitformsthepasttensebyadding _ed_tothepresentor_d_iftheverbendsin_e_.Whenitspasttensedoesnotendin_ed_itissaidtobe_irregular_.

A_transitive_verbisonetheactionofwhichpassesovertooraffectssomeobject;as"Istruckthetable."Heretheactionofstrikingaffectedtheobjecttable,hencestruckisatransitiveverb.

An_intransitive_verbisoneinwhichtheactionremainswiththesubject;as_"Iwalk,"__"Isit,"__"Irun."_



Manyintransitiveverbs,however,canbeusedtransitively;thus,"I_walk_ thehorse;"_walk_isheretransitive.

Verbsareinflectedby_number_,_person_,_tense_and_mood_.

_Number_and_person_asappliedtotheverbreallybelongtothesubject;theyareusedwiththeverbtodenotewhethertheassertionismaderegardingoneormorethanoneandwhetheritismadeinreferencetothepersonspeaking,thepersonspokentoorthepersonorthingspokenabout.

TENSE

Intheirtensesverbsfollowthedivisionsoftime.Theyhave_presenttense_,_pasttense_and_futuretense_withtheirvariationstoexpresstheexacttimeofactionastoaneventhappening,havinghappenedoryettohappen.

MOOD

Therearefoursimplemoods,--the_Infinitive_,the_Indicative_,the

_Imperative_andthe_Subjunctive_.

TheMoodofaverbdenotesthemodeormannerinwhichitisused.Thusifitisusedinitswidestsensewithoutreferencetopersonornumber,timeorplace,itisinthe_Infinitive_Mood;as"Torun."Herewearenottoldwhodoestherunning,whenitisdone,whereitisdoneoranythingaboutit.

Whenaverbisusedtoindicateordeclareoraskasimplequestionormakeanydirectstatement,itisinthe_Indicative_Mood."Theboyloveshisbook."Hereadirectstatementismadeconcerningtheboy."Haveyouapin?"Hereasimplequestionisaskedwhichcallsforananswer.

Whentheverbisusedtoexpressacommandorentreatyitisinthe _Imperative_Moodas,"Goaway.""Givemeapenny."

Whentheverbisusedtoexpressdoubt,suppositionoruncertaintyorwhensomefutureactiondependsuponacontingency,itisinthesubjunctivemood;as,"IfIcome,heshallremain."

Manygrammariansincludeafifthmoodcalledthe_potential_toexpress _power_,_possibility_,_liberty_,_necessity_,_will_or_duty_.Itisformedbymeansoftheauxiliaries_may_,_can_,_ought_and_must_,butinallcasesitcanberesolvedintotheindicativeorsubjunctive.Thus,in"ImaywriteifIchoose,""maywrite"isbysomeclassifiedasinthepotentialmood,butinrealitythephrase_Imaywrite_isanindicative

onewhilethesecondclause,_ifIchoose_,istheexpressionofaconditionuponwhich,notmylibertytowrite,depends,butmyactualwriting.

Verbshavetwoparticiples,thepresentorimperfect,sometimescalledthe_active_endingin_ing_andthepastorperfect,oftencalledthe _passive_,endingin_ed_or_d_.

The_infinitive_expressesthesenseoftheverbinasubstantiveform,theparticiplesinanadjectiveform;as"Toriseearlyishealthful."



"Anearlyrisingman.""Thenewlyrisensun."

Theparticiplein_ing_isfrequentlyusedasasubstantiveandconsequentlyisequivalenttoaninfinitive;thus,"Toriseearlyishealthful"and"Risingearlyishealthful"arethesame.

TheprincipalpartsofaverbarethePresentIndicative,PastIndicativeandPastParticiple;as:

LoveLovedLoved

Sometimesoneormoreofthesepartsarewanting,andthentheverbissaidtobedefective.

PresentPastPassiveParticiple

CanCould(Wanting)MayMight"ShallShould"WillWould"OughtOught"

Verbsmayalsobedividedinto_principal_and_auxiliary_.A_principal_ verbisthatwithoutwhichasentenceorclausecancontainnoassertionoraffirmation.An_auxiliary_isaverbjoinedtotherootorparticiplesofaprincipalverbtoexpresstimeandmannerwithgreaterprecisionthancanbedonebythetensesandmoodsintheirsimpleform.Thus,thesentence,"Iamwritinganexercise;whenIshallhavefinisheditIshallreadittotheclass."hasnomeaningwithouttheprincipalverbs _writing_,_finishedread_;butthemeaningisrenderedmoredefinite,especiallywithregardtotime,bytheauxiliaryverbs_am_,_have_, _shall_.

Therearenineauxiliaryorhelpingverbs,viz.,_Be_,_have_,_do_, _shall_,_will_,_may_,_can_,_ought_,and_must_.Theyarecalled

helpingverbs,becauseitisbytheiraidthecompoundtensesareformed.

TOBE

Theverb_ToBe_isthemostimportantoftheauxiliaryverbs.Ithaselevenparts,viz.,_am,art,is,are,was,wast,were,wert;be,being_ and_been_.

VOICE

The_activevoice_isthatformoftheverbwhichshowstheSubjectnot

beingacteduponbutacting;as,"Thecat_catches_mice.""Charity _covers_amultitudeofsins."

The_passivevoice_:Whentheactionsignifiedbyatransitiveverbisthrownbackupontheagent,thatistosay,whenthesubjectoftheverbdenotestherecipientoftheaction,theverbissaidtobeinthepassivevoice."Johnwaslovedbyhisneighbors."HereJohnthesubjectisalsotheobjectaffectedbytheloving,theactionoftheverbisthrownbackonhim,hencethecompoundverb_wasloved_issaidtobeinthe_passivevoice_.Thepassivevoiceisformedbyputtingtheperfect



participleofany_transitive_verbwithanyoftheelevenpartsoftheverb_ToBe_.

CONJUGATION

The_conjugation_ofaverbisitsorderlyarrangementinvoices,moods,tenses,personsandnumbers.

Hereisthecompleteconjugationoftheverb"Love"--_ActiveVoice_.

PRINCIPALPARTS

PresentPastPastParticipleLoveLovedLoved

InfinitiveMood

ToLove

IndicativeMood

PRESENTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIloveWelove2ndpersonYouloveYoulove3rdpersonHelovesTheylove

PASTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIlovedWeloved2ndpersonYoulovedYouloved

3rdpersonHelovedTheyloved

FUTURETENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIshallloveTheywilllove2ndpersonYouwillloveYouwilllove3rdpersonHewillloveWeshalllove

[Transcriber'snote:1stpersonpluraland3rdpersonpluralreversedinoriginal]

PRESENTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIhavelovedWehaveloved2ndpersonYouhavelovedYouhaveloved3rdpersonHehaslovedTheyhaveloved

PASTPERFECTTENSE



Sing.Plural1stpersonIhadlovedWehadloved2ndpersonYouhadlovedYouhadloved3rdpersonHehadlovedTheyhadloved

FUTUREPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIshallhavelovedWeshallhaveloved2ndpersonYouwillhavelovedYouwillhaveloved3rdpersonHewillhavelovedTheywillhaveloved

ImperativeMood(PRESENTTENSEONLY)

Sing.Plural2ndpersonLove(you)Love(you)

SubjunctiveMoodPRESENTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIloveIfwelove2ndpersonIfyouloveIfyoulove3rdpersonIfheloveIftheylove

PASTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIlovedIfweloved2ndpersonIfyoulovedIfyouloved3rdpersonIfhelovedIftheyloved

PRESENTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIhavelovedIfwehaveloved2ndpersonIfyouhavelovedIfyouhaveloved3rdpersonIfhehaslovedIftheyhaveloved

PASTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural

1stpersonIfIhadlovedIfwehadloved2ndpersonIfyouhadlovedIfyouhadloved3rdpersonIfhehadlovedIftheyhadloved

INFINITIVES

PresentPerfectToloveTohaveloved



PARTICIPLES

PresentPastPerfectLovingLovedHavingloved

CONJUGATIONOF"ToLove"PassiveVoiceIndicativeMood

PRESENTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIamlovedWeareloved2ndpersonYouarelovedYouareloved3rdpersonHeislovedTheyareloved

PASTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIwaslovedWewereloved2ndpersonYouwerelovedYouwereloved

3rdpersonHewaslovedTheywereloved

FUTURETENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIshallbelovedWeshallbeloved2ndpersonYouwillbelovedYouwillbeloved3rdpersonHewillbelovedTheywillbeloved

PRESENTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIhavebeenlovedWehavebeenloved2ndpersonYouhavebeenlovedYouhavebeenloved3rdpersonHehasbeenlovedTheyhavebeenloved

PASTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIhadbeenlovedWehadbeenloved2ndpersonYouhadbeenlovedYouhadbeenloved3rdpersonHehadbeenlovedTheyhadbeenloved

FUTUREPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIshallhavebeenlovedWeshallhavebeenloved2ndpersonYouwillhavebeenlovedYouwillhavebeenloved3rdpersonHewillhavebeenlovedTheywillhavebeenloved

ImperativeMood



(PRESENTTENSEONLY)

Sing.Plural2ndpersonBe(you)lovedBe(you)loved

SubjunctiveMoodPRESENTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIbelovedIfwebeloved2ndpersonIfyoubelovedIfyoubeloved3rdpersonIfhebelovedIftheybeloved

PASTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIwerelovedIftheywereloved2ndpersonIfyouwerelovedIfyouwereloved3rdpersonIfhewerelovedIfwewereloved

PRESENTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIhavebeenlovedIfwehavebeenloved2ndpersonIfyouhavebeenlovedIfyouhavebeenloved3rdpersonIfhehasbeenlovedIftheyhavebeenloved

PASTPERFECTTENSE

Sing.Plural1stpersonIfIhadbeenlovedIfwehadbeenloved2ndpersonIfyouhadbeenlovedIfyouhadbeenloved3rdpersonIfhehadbeenlovedIftheyhadbeenloved

INFINITIVES

PresentPerfectTobelovedTohavebeenloved

PARTICIPLES

PresentPastPerfectBeinglovedBeenlovedHavingbeenloved

(N.B.--Notethatthepluralformofthepersonalpronoun,_you_,isusedinthesecondpersonsingularthroughout.Theoldform_thou_,exceptintheconjugationoftheverb"ToBe,"maybesaidtobeobsolete.Inthethirdpersonsingularheisrepresentativeofthethreepersonalpronounsofthethirdperson,_He_,_She_and_It_.)

ADVERB



An_adverb_isawordwhichmodifiesaverb,anadjectiveoranotheradverb.Thus,intheexample--"Hewrites_well_,"theadverbshowsthemannerinwhichthewritingisperformed;intheexamples--"Heisremarkablydiligent"and"Heworksveryfaithfully,"theadverbsmodifytheadjective_diligent_andtheotheradverb_faithfully_byexpressingthedegreeofdiligenceandfaithfulness.

Adverbsarechieflyusedtoexpressinonewordwhatwouldotherwiserequiretwoormorewords;thus,_There_signifiesinthatplace; _whence_,fromwhatplace;_usefully_,inausefulmanner.

Adverbs,likeadjectives,aresometimesvariedintheirterminationstoexpresscomparisonanddifferentdegreesofquality.

Someadverbsformthecomparativeandsuperlativebyadding_er_and _est_;as,_soon_,_sooner_,_soonest_.

Adverbswhichendin_ly_arecomparedbyprefixing_more_and_most_;as,_nobly_,_morenobly_,_mostnobly_.

Afewadverbsareirregularintheformationofthecomparativeandsuperlative;as,_well_,_better_,_best_.

PREPOSITION

A_preposition_connectswords,clauses,andsentencestogetherandshowstherelationbetweenthem."Myhandisonthetable"showsrelationbetweenhandandtable.

Prepositionsaresocalledbecausetheyaregenerallyplaced_before_thewordswhoseconnectionorrelationwithotherwordstheypointout.

CONJUNCTION

A_conjunction_joinswords,clausesandsentences;as"John_and_

James.""Myfatherandmotherhavecome,_but_Ihavenotseenthem."

Theconjunctionsinmostgeneraluseare_and,also;either,or;neither,nor;though,yet;but,however;for,that;because,since;therefore,wherefore,then;if,unless,lest_.

INTERJECTION

An_interjection_isawordusedtoexpresssomesuddenemotionofthemind.Thusintheexamples,--"Ah!therehecomes;alas!whatshallIdo?" _ah_,expressessurprise,and_alas_,distress.

Nouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbsbecomeinterjectionswhentheyareutteredasexclamations,as,_nonsense!strange!hail!away!_etc.

Wehavenowenumeratedthepartsofspeechandasbrieflyaspossiblestatedthefunctionsofeach.Astheyallbelongtothesamefamilytheyarerelatedtooneanotherbutsomeareincloseraffinitythanothers.Topointouttheexactrelationshipandthedependencyofonewordonanotheriscalled_parsing_andinorderthateveryetymologicalconnectionmaybedistinctlyunderstoodabriefresumeoftheforegoingessentialsisheregiven:



Thesignificationofthenounis_limited_to_one_,buttoany_one_ofthekind,bythe_indefinite_article,andtosome_particular_one,orsomeparticular_number_,bythe_definite_article.

_Nouns_,inoneform,represent_one_ofakind,andinanother,_anynumber_morethanone;theyarethe_namesofmales_,or_females_,orofobjectswhichareneithermalenorfemale;andtheyrepresentthe _subject_ofanaffirmation,acommandoraquestion,--the_owner_or _possessor_ofathing,--orthe_object_ofanaction,orofarelationexpressedbyapreposition.

_Adjectives_expressthe_qualities_whichdistinguishonepersonorthingfromanother;inoneformtheyexpressquality_withoutcomparison_;inanother,theyexpresscomparison_betweentwo_,orbetween_one_andanumbertakencollectively,--andinathirdtheyexpresscomparisonbetween_one_anda_number_ofotherstakenseparately.

_Pronouns_areusedinplaceofnouns;oneclassofthemisusedmerelyasthe_substitutes_of_names_;thepronounsofanotherclasshaveapeculiar_reference_tosome_precedingwords_inthe_sentence_,ofwhichtheyarethesubstitutes,--andthoseofathirdclassreferadjectivelytothepersonsorthingstheyrepresent.Somepronounsare

usedforboththe_name_andthe_substitute_;andseveralarefrequentlyemployedin_askingquestions_.

_Affirmations_and_commands_areexpressedbytheverb;anddifferentinflectionsoftheverbexpress_number_,_person_,_time_and_manner_.Withregardto_time_,anaffirmationmaybe_present_or_past_or _future_;withregardtomanner,anaffirmationmaybe_positive_or _conditional_,itbeingdoubtfulwhethertheconditionisfulfilledornot,oritbeingimpliedthatitisnotfulfilled;--theverbmayexpress _command_or_entreaty_;orthesenseoftheverbmaybeexpressed _withoutaffirming_or_commanding_.Theverbalsoexpressesthatanactionorstate_is_or_was_goingon,byaformwhichisalsousedsometimesasanoun,andsometimestoqualifynouns.

_Affirmations_are_modified_by_adverbs_,someofwhichcanbeinflectedtoexpressdifferentdegreesofmodification.

Wordsarejoinedtogetherby_conjunctions_;andthevarious_relations_ whichonethingbearstoanotherareexpressedby_'prepositions.Suddenemotions_ofthemind,and_exclamations_areexpressedby_interjections_.

Somewordsaccordingtomeaningbelongsometimestoonepartofspeech,sometimestoanother.Thus,in"Afterastormcomesa_calm_,"_calm_isanoun;in"Itisa_calm_evening,"_calm_isanadjective;andin"_Calm_yourfears,"_calm_isaverb.

Thefollowingsentencecontainingallthepartsofspeechisparsedetymologically:

_"Inowseetheoldmancoming,but,alas,hehaswalkedwithmuchdifficulty."_

_I_,apersonalpronoun,firstpersonsingular,masculineorfemininegender,nominativecase,subjectoftheverb_see_.

_now_,anadverboftimemodifyingtheverb_see_.



_see_,anirregular,transitiveverb,indicativemood,presenttense,firstpersonsingulartoagreewithitsnominativeorsubjectI.

_the_,thedefinitearticleparticularizingthenounman.

_old_,anadjective,positivedegree,qualifyingthenounman.

_man_,acommonnoun,3rdpersonsingular,masculinegender,objectivecasegovernedbythetransitiveverb_see_.

_coming_,thepresentorimperfectparticipleoftheverb"tocome"referringtothenounman.

_but_,aconjunction.

_alas_,aninterjection,expressingpityorsorrow.

_he_,apersonalpronoun,3rdpersonsingular,masculinegender,nominativecase,subjectofverbhaswalked.

_haswalked_,aregular,intransitiveverb,indicativemood,perfecttense,3rdpersonsingulartoagreewithitsnominativeorsubject_he_.

_with_,apreposition,governingthenoundifficulty.

_much_,anadjective,positivedegree,qualifyingthenoundifficulty.

_difficulty_,acommonnoun,3rdpersonsingular,neutergender,objectivecasegovernedbythepreposition_with_.

N.B.--_Much_isgenerallyanadverb.Asanadjectiveitisthuscompared:

PositiveComparativeSuperlativemuchmoremost

CHAPTERIII

THESENTENCE

DifferentKinds--ArrangementofWords--Paragraph

Asentenceisanassemblageofwordssoarrangedastoconveyadeterminatesenseormeaning,inotherwords,toexpressacompletethoughtoridea.Nomatterhowshort,itmustcontainonefiniteverbandasubjectoragenttodirecttheactionoftheverb.

"Birdsfly;""Fishswim;""Menwalk;"--aresentences.

Asentencealwayscontainstwoparts,somethingspokenaboutandsomethingsaidaboutit.Thewordorwordsindicatingwhatisspokenaboutformwhatiscalledthe_subject_andthewordorwordsindicatingwhatissaidaboutitformwhatiscalledthe_predicate_.

Inthesentencesgiven,_birds_,_fish_and_men_arethesubjects,while _fly_,_swim_and_walk_arethepredicates.



Therearethreekindsofsentences,_simple_,_compound_and_complex_.

The_simplesentence_expressesasinglethoughtandconsistsofonesubjectandonepredicate,as,"Manismortal."

A_compoundsentence_consistsoftwoormoresimplesentencesofequalimportancethepartsofwhichareeitherexpressedorunderstood,as,"Themenworkinthefieldsandthewomenworkinthehousehold,"or"Themenworkinthefieldsandthewomeninthehousehold"or"Themenandwomenworkinthefieldsandinthehousehold."

A_complexsentence_consistsoftwoormoresimplesentencessocombinedthatonedependsontheothertocompleteitsmeaning;as;"Whenhereturns,Ishallgoonmyvacation."Herethewords,"whenhereturns"aredependentontherestofthesentencefortheirmeaning.

A_clause_isaseparatepartofacomplexsentence,as"whenhereturns"inthelastexample.

A_phrase_consistsoftwoormorewordswithoutafiniteverb.

Withoutafiniteverbwecannotaffirmanythingorconveyanidea,thereforewecanhavenosentence.

Infinitivesandparticipleswhicharetheinfinitepartsoftheverbcannotbepredicates."Ilookingupthestreet"isnotasentence,foritisnotacompleteactionexpressed.Whenwehearsuchanexpressionas"Adogrunningalongthestreet,"wewaitforsomethingmoretobeadded,somethingmoreaffirmedaboutthedog,whetherhebitorbarkedorfelldeadorwasrunover.

Thusineverysentencetheremustbeafiniteverbtolimitthesubject.

Whentheverbistransitive,thatis,whentheactioncannothappenwithoutaffectingsomething,thethingaffectediscalledthe_object_.

Thusin"CainkilledAbel"theactionofthekillingaffectedAbel.In"Thecathascaughtamouse,"mouseistheobjectofthecatching.

ARRANGEMENTOFWORDSINASENTENCE

Ofcourseinsimplesentencesthenaturalorderofarrangementissubject--verb--object.Inmanycasesnootherformispossible.Thusinthesentence"Thecathascaughtamouse,"wecannotreverseitandsay"Themousehascaughtacat"withoutdestroyingthemeaning,andinanyotherformofarrangement,suchas"Amouse,thecathascaught,"wefeelthatwhileitisintelligible,itisapoorwayofexpressingthefactandonewhichjarsuponusmoreorless.

Inlongersentences,however,whentherearemorewordsthanwhatarebarelynecessaryforsubject,verbandobject,wehavegreaterfreedomofarrangementandcansoplacethewordsastogivethebesteffect.Theproperplacingofwordsdependsuponperspicuityandprecision.Thesetwocombinedgive_style_tothestructure.

MostpeoplearefamiliarwithGray'slineintheimmortal_Elegy_--"Theploughmanhomewardplodshiswearyway."Thislinecanbeparaphrasedtoread18differentways.Hereareafewvariations:



Homewardtheploughmanplodshiswearyway.Theploughmanplodshiswearywayhomeward.Plodshomewardtheploughmanhiswearyway.Hiswearywaytheploughmanhomewardplods.Homewardhiswearywayplodstheploughman.Plodstheploughmanhiswearywayhomeward.Hiswearywaytheploughmanplodshomeward.Hiswearywayhomewardtheploughmanplods.Theploughmanplodshomewardhiswearyway.Theploughmanhiswearywayplodshomeward.

andsoon.Itisdoubtfulifanyoftheotherformsaresuperiortotheoneusedbythepoet.Ofcoursehisarrangementwasmadetocomplywiththerhythmandrhymeoftheverse.Mostofthevariationsdependupontheemphasiswewishtoplaceuponthedifferentwords.

Inarrangingthewordsinanordinarysentenceweshouldnotlosesightofthefactthatthebeginningandendaretheimportantplacesforcatchingtheattentionofthereader.Wordsintheseplaceshavegreateremphasisthanelsewhere.

InGray'slinethegeneralmeaningconveyedisthatawearyploughmanisploddinghiswayhomeward,butaccordingtothearrangementaveryslight

differenceiseffectedintheidea.Someofthevariationsmakeusthinkmoreoftheploughman,othersmoreoftheplodding,andstillothersmoreoftheweariness.

Asthebeginningandendofasentencearethemostimportantplaces,itnaturallyfollowsthatsmallorinsignificantwordsshouldbekeptfromthesepositions.Ofthetwoplacestheendoneisthemoreimportant,therefore,itreallycallsforthemostimportantwordinthesentence.Nevercommenceasentencewith_And_,_But_,_Since_,_Because_,andothersimilarweakwordsandneverenditwithprepositions,small,weakadverbsorpronouns.

Thepartsofasentencewhicharemostcloselyconnectedwithoneanother

inmeaningshouldbecloselyconnectedinorderalso.Byignoringthisprinciplemanysentencesaremade,ifnotnonsensical,reallyridiculousandludicrous.Forinstance:"Tendollarsrewardisofferedforinformationofanypersoninjuringthispropertybyorderoftheowner.""ThismonumentwaserectedtothememoryofJohnJones,whowasshotbyhisaffectionatebrother."

Intheconstructionofallsentencesthegrammaticalrulesmustbeinviolablyobserved.Thelawsofconcord,thatis,theagreementofcertainwords,mustbeobeyed.

(1)Theverbagreeswithitssubjectinpersonandnumber."Ihave,""Thouhast,"(thepronoun_thou_ishereusedtoillustratetheverb

form,thoughitisalmostobsolete),"Hehas,"showthevariationoftheverbtoagreewiththesubject.Asingularsubjectcallsforasingularverb,apluralsubjectdemandsaverbintheplural;as,"Theboywrites,""Theboyswrite."

Theagreementofaverbanditssubjectisoftendestroyedbyconfusing(1)collectiveandcommonnouns;(2)foreignandEnglishnouns;(3)compoundandsimplesubjects;(4)realandapparentsubjects.

(1)Acollectivenounisanumberofindividualsorthings



regardedasawhole;as,_classregiment_.Whentheindividualsorthingsareprominentlybroughtforward,useapluralverb;asTheclass_were_distinguishedforability.Whentheideaofthewholeasaunitisunderconsiderationemployasingularverb;asTheregiment_was_incamp.(2)Itissometimeshardfortheordinaryindividualtodistinguishthepluralfromthesingularinforeignnouns,therefore,heshouldbecarefulintheselectionoftheverb.Heshouldlookupthewordandbeguidedaccordingly."Hewasan_alumnus_ofHarvard.""Theywere_alumni_ofHarvard."(3)Whenasentencewithoneverbhastwoormoresubjectsdenotingdifferentthings,connectedby_and_,theverbshouldbeplural;as,"Snowandrain_are_ disagreeable."Whenthesubjectsdenotethesamethingandareconnectedby_or_theverbshouldbesingular;as,"Themanorthewomanistoblame."(4)Whenthesameverbhasmorethanonesubjectofdifferentpersonsornumbers,itagreeswiththemostprominentinthought;as,"He,andnotyou,_is_wrong.""WhetherheorI_am_tobeblamed."

(2)Neverusethepastparticipleforthepasttensenor_viceversa_.Thismistakeisaverycommonone.Ateveryturnwehear"Hedoneit"for"Hedidit.""Thejarwasbroke"insteadofbroken."Hewouldhavewent"for"Hewouldhavegone,"etc.

(3)Theuseoftheverbs_shall_and_will_isarockuponwhicheventhebestspeakerscometowreck.Theyareinterchangedrecklessly.Theirsignificancechangesaccordingastheyareusedwiththefirst,secondorthirdperson.Withthefirstperson_shall_isusedindirectstatementtoexpressasimplefutureaction;as,"Ishallgotothecityto-morrow."Withthesecondandthirdpersons_shall_isusedtoexpressadetermination;as,"You_shall_gotothecityto-morrow,""He_shall_gotothecityto-morrow."

Withthefirstperson_will_isusedindirectstatementtoexpressdetermination,as,"Iwillgotothecityto-morrow."Withthesecondandthirdpersons_will_isusedtoexpresssimplefutureaction;as,"You _will_gotothecityto-morrow,""He_will_gotothecityto-morrow."

Averyoldruleregardingtheusesof_shall_and_will_isthusexpressedinrhyme:

Inthefirstpersonsimply_shall_foretells,In_will_athreatorelseapromisedwells._Shall_inthesecondandthirddoesthreat,_Will_simplythenforetellsthefuturefeat.

(4)Takespecialcaretodistinguishbetweenthenominativeandobjectivecase.Thepronounsaretheonlywordswhichretaintheancientdistinctivecaseendingfortheobjective.Rememberthattheobjectivecasefollowstransitiveverbsandprepositions.Don'tsay"TheboywhoIsenttosee

you,"but"TheboywhomIsenttoseeyou."_Whom_isheretheobjectofthetransitiveverbsent.Don'tsay"ShebowedtohimandI"but"Shebowedtohimandme"sincemeistheobjectivecasefollowingthepreposition_to_understood."BetweenyouandI"isaverycommonexpression.Itshouldbe"Betweenyouandme"since_between_isaprepositioncallingfortheobjectivecase.

(5)Becarefulintheuseoftherelativepronouns_who_,_which_and _that_.Whorefersonlytopersons;whichonlytothings;as,"Theboywhowasdrowned,""TheumbrellawhichIlost."Therelative_that_may



refertobothpersonsandthings;as,"Theman_that_Isaw.""Thehat _that_Ibought."

(6)Don'tusethesuperlativedegreeoftheadjectiveforthecomparative;as"Heistherichestofthetwo"for"Heisthericherofthetwo."Othermistakesoftenmadeinthisconnectionare(1)Usingthedoublecomparativeandsuperlative;as,"Theseapplesaremuch_more_preferable.""Themostuniversalmotivetobusinessisgain."(2)Comparingobjectswhichbelongtodissimilarclasses;as"Thereisnonicer_life_thana _teacher_."(3)Includingobjectsinclasstowhichtheydonotbelong;as,"Thefairestofherdaughters,Eve."(4)Excludinganobjectfromaclasstowhichitdoesbelong;as,"Caesarwasbraverthananyancientwarrior."

(7)Don'tuseanadjectiveforanadverboranadverbforanadjective.Don'tsay,"Heactednicetowardsme"but"Heactednicelytowardme,"andinsteadofsaying"Shelooked_beautifully_"say"Shelooked _beautiful_."

(8)Placetheadverbasnearaspossibletotheworditmodifies.Insteadofsaying,"Hewalkedtothedoorquickly,"say"Hewalkedquicklytothedoor."

(9)Notalonebecarefultodistinguishbetweenthenominativeand

objectivecasesofthepronouns,buttrytoavoidambiguityintheiruse.

TheamusingeffectofdisregardingthereferenceofpronounsiswellillustratedbyBurtoninthefollowingstoryofBillyWilliams,acomicactorwhothusnarrateshisexperienceinridingahorseownedbyHamblin,themanager:

"SodownIgoestothestablewithTomFlynn,andtoldthemantoputthesaddleonhim."

"OnTomFlynn?"

"No,onthehorse.SoaftertalkingwithTomFlynnawhileImountedhim."

"What!mountedTomFlynn?"

"No,thehorse;andthenIshookhandswithhimandrodeoff."

"Shookhandswiththehorse,Billy?"

"No,withTomFlynn;andthenIrodeoffuptheBowery,andwhoshouldImeetbutTomHamblin;soIgotoffandtoldtheboytoholdhimbythehead."

"What!holdHamblinbythehead?"

"No,thehorse;andthenwewentandhadadrinktogether."

"What!youandthehorse?"

"No,_me_andHamblin;andafterthatImountedhimagainandwentoutoftown."

"What!mountedHamblinagain?"



"No,thehorse;andwhenIgottoBurnham,whoshouldbetherebutTomFlynn,--he'dtakenanotherhorseandrodeoutaheadofme;soItoldthehostlertotiehimup."

"TieTomFlynnup?"

"No,thehorse;andwehadadrinkthere."

"What!youandthehorse?"

"No,meandTomFlynn."

Findinghisauditorsbythistimeina_horse_laugh,Billywoundupwith:"Now,lookhere,--everytimeIsayhorse,yousayHamblin,andeverytimeIsayHamblinyousayhorse:I'llbehangedifItellyouanymoreaboutit."

SENTENCECLASSIFICATION

Therearetwogreatclassesofsentencesaccordingtothegeneral

principlesuponwhichtheyarefounded.Thesearetermedthe_loose_andthe_periodic_.

Inthe_loose_sentencethemainideaisputfirst,andthenfollowseveralfactsinconnectionwithit.Defoeisanauthorparticularlynotedforthiskindofsentence.Hestartsoutwithaleadingdeclarationtowhichheaddsseveralattendantconnections.Forinstanceintheopeningofthestoryof_RobinsonCrusoe_weread:"Iwasbornintheyear1632inthecityofYork,ofagoodfamily,thoughnotofthatcountry,myfatherbeingaforeignerofBremen,whosettledfirstatHull;hegotagoodestatebymerchandise,andleavingoffhistradelivedafterwardatYork,fromwhencehehadmarriedmymother,whoserelationswerenamedRobinson,averygoodfamilyinthecountryandfrom

IwascalledRobinsonKreutznaer;butbytheusualcorruptionofwordsinEngland,wearenowcalled,nay,wecallourselves,andwriteournameCrusoe,andsomycompanionsalwayscalledme."

Intheperiodicsentencethemainideacomeslastandisprecededbyaseriesofrelativeintroductions.Thiskindofsentenceisoftenintroducedbysuchwordsas_that_,_if_,_since_,_because_.Thefollowingisanexample:

"Thatthroughhisownfollyandlackofcircumspectionheshouldhavebeenreducedtosuchcircumstancesastobeforcedtobecomeabeggaronthestreets,solicitingalmsfromthosewhohadformerlybeentherecipientsofhisbounty,wasasorehumiliation."

Onaccountofitsnamemanyareliabletothinkthe_loose_sentenceanundesirableformingoodcomposition,butthisshouldnotbetakenforgranted.Inmanycasesitispreferabletotheperiodicform.

Asageneralruleinspeaking,asopposedtowriting,the_loose_formistobepreferred,inasmuchaswhentheperiodicisemployedindiscoursethelistenersareapttoforgettheintroductoryclausesbeforethefinalissueisreached.



Bothkindsarefreelyusedincomposition,butinspeaking,the_loose_,whichmakesthedirectstatementatthebeginning,shouldpredominate.

Astothelengthofsentencesmuchdependsonthenatureofthecomposition.

Howeverthegeneralrulemaybelaiddownthatshortsentencesarepreferabletolongones.Thetendencyofthebestwritersofthepresentdayistowardsshort,snappy,pithysentenceswhichrivettheattentionofthereader.Theyadoptastheirmotto_multuminparvo_(muchinlittle)andendeavortopackagreatdealinsmallspace.Ofcoursetheextremeofbrevityistobeavoided.Sentencescanbetooshort,toojerky,toobrittletowithstandthetestofcriticism.Thelongsentencehasitsplaceandaveryimportantone.Itisindispensableinargumentandoftenisverynecessarytodescriptionandalsoinintroducinggeneralprincipleswhichrequireelaboration.Inemployingthelongsentencetheinexperiencedwritershouldnotstrainaftertheheavy,ponderoustype.JohnsonandCarlyleusedsuchatype,butremember,anordinarymortalcannotwieldthesledgehammerofagiant.JohnsonandCarlylewereintellectualgiantsandfewcanhopetostandonthesameliterarypedestal.Thetyroincompositionshouldneverseekaftertheheavystyle.ThebestofallauthorsintheEnglishlanguageforstyleisAddison.Macaulaysays:"Ifyouwishastylelearned,butnotpedantic,elegantbutnotostentatious,simpleyetrefined,youmustgiveyourdaysandnightstothevolumesof

JosephAddison."Thesimplicity,apartfromthebeautyofAddison'swritingscausesustoreiteratetheliterarycommand--"Neveruseabigwordwhenalittleonewillconveythesameorasimilarmeaning."

Macaulayhimselfisanelegantstylisttoimitate.Heislikeaclearbrookkissedbythenoon-daysunintheshiningbedofwhichyoucanseeandcountthebeautifulwhitepebbles.Goldsmithisanotherwriterwhosesimplicityofstylecharms.

Thebeginnershouldstudythesewriters,maketheirworkshis_vademecum_,theyhavestoodthetestoftimeandtherehasbeennoimprovementuponthemyet,noristherelikelytobe,fortheirwritingisasperfectasitispossibletobeintheEnglishlanguage.

Apartfromtheirgrammaticalconstructiontherecanbenofixedrulesfortheformationofsentences.Thebestplanistofollowthebestauthorsandthesemastersoflanguagewillguideyousafelyalongtheway.

THEPARAGRAPH

Theparagraphmaybedefinedasagroupofsentencesthatarecloselyrelatedinthoughtandwhichserveonecommonpurpose.Notonlydotheypreservethesequenceofthedifferentpartsintowhichacompositionisdivided,buttheygiveacertainspicetothematterlikeraisinsinaplumpudding.Asolidpageofprintedmatterisdistastefultothereader;

ittaxestheeyeandtendstowardsthewearinessofmonotony,butwhenitisbrokenupintosectionsitlosesmuchofitsheavinessandtheconsequentlightnessgivesitcharm,asitwere,tocapturethereader.

Paragraphsarelikestepping-stonesonthebedofashallowriver,whichenablethefootpassengertoskipwitheasefromonetotheotheruntilhegetsacross;butifthestonesareplacedtoofarapartinattemptingtospanthedistanceoneisliabletomissthemarkandfallinthewaterandflounderaboutuntilheisagainabletogetafoothold.'Tisthesamewithwrittenlanguage,thereaderbymeansofparagraphscaneasily



passfromoneportionofconnectedthoughttoanotherandkeepuphisinterestinthesubjectuntilhegetstotheend.

Throughouttheparagraphtheremustbesomeconnectioninregardtothematterunderconsideration,--asentencedependency.Forinstance,inthesameparagraphwemustnotspeakofahouseonfireandarunawayhorseunlessthereissomeconnectionbetweenthetwo.Wemustnotwriteconsecutively:

"Thefireragedwithfierceintensity,consumingthegreaterpartofthelargebuildinginashorttime.""Thehorsetookfrightandwildlydasheddownthestreetscatteringpedestriansinalldirections."Thesetwosentenceshavenoconnectionandthereforeshouldoccupyseparateanddistinctplaces.Butwhenwesay--"Thefireragedwithfierceintensityconsumingthegreaterpartofthelargebuildinginashorttimeandthehorsetakingfrightattheflamesdashedwildlydownthestreetscatteringpedestriansinalldirections,"--thereisanaturalsequence,viz.,thehorsetakingfrightasaconsequenceoftheflamesandhencethetwoexpressionsarecombinedinoneparagraph.

Asinthecaseofwordsinsentences,themostimportantplacesinaparagrapharethebeginningandtheend.Accordinglythefirstsentenceandthelastshouldbyvirtueoftheirstructureandnervousforce,compelthereader'sattention.Itisusuallyadvisabletomakethefirst

sentenceshort;thelastsentencemaybelongorshort,butineithercaseshouldbeforcible.Theobjectofthefirstsentenceistostateapoint_clearly_;thelastsentenceshould_enforce_it.

Itisacustomofgoodwriterstomaketheconclusionoftheparagrapharestatementorcounterpartorapplicationoftheopening.

Inmostcasesaparagraphmayberegardedastheelaborationoftheprincipalsentence.Theleadingthoughtorideacanbetakenasanucleusandarounditconstructedthedifferentpartsoftheparagraph.Anyonecanmakeacontextforeverysimplesentencebyaskinghimselfquestionsinreferencetothesentence.Thus--"Theforemangavetheorder"--suggestsatonceseveralquestions;"Whatwastheorder?""towhomdidhe

giveit?""whydidhegiveit?""whatwastheresult?"etc.Thesequestionswhenansweredwilldependupontheleadingoneandbeanelaborationofitintoacompleteparagraph.

Ifweexamineanygoodparagraphweshallfinditmadeupofanumberofitems,eachofwhichhelpstoillustrate,confirmorenforcethegeneralthoughtorpurposeoftheparagraph.Alsothetransitionfromeachitemtothenextiseasy,naturalandobvious;theitemsseemtocomeofthemselves.If,ontheotherhand,wedetectinaparagraphoneormoreitemswhichhavenodirectbearing,orifweareunabletoproceedreadilyfromitemtoitem,especiallyifweareobligedtorearrangetheitemsbeforewecanperceivetheirfullsignificance,thenwearejustifiedinpronouncingtheparagraphconstructionfaulty.

Nospecificrulescanbegivenastotheconstructionofparagraphs.Thebestadviceis,--Studycloselytheparagraphstructureofthebestwriters,foritisonlythroughimitation,consciousorunconsciousofthebestmodels,thatonecanmastertheart.

ThebestparagraphistintheEnglishlanguagefortheessayisMacaulay,thebestmodeltofollowfortheoratoricalstyleisEdmundBurkeandfordescriptionandnarrationprobablythegreatestmasterofparagraphistheAmericanGoldsmith,WashingtonIrving.



Aparagraphisindicatedinprintbywhatisknownastheindentationoftheline,thatis,bycommencingitaspacefromtheleftmargin.

CHAPTERIV

FIGURATIVELANGUAGE

FiguresofSpeech--DefinitionsandExamples--UseofFigures

In_FigurativeLanguage_weemploywordsinsuchawaythattheydiffersomewhatfromtheirordinarysignificationincommonplacespeechandconveyourmeaninginamorevividandimpressivemannerthanwhenweusethemintheirevery-daysense.Figuresmakespeechmoreeffective,theybeautifyandemphasizeitandgivetoitarelishandpiquancyassaltdoestofood;besidestheyaddenergyandforcetoexpressionsothatitirresistiblycompelsattentionandinterest.Therearefourkindsoffigures,viz.:(1)FiguresofOrthographywhichchangethespellingofaword;(2)FiguresofEtymologywhichchangetheformofwords;(3)FiguresofSyntaxwhichchangetheconstructionofsentences;(4)Figuresof

Rhetoricortheartofspeakingandwritingeffectivelywhichchangethemodeofthought.

Weshallonlyconsiderthelastmentionedhereastheyarethemostimportant,reallygivingtolanguagetheconstructionandstylewhichmakeitafittingmediumfortheintercommunicationofideas.

FiguresofRhetorichavebeenvariouslyclassified,someauthoritiesextendingthelisttoauselesslength.ThefactisthatanyformofexpressionwhichconveysthoughtmaybeclassifiedasaFigure.

Theprincipalfiguresaswellasthemostimportantandthoseoftenestusedare,_Simile,Metaphor,Personification,Allegory,Synechdoche,

Metonymy,Exclamation,Hyperbole,Apostrophe,Vision,Antithesis,Climax,Epigram,Interrogation_and_Irony_.

Thefirstfourarefoundedon_resemblance_,thesecondsixon_contiguity_ andthethirdfive,on_contrast_.

A_Simile_(fromtheLatin_similis_,like),isthelikeningofonethingtoanother,astatementoftheresemblanceofobjects,acts,orrelations;as"Inhisawfulangerhewas_like_thestorm-drivenwavesdashingagainsttherock."Asimilemakestheprincipalobjectplainerandimpressesitmoreforciblyonthemind."Hismemoryislikewaxtoreceiveimpressionsandlikemarbletoretainthem."Thisbringsouttheleadingideaastotheman'smemoryinaveryforcefulmanner.Contrast

itwiththesimplestatement--"Hismemoryisgood."Sometimes_Simile_isprostitutedtoalowanddegradinguse;as"Hisfacewaslikeadangersignalinafogstorm.""Herhairwaslikeafurze-bushinbloom.""Hewastohisladyloveasapoodletoitsmistress."Suchburlesqueisneverpermissible.Mere_likeness_,itshouldberemembered,doesnotconstituteasimile.Forinstancethereisnosimilewhenonecityiscomparedtoanother.Inorderthattheremaybearhetoricalsimile,theobjectscomparedmustbeofdifferentclasses.Avoidtheold_trite_ similessuchascomparingaherotoalion.Suchwereplayedoutlongago.Anddon'thuntforfarfetchedsimiles.Don'tsay--"Herheadwas



glowingasthegloriousgodofdaywhenhesetsinaflambeauofsplendorbehindthepurple-tintedhillsoftheWest."Itismuchbettertodowithoutsuchasimileandsimplysay--"Shehadfieryredhair."

A_Metaphor_(fromtheGreek_metapherein_,tocarryoverortransfer),isawordusedto_imply_aresemblancebutinsteadoflikeningoneobjecttoanotherasinthe_simile_wedirectlysubstitutetheactionoroperationofoneforanother.If,ofareligiousmanwesay,--"Heisasagreatpillarupholdingthechurch,"theexpressionisa_simile_,butifwesay--"Heisagreatpillarupholdingthechurch"itisametaphor.Themetaphorisabolderandmorelivelyfigurethanthesimile.Itismorelikeapictureandhence,thegraphicuseofmetaphoriscalled"word-painting."Itenablesustogivetothemostabstractideasform,colorandlife.Ourlanguageisfullofmetaphors,andweveryoftenusethemquiteunconsciously.Forinstance,whenwespeakofthe_bed_ofariver,the_shoulder_ofahill,the_foot_ofamountain,the_hands_ofaclock,the_key_ofasituation,weareusingmetaphors.

Don'tusemixedmetaphors,thatis,differentmetaphorsinrelationtothesamesubject:"Sinceitwaslaunchedourprojecthasmetwithmuchopposition,butwhileitsflighthasnotreachedtheheightsambitioned,weareyetsanguineweshalldriveittosuccess."Hereourprojectbeginsasa_ship_,thenbecomesa_bird_andfinallywindsupasa_horse_.

_Personification_(fromtheLatin_persona_,person,and_facere_,tomake)isthetreatingofaninanimateobjectasifitwereanimateandisprobablythemostbeautifulandeffectiveofallthefigures.

"Themountains_sing_together,thehills_rejoice_and_clap_theirhands."

"Earth_felt_thewound;andNaturefromherseat,_Sighing_,throughallherworks,gavesignsofwoe."

Personificationdependsmuchonavividimaginationandisadaptedespeciallytopoeticalcomposition.Ithastwodistinguishableforms:(1)whenpersonalityisascribedtotheinanimateasintheforegoing

examples,and(2)whensomequalityoflifeisattributedtotheinanimate;as,a_raging_storm;an_angry_sea;a_whistling_wind,etc.

An_Allegory_(fromtheGreek_allos_,other,and_agoreuein_,tospeak),isaformofexpressioninwhichthewordsaresymbolicalofsomething.Itisverycloselyalliedtothemetaphor,infactisacontinuedmetaphor.

_Allegory_,_metaphor_and_simile_havethreepointsincommon,--theyareallfoundedonresemblance."IrelandislikeathorninthesideofEngland;"thisissimile."Ireland_is_athorninthesideofEngland;"thisismetaphor."Onceagreatgiantsprangupoutoftheseaandlivedonanislandallbyhimself.Onlookingaroundhediscoveredalittlegirlonanothersmallislandnearby.Hethoughtthelittlegirlcouldbe

usefultohiminmanywayssohedeterminedtomakehersubservienttohiswill.Hecommandedher,butsherefusedtoobey,thenheresortedtoveryharshmeasureswiththelittlegirl,butshestillremainedobstinateandobdurate.Hecontinuedtooppressheruntilfinallysherebelledandbecameasathorninhissidetoprickhimforhisevilattitudetowardsher;"thisisanallegoryinwhichthegiantplainlyrepresentsEnglandandthelittlegirl,Ireland;theimplicationismanifestthoughnomentionismadeofeithercountry.StrangetosaythemostperfectallegoryintheEnglishlanguagewaswrittenbyanalmostilliterateandignorantman,andwrittentoo,inadungeoncell.Inthe"Pilgrim'sProgress,"



Bunyan,theitineranttinker,hasgivenusbyfarthebestallegoryeverpenned.Anothergoodoneis"TheFaerieQueen"byEdmundSpenser.

_Synecdoche_(fromtheGreek,_sun_with,and_ekdexesthai_,toreceive),isafigureofspeechwhichexpresseseithermoreorlessthanitliterallydenotes.Byitwegivetoanobjectanamewhichliterallyexpressessomethingmoreorsomethinglessthanweintend.Thus:wespeakoftheworldwhenwemeanonlyaverylimitednumberofthepeoplewhocomposetheworld:as,"Theworldtreatedhimbadly."Hereweusethewholeforapart.Butthemostcommonformofthisfigureisthatinwhichapartisusedforthewhole;as,"Ihavetwentyheadofcattle,""Oneofhis_hands_ wasassassinated,"meaningoneofhismen."Twenty_sail_cameintotheharbor,"meaningtwentyships."Thisisafinemarble,"meaningamarblestatue.

_Metonymy_(fromtheGreek_meta_,change,and_onyma_,aname)isthedesignationofanobjectbyoneofitsaccompaniments,inotherwords,itisafigurebywhichthenameofoneobjectisputforanotherwhenthetwoaresorelatedthatthementionofonereadilysuggeststheother.Thuswhenwesayofadrunkard--"Helovesthebottle"wedonotmeanthathelovestheglassreceptacle,buttheliquorthatitissupposedtocontain.Metonymy,generallyspeaking,has,threesubdivisions:(1)whenaneffectisputforcauseor_viceversa_:as"_Grayhairs_shouldberespected,"meaningoldage."Hewritesafinehand,"thatis,handwriting.

(2)whenthe_sign_isputforthe_thingsignified_;as,"Thepenismightierthanthesword,"meaningliterarypowerissuperiortomilitaryforce.(3)Whenthe_container_isputforthethingcontained;as"The _House_wascalledtoorder,"meaningthemembersintheHouse.

_Exclamation_(fromtheLatin_ex_,out,and_clamare_,tocry),isafigurebywhichthespeakerinsteadofstatingafact,simplyuttersanexpressionofsurpriseoremotion.Forinstancewhenhehearssomeharrowingtaleofwoeormisfortuneinsteadofsaying,--"Itisasadstory"heexclaims"Whatasadstory!"

Exclamationmaybedefinedasthevocalexpressionoffeeling,thoughitisalsoappliedtowrittenformswhichareintendedtoexpressemotion.

Thusindescribingatoweringmountainwecanwrite"Heavens,whatapieceofNature'shandiwork!howmajestic!howsublime!howawe-inspiringinitscolossalimpressiveness!"Thisfigureratherbelongstopoetryandanimatedoratorythantothecoldproseofevery-dayconversationandwriting.

_Hyperbole_(fromtheGreek_hyper_,beyond,and_ballein_,tothrow),isanexaggeratedformofstatementandsimplyconsistsinrepresentingthingstobeeithergreaterorless,betterorworsethantheyreallyare.Itsobjectistomakethethoughtmoreeffectivebyoverstatingit.Herearesomeexamples:--"Hewassotallhisheadtouchedtheclouds.""Hewasasthinasapoker.""Hewassolightthatabreathmighthaveblownhimaway."Mostpeopleareliabletooverworkthisfigure.Weare

allmoreorlessgiventoexaggerationandsomeofusdonotstopthere,butproceedonwardtofalsehoodanddownrightlying.Thereshouldbealimittohyperbole,andinordinaryspeechandwritingitshouldbewellqualifiedandkeptwithinreasonablebounds.

An_Apostrophe_(fromtheGreek_apo_,from,and_strephein_,toturn),isadirectaddresstotheabsentaspresent,totheinanimateasliving,ortotheabstractaspersonal.Thus:"O,illustriousWashington!FatherofourCountry!Couldyouvisitusnow!"



"MyCountrytisofthee--Sweetlandofliberty,OftheeIsing."

"O!Grave,whereisthyVictory,O!Deathwhereisthysting!"ThisfigureisverycloselyalliedtoPersonification.

_Vision_(fromtheLatin_videre_,tosee)consistsintreatingthepast,thefuture,ortheremoteasifpresentintimeorplace.Itisappropriatetoanimateddescription,asitproducestheeffectofanidealpresence."Theoldwarriorlooksdownfromthecanvasandtellsustobemenworthyofoursires."

ThisfigureismuchexemplifiedintheBible.ThebookofRevelationisavisionofthefuture.TheauthorwhousesthefiguremostisCarlyle.

An_Antithesis_(fromtheGreek_anti_,against,and_tithenai_,toset)isfoundedoncontrast;itconsistsinputtingtwounlikethingsinsuchapositionthateachwillappearmorestrikingbythecontrast.

"Ringouttheold,ringinthenew,Ringoutthefalse,ringinthetrue."

"Letusbe_friends_inpeace,but_enemies_inwar."

Hereisafineantithesisinthedescriptionofasteamengine--"Itcanengraveasealandcrushmassesofobduratemetalbeforeit;drawout,withoutbreaking,athreadasfineasagossamer;andliftupashipofwarlikeabaubleintheair;itcanembroidermuslinandforgeanchors;cutsteelintoribands,andimpelloadedvesselsagainstthefuryofwindsandwaves."

_Climax_(fromtheGreek,_klimax_,aladder),isanarrangementofthoughtsandideasinaseries,eachpartofwhichgetsstrongerandmoreimpressiveuntilthelastone,whichemphasizestheforceofalltheprecedingones."Heriskedtruth,heriskedhonor,heriskedfame,heriskedallthatmenholddear,--yea,heriskedlifeitself,andfor

what?--foracreaturewhowasnotworthytotiehisshoe-latchetswhenhewashisbetterself."

_Epigram_(fromtheGreek_epi_,upon,and_graphein_,towrite),originallymeantaninscriptiononamonument,henceitcametosignifyanypointedexpression.Itnowmeansastatementoranybriefsayinginproseorpoetryinwhichthereisanapparentcontradiction;as,"Conspicuousforhisabsence.""Beautywhenunadornedismostadorned.""Hewastoofoolishtocommitfolly.""Hewassowealthythathecouldnotsparethemoney."

_Interrogation_(fromtheLatin_interrogatio_,aquestion),isafigureofspeechinwhichanassertionismadebyaskingaquestion;as,"Does

Godnotshowjusticetoall?""Ishenotdoingrightinhiscourse?""Whatcanamandounderthecircumstances?"

_Irony_(fromtheGreek_eironcia_,dissimulation)isaformofexpressioninwhichtheoppositeissubstitutedforwhatisintended,withtheendinview,thatthefalsityorabsurditymaybeapparent;as,"BenedictArnoldwasan_honorable_man.""AJudasIscariotnever_betrays_afriend.""Youcanalways_depend_uponthewordofaliar."

Ironyiscousingermainto_ridicule_,_derision_,_mockery_,_satire_



and_sarcasm_._Ridicule_implieslaughtermingledwithcontempt; _derision_isridiculefromapersonalfeelingofhostility;_mockery_isinsultingderision;_satire_iswittymockery;_sarcasm_isbittersatireand_irony_isdisguisedsatire.

Therearemanyotherfiguresofspeechwhichgivepiquancytolanguageandplayuponwordsinsuchawayastoconveyameaningdifferentfromtheirordinarysignificationincommonevery-dayspeechandwriting.Thegoldenruleforallisto_keeptheminharmonywiththecharacterandpurposeofspeechandcomposition_.

CHAPTERV

PUNCTUATION

PrincipalPoints--Illustrations--CapitalLetters.

LindleyMurrayandGooldBrownlaiddowncast-ironrulesforpunctuation,butmostofthemhavebeenbrokenlongsinceandthrownintothejunk-heapofdisuse.Theyweretoorigid,toostrict,wentsomuchinto_minutiae_,

thattheyweremoreorlessimpracticaltoapplytoordinarycomposition.Themanneroflanguage,ofstyleandofexpressionhasconsiderablychangedsincethen,theoldabstrusecomplexsentencewithitshiddenmeaningshasbeenrelegatedtotheshade,thereislittleofprolixityorlong-drawn-outphrases,ambiguityofexpressionisavoidedandtheaimistowardterseness,brevityandclearness.Therefore,punctuationhasbeengreatlysimplified,tosuchanextentindeed,thatitisnowasmuchamatterofgoodtasteandjudgmentasadherencetoanyfixedsetofrules.Neverthelesstherearelawsgoverningitwhichcannotbeabrogated,theirprinciplesmustberigidlyandinviolablyobserved.

Thechiefendofpunctuationistomarkthegrammaticalconnectionandthedependenceofthepartsofacomposition,butnottheactualpauses

madeinspeaking.Veryoftenthepointsusedtodenotethedeliveryofapassagedifferfromthoseusedwhenthepassageiswritten.Nevertheless,severalofthepunctuationmarksservetobringouttherhetoricalforceofexpression.

Theprincipalmarksofpunctuationare:

1.TheComma[,]

2.TheSemicolon[;]

3.TheColon[:]

4.ThePeriod[.]

5.TheInterrogation[?]

6.TheExclamation[!]

7.TheDash[--]

8.TheParenthesis[()]



9.TheQuotation[""]

Thereareseveralotherpointsormarkstoindicatevariousrelations,butproperlyspeakingsuchcomeundertheheadingofPrinter'sMarks,someofwhicharetreatedelsewhere.

Oftheabove,thefirstfourmaybestyledthegrammaticalpoints,andtheremainingfive,therhetoricalpoints.

The_Comma_:TheofficeoftheCommaistoshowtheslightestseparationwhichcallsforpunctuationatall.Itshouldbeomittedwheneverpossible.Itisusedtomarktheleastdivisionsofasentence.

(1)Aseriesofwordsorphraseshasitspartsseparatedbycommas:--"Lying,trickery,chicanery,perjury,werenaturaltohim.""Thebrave,daring,faithfulsoldierdiedfacingthefoe."Iftheseriesisinpairs,commasseparatethepairs:"Richandpoor,learnedandunlearned,blackandwhite,ChristianandJew,MohammedanandBuddhistmustpassthroughthesamegate."

(2)Acommaisusedbeforeashortquotation:"ItwasPatrickHenrywhosaid,'Givemelibertyorgivemedeath.'"

(3)Whenthesubjectofthesentenceisaclauseoralongphrase,acommaisusedaftersuchsubject:"ThathehasnoreverencefortheGodIlove,proveshisinsincerity.""Simulatedpiety,withablackcoatandasanctimoniouslook,doesnotproclaimaChristian."

(4)Anexpressionusedparentheticallyshouldbeinclosedbycommas:"Theoldman,asageneralrule,takesamorningwalk."

(5)Wordsinappositionaresetoffbycommas:"McKinley,thePresident,wasassassinated."

(6)Relativeclauses,ifnotrestrictive,requirecommas:"Thebook,whichisthesimplest,isoftenthemostprofound."

(7)Incontinuedsentenceseachshouldbefollowedbyacomma:"Electricitylightsourdwellingsandstreets,pullscars,trains,drivestheenginesofourmillsandfactories."

(8)Whenaverbisomittedacommatakesitsplace:"Lincolnwasagreatstatesman;Grant,agreatsoldier."

(9)Thesubjectofaddressisfollowedbyacomma:"John,youareagoodman."

(10)Innumeration,commasareusedtoexpressperiodsofthreefigures:"Mountains25,000feethigh;1,000,000dollars."

The_Semicolon_marksaslighterconnectionthanthecomma.Itisgenerallyconfinedtoseparatingthepartsofcompoundsentences.Itismuchusedincontrasts:

(1)"Gladstonewasgreatasastatesman;hewassublimeasaman."

(2)TheSemicolonisusedbetweenthepartsofallcompoundsentencesinwhichthegrammaticalsubjectofthesecondpartisdifferentfromthat



ofthefirst:"ThepowerofEnglandreliesuponthewisdomofherstatesmen;thepowerofAmericauponthestrengthofherarmyandnavy."

(4)TheSemicolonisusedbeforewordsandabbreviationswhichintroduceparticularsorspecificationsfollowingafter,suchas,_namely,as,e.g.,vid.,i.e.,etc._:"Hehadthreedefects;namely,carelessness,lackofconcentrationandobstinacyinhisideas.""Anislandisaportionoflandentirelysurroundedbywater;asCuba.""Thenamesofcitiesshouldalwayscommencewithacapitalletter;_e.g._,NewYork,Paris.""Theboywasproficientinonebranch;viz.,Mathematics.""Nomanisperfect;i.e.,freefromallblemish."

The_Colon_exceptinconventionalusesispracticallyobsolete.

(1)Itisgenerallyputattheendofasentenceintroducingalongquotation:"Thecheershavingsubsided,Mr.Bryanspokeasfollows:"

(2)Itisplacedbeforeanexplanationorillustrationofthesubjectunderconsideration:"Thisisthemeaningoftheterm:"

(3)Adirectquotationformallyintroducedisgenerallyprecededbyacolon:"Thegreatoratormadethisfunnyremark:"

(4)Thecolonisoftenusedinthetitleofbookswhenthesecondaryorsubtitleisinappositiontotheleadingoneandwhentheconjunction _or_isomitted:"Acoustics:theScienceofSound."

(5)Itisusedafterthesalutationinthebeginningofletters:"Sir:MydearSir:Gentlemen:DearMr.Jones:"etc.Inthisconnectionadashveryoftenfollowsthecolon.

(6)Itissometimesusedtointroducedetailsofagroupofthingsalreadyreferredtointhemass:"Theboy'sexcusesforbeinglatewere:firstly,hedidnotknowthetime,secondly,hewassentonanerrand,thirdly,hetrippedonarockandfellbythewayside."

The_Period_isthesimplestpunctuationmark.Itissimplyusedtomarktheendofacompletesentencethatisneitherinterrogativenorexclamatory.

(1)Aftereverysentenceconveyingacompletemeaning:"Birdsfly.""Plantsgrow.""Manismortal."

(2)Inabbreviations:aftereveryabbreviatedword:Rt.Rev.T.C.Alexander,D.D.,L.L.D.

(3)Aperiodisusedonthetitlepagesofbooksafterthenameofthebook,aftertheauthor'sname,afterthepublisher'simprint:_American

Trails_.ByTheodoreRoosevelt.NewYork.ScribnerCompany.

The_MarkofInterrogation_isusedtoaskorsuggestaquestion.

(1)Everyquestionadmittingofananswer,evenwhenitisnotexpected,shouldbefollowedbythemarkofinterrogation:"WhohasnotheardofNapoleon?"

(2)Whenseveralquestionshaveacommondependencetheyshouldbe



followedbyonemarkofinterrogationattheendoftheseries:"Wherenowaretheplaythingsandfriendsofmyboyhood;thelaughingboys;thewinsomegirls;thefondneighborswhomIloved?"

(3)Themarkisoftenusedparentheticallytosuggestdoubt:"In1893(?)GladstonebecameconvertedtoHomeRuleforIreland."

The_Exclamation_pointshouldbesparinglyused,particularlyinprose.Itschiefuseistodenoteemotionofsomekind.

(1)Itisgenerallyemployedwithinterjectionsorclausesusedasinterjections:"Alas!Iamforsaken.""Whatalovelylandscape!"

(2)Expressionsofstrongemotioncallfortheexclamation:"Charge,Chester,charge!On,Stanley,on!"

(3)Whentheemotionisverystrongdoubleexclamationpointsmaybeused:"Assisthim!!IwouldratherassistSatan!!"

The_Dash_isgenerallyconfinedtocaseswherethereisasuddenbreakfromthegeneralrunofthepassage.Ofallthepunctuationmarksitisthemostmisused.

(1)Itisemployedtodenotesuddenchangeintheconstructionorsentiment:"TheHeroesoftheCivilWar,--howwecherishthem.""Hewasafinefellow--inhisownopinion."

(2)Whenawordorexpressionisrepeatedfororatoricaleffect,adashisusedtointroducetherepetition:"Shakespearewasthegreatestofallpoets--Shakespeare,theintellectualoceanwhosewaveswashedthecontinentsofallthought."

(3)TheDashisusedtoindicateaconclusionwithoutexpressingit:"Heisanexcellentmanbut--"

(4)Itisusedtoindicatewhatisnotexpectedorwhatisnotthenaturaloutcomeofwhathasgonebefore:"Hedelveddeepintothebowelsoftheearthandfoundinsteadofthehiddentreasure--abutton."

(5)Itisusedtodenotetheomissionoflettersorfigures:"J--nJ--s"forJohnJones;1908-9for1908and1909;MatthewVII:5-8forMatthewVII:5,6,7,and8.

(6)Whenanellipsisofthewords,_namely,thatis,towit_,etc.,takesplace,thedashisusedtosupplythem:"Heexcelledinthreebranches--arithmetic,algebra,andgeometry."

(7)Adashisusedtodenotetheomissionofpartofawordwhenitis

undesirabletowritethefullword:Heissomewhatofar----l(rascal).Thisisespeciallythecaseinprofanewords.

(8)Betweenacitationandtheauthorityforitthereisgenerallyadash:"Alltheworld'sastage."--_Shakespeare_.

(9)Whenquestionsandanswersareputinthesameparagraphtheyshouldbeseparatedbydashes:"Areyouagoodboy?Yes,Sir.--Doyoulovestudy?Ido."



_MarksofParenthesis_areusedtoseparateexpressionsinsertedinthebodyofasentence,whichareillustrativeofthemeaning,buthavenoessentialconnectionwiththesentence,andcouldbedonewithout.Theyshouldbeusedaslittleaspossiblefortheyshowthatsomethingisbeingbroughtintoasentencethatdoesnotbelongtoit.

(1)Whentheunityofasentenceisbrokenthewordscausingthebreakshouldbeenclosedinparenthesis:"Wecannotbelievealiar(andJonesisone),evenwhenhespeaksthetruth."

(2)Inreportsofspeechesmarksofparenthesisareusedtodenoteinterpolationsofapprovalordisapprovalbytheaudience:"Themassesmustnotsubmittothetyrannyoftheclasses(hear,hear),wemustshowthetrustmagnates(groans),thattheycannotriderough-shodoverourdearestrights(cheers);""IfthegentlemanfromOhio(Mr.Brown),willnotbeourspokesman,wemustselectanother.(Avoice,--GetRobinson)."

Whenaparenthesisisinsertedinthesentencewherenocommaisrequired,nopointshouldbeusedbeforeeitherparenthesis.Wheninsertedataplacerequiringacomma,iftheparentheticalmatterrelatestothewholesentence,acommashouldbeusedbeforeeachparenthesis;ifitrelatestoasingleword,orshortclause,nostopshouldcomebeforeit,butacommashouldbeputaftertheclosing

parenthesis.

The_Quotationmarks_areusedtoshowthatthewordsenclosedbythemareborrowed.

(1)Adirectquotationshouldbeenclosedwithinthequotationmarks:AbrahamLincolnsaid,--"Ishallmakethislandtoohotforthefeetofslaves."

(2)Whenaquotationisembracedwithinanother,thecontainedquotationhasonlysinglemarks:Franklinsaid,"Mostmencometobelieve'honestyisthebestpolicy.'"

(3)Whenaquotationconsistsofseveralparagraphsthequotationmarksshouldprecedeeachparagraph.

(4)Titlesofbooks,picturesandnewspaperswhenformallygivenarequoted.

(5)Oftenthenamesofshipsarequotedthoughthereisnooccasionforit.

The_Apostrophe_shouldcomeunderthecommaratherthanunderthequotationmarksordoublecomma.ThewordisGreekandsignifiesaturningawayfrom.Theletterelidedorturnedawayisgenerallyan_e_.Inpoetry

andfamiliardialoguetheapostrophemarkstheelisionofasyllable,as"I'veforIhave";"Thou'rtforthouart";"you'llforyouwill,"etc.Sometimesitisnecessarytoabbreviateawordbyleavingoutseveralletters.Insuchcasetheapostrophetakestheplaceoftheomittedlettersas"cont'dforcontinued."Theapostropheisusedtodenotetheelisionofthecenturyindates,wherethecenturyisunderstoodortosavetherepetitionofaseriesoffigures,as"TheSpiritof'76";"Iservedinthearmyduringtheyears1895,'96,'97,'98and'99."Theprincipaluseoftheapostropheistodenotethepossessivecase.Allnounsinthesingularnumberwhetherpropernamesornot,andallnounsinthepluralendingwith



anyotherletterthan_s_,formthepossessivebytheadditionoftheapostropheandtheletter_s_.Theonlyexceptionstothisruleare,that,bypoeticallicensetheadditional_s_maybeelidedinpoetryforsakeofthemetre,andinthescripturalphrases"Forgoodness'sake.""Forconscience'sake,""ForJesus'sake,"etc.Customhasdoneawaywiththe _s_andthesephrasesarenowidiomsofthelanguage.Allpluralnounsendingin_s_formthepossessivebytheadditionoftheapostropheonlyasboys',horses'.Thepossessivecaseofthepersonalpronounsnevertaketheapostrophe,asours,yours,hers,theirs.

CAPITALLETTERS

_Capitalletters_areusedtogiveemphasistoorcallattentiontocertainwordstodistinguishthemfromthecontext.Inmanuscriptstheymaybewrittensmallorlargeandareindicatedbylinesdrawnunderneath,twolinesforSMALLCAPITALSandthreelinesforCAPITALS.

Someauthors,notablyCarlyle,makesuchuseofCapitalsthatitdegeneratesintoanabuse.Theyshouldonlybeusedintheirproperplacesasgiveninthetablebelow.

(1)Thefirstwordofeverysentence,infactthefirstwordinwritingofanykindshouldbeginwithacapital;as,"Timeflies.""Mydear

friend."

(2)Everydirectquotationshouldbeginwithacapital;"Deweysaid,--'Fire,whenyou'reready,Gridley!'"

(3)Everydirectquestioncommenceswithacapital;"Letmeaskyou;'Howoldareyou?'"

(4)Everylineofpoetrybeginswithacapital;"Breathesthereamanwithsoulsodead?"

(5)Everynumberedclausecallsforacapital:"Thewitnessasserts:(1)Thathesawthemanattacked;(2)Thathesawhimfall;(3)Thathe

sawhisassailantflee."

(6)Theheadingsofessaysandchaptersshouldbewhollyincapitals;as,CHAPTERVIII--RULESFORUSEOFCAPITALS.

(7)Inthetitlesofbooks,nouns,pronouns,adjectivesandadverbsshouldbeginwithacapital;as,"Johnson'sLivesofthePoets."

(8)IntheRomannotationnumbersaredenotedbycapitals;as,IIIIIIVXLCDM--1,2,3,5,10,50,100,500,1000.

(9)Propernamesbeginwithacapital;as,"Jones,Johnson,Caesar,MarkAntony,England,Pacific,Christmas."

Suchwordsasriver,sea,mountain,etc.,whenusedgenerallyarecommon,notpropernouns,andrequirenocapital.Butwhensuchareusedwithanadjectiveoradjuncttospecifyaparticularobjecttheybecomepropernames,andthereforerequireacapital;as,"MississippiRiver,NorthSea,AlleghanyMountains,"etc.Inlikemannerthecardinalpointsnorth,south,eastandwest,whentheyareusedtodistinguishregionsofacountryarecapitals;as,"TheNorthfoughtagainsttheSouth."

Whenapropernameiscompoundedwithanotherword,thepartwhichisnot



apropernamebeginswithacapitalifitprecedes,butwithasmallletterifitfollows,thehyphen;as"Post-homeric,""Sunday-school."

(10)WordsderivedfrompropernamesrequireaCapital;as,"American,Irish,Christian,Americanize,Christianize."

Inthisconnectionthenamesofpoliticalparties,religioussectsandschoolsofthoughtbeginwithcapitals;as,"Republican,Democrat,Whig,Catholic,Presbyterian,Rationalists,FreeThinkers."

(11)Thetitlesofhonorable,stateandpoliticalofficesbeginwithacapital;as,"President,Chairman,Governor,Alderman."

(12)Theabbreviationsoflearnedtitlesandcollegedegreescallforcapitals;as,"LL.D.,M.A.,B.S.,"etc.Alsotheseatsoflearningconferringsuchdegreesas,"HarvardUniversity,ManhattanCollege,"etc.

(13)Whensuchrelativewordsasfather,mother,brother,sister,uncle,aunt,etc.,precedeapropername,theyarewrittenandprintedwithcapitals;as,FatherAbraham,MotherEddy,BrotherJohn,SisterJane,UncleJacob,AuntEliza.Father,whenusedtodenotetheearlyChristianwriter,isbegunwithacapital;"AugustinewasoneofthelearnedFathersoftheChurch."

(14)ThenamesappliedtotheSupremeBeingbeginwithcapitals:"God,Lord,Creator,Providence,Almighty,TheDeity,HeavenlyFather,HolyOne."InthisrespectthenamesappliedtotheSaviouralsorequirecapitals:"JesusChrist,SonofGod,ManofGalilee,TheCrucified,TheAnointedOne."AlsothedesignationsofBiblicalcharactersas"LilyofIsrael,RoseofSharon,ComfortressoftheAfflicted,HelpofChristians,PrinceoftheApostles,StaroftheSea,"etc.PronounsreferringtoGodandChristtakecapitals;as,"Hiswork,TheworkofHim,etc."

(15)ExpressionsusedtodesignatetheBibleoranyparticulardivisionofitbeginwithacapital;as,"HolyWrit,TheSacredBook,HolyBook,God'sWord,OldTestament,NewTestament,GospelofSt.Matthew,SevenPenitentialPsalms."

(16)ExpressionsbasedupontheBibleorinreferencetoBiblicalcharactersbeginwithacapital:"WaterofLife,HopeofMen,HelpofChristians,ScourgeofNations."

(17)ThenamesappliedtotheEvilOnerequirecapitals:"Beelzebub,PrinceofDarkness,Satan,KingofHell,Devil,IncarnateFiend,TempterofMen,FatherofLies,HaterofGood."

(18)Wordsofveryspecialimportance,especiallythosewhichstandoutasthenamesofleadingeventsinhistory,havecapitals;as,"TheRevolution,TheCivilWar,TheMiddleAges,TheAgeofIron,"etc.

(19)Termswhichrefertogreateventsinthehistoryoftheracerequirecapitals;"TheFlood,MagnaCharta,DeclarationofIndependence."

(20)Thenamesofthedaysoftheweekandthemonthsoftheyearandtheseasonsarecommencedwithcapitals:"Monday,March,Autumn."

(21)ThePronoun_I_andtheinterjection_O_alwaysrequiretheuseofcapitals.Infactalltheinterjectionswhenutteredasexclamationscommencewithcapitals:"Alas!heisgone.""Ah!Ipitiedhim."



(22)All_noms-de-guerre_,assumednames,aswellasnamesgivenfordistinction,callforcapitals,as,"TheWizardoftheNorth,""PaulPry,""TheNorthernGael,""SandySanderson,""PoorRobin,"etc.

(23)Inpersonification,thatis,wheninanimatethingsarerepresentedasendowedwithlifeandaction,thenounorobjectpersonifiedbeginswithacapital;as,"ThestarryNightshookthedewsfromherwings.""Mild-eyedDayappeared,""TheOaksaidtotheBeech--'Iamstrongerthanyou.'"

CHAPTERVI

LETTERWRITING

PrinciplesofLetter-Writing--Forms--Notes

Manypeopleseemtoregardletter-writingasaverysimpleandeasilyacquiredbranch,butonthecontraryitisoneofthemostdifficultformsofcompositionandrequiresmuchpatienceandlabortomasteritsdetails.Infactthereareveryfewperfectletter-writersinthe

language.Itconstitutesthedirectformofspeechandmaybecalledconversationatadistance.Itsformsaresovariedbyeveryconceivabletopicwrittenatalltimesbyallkindsofpersonsinallkindsofmoodsandtempersandaddressedtoallkindsofpersonsofvaryingdegreesinsocietyandofdifferentpursuitsinlife,thatnofixedrulescanbelaiddowntoregulateitslength,styleorsubjectmatter.Onlygeneralsuggestionscanbemadeinregardtoscopeandpurpose,andtheformsofindictingsetforthwhichcustomandprecedenthavesanctioned.

Theprinciplesofletter-writingshouldbeunderstoodbyeverybodywhohasanyknowledgeofwrittenlanguage,foralmosteverybodyatsometimeorotherhasnecessitytoaddresssomefriendoracquaintanceatadistance,whereascomparativelyfewarecalledupontodirecttheir

effortstowardsanyotherkindofcomposition.

Formerlytheilliteratecountryman,whenhehadoccasiontocommunicatewithfriendsorrelations,calledintheperipateticschoolmasterashisamanuensis,butthishadonedraw-back,--secretshadtobepouredintoanearotherthanthatforwhichtheywereintended,andoftentheconfidencewasbetrayed.

Now,thateducationisabroadintheland,thereisseldomanyoccasionforanypersontocallupontheserviceofanothertocomposeandwriteapersonalletter.Veryfewnow-a-daysaresogrosslyilliterateasnottobeabletoreadandwrite.Nomatterhowcrudehiseffortmaybeitisbetterforanyonetowritehisownlettersthantrusttoanother.Even

ifheshouldcommence,--"deerfren,iliftupmypentoletyenothatihovebeensikforthepast3weeks,hoppingthiswillfindyethesame,"hisspellingandconstructioncanbeexcusedinviewofthefactthathisintentionisgood,andthatheisdoinghisbesttoservehisownturnwithoutdependinguponothers.

Thenature,substanceandtoneofanyletterdependupontheoccasionthatcallsitforth,uponthepersonwritingitanduponthepersonforwhomitisintended.Whetheritshouldbeeasyorformalinstyle,plainorornate,lightorserious,gayorgrave,sentimentalormatter-of-fact



dependuponthesethreecircumstances.

Inletterwritingthefirstandmostimportantrequisitesaretobenaturalandsimple;thereshouldbenostrainingaftereffect,butsimplyaspontaneousout-pouringofthoughtsandideasastheynaturallyoccurtothewriter.Wearerepelledbyapersonwhoisstiffandlaboredinhisconversationandinthesamewaythestiffandlaboredletterboresthereader.Whereasifitislightandinaconversationalveinitimmediatelyengageshisattention.

Theletterwhichiswrittenwiththegreatestfacilityisthebestkindofletterbecauseitnaturallyexpresseswhatisinthewriter,hehasnottosearchforhiswords,theyflowinaperfectunisonwiththeideashedesirestocommunicate.WhenyouwritetoyourfriendJohnBrownetotellhimhowyouspentSundayyouhavenottolookaroundforthewords,orstudysetphraseswithaviewtopleaseorimpressBrowne,youjusttellhimthesameasifhewerepresentbeforeyou,howyouspenttheday,whereyouwere,withwhomyouassociatedandthechiefincidentsthatoccurredduringthetime.Thus,youwritenaturalanditissuchwritingthatisadaptedtoepistolarycorrespondence.

Therearedifferentkindsofletters,eachcallingforadifferentstyleofaddressandcomposition,neverthelessthenaturalkeyshouldbemaintainedinall,thatistosay,thewritershouldneverattemptto

conveyanimpressionthatheisotherthanwhatheis.Itwouldbesillyaswellasvainforthecommonstreetlaborerofalimitededucationtotrytoputonliteraryairsandemulateacollegeprofessor;hemayhaveasgoodabrain,butitisnotaswelldevelopedbyeducation,andhelacksthepolishwhichsocietyconfers.Whenwritingaletterthestreetlaborershouldbearinmindthatonlytheletterofastreet-laborerisexpectedfromhim,nomattertowhomhiscommunicationmaybeaddressedandthatneitherthegrammarnorthedictionofaChesterfieldorGladstoneislookedforinhislanguage.Stillthewritershouldkeepinmindthepersontowhomheiswriting.IfitistoanArchbishoporsomeothergreatdignitaryofChurchorstateitcertainlyshouldbecouchedintermsdifferentfromthoseheusestoJohnBrowne,hisintimatefriend.Justashecannotsay"DearJohn"toanArchbishop,nomorecan

headdresshiminthefamiliarwordsheusestohisfriendofeverydayacquaintanceandcompanionship.YetthereisnogreatlearningrequiredtowritetoanArchbishop,nomorethantoanordinaryindividual.Allthelaborerneedstoknowistheformofaddressandhowtoproperlyutilizehislimitedvocabularytothebestadvantage.Hereistheformforsuchaletter:

17SecondAvenue,NewYorkCity.January1st,1910.

MostRev.P.A.Jordan,ArchbishopofNewYork.

MostRev.anddearSir:--WhilesweepingthecrossingatFifthAvenueand50thstreetonlastWednesdaymorning,IfoundtheenclosedFiftyDollarBill,whichIamsendingtoyouinthehopethatitmayberestoredtotherightfulowner.IbegyouwillacknowledgereceiptandshouldtheownerbefoundItrustyouwill



notifyme,sothatImayclaimsomerewardformyhonesty.Iam,MostRev.anddearSir,

Veryrespectfullyyours,ThomasJones.

Observethebrevityoftheletter.JonesmakesnosuggestionstotheArchbishophowtofindtheowner,forheknowsthecoursetheArchbishopwilladopt,ofhavingthefindingofthebillannouncedfromtheChurchpulpits.CouldJoneshimselffindtheownertherewouldbenooccasiontoapplytotheArchbishop.

Thisletter,itistrue,isdifferentfromthatwhichhewouldsendtoBrowne.Neverthelessitissimplewithoutbeingfamiliar,isjustaplainstatement,andisasmuchtothepointforitspurposeasifitweregarnishedwithrhetoricand"wordsoflearnedlengthandthunderingsound."

Lettersmaybedividedintothoseoffriendship,acquaintanceship,thoseofbusinessrelations,thosewritteninanofficialcapacitybypublicservants,thosedesignedtoteach,andthosewhichgiveaccountsofthedailyhappeningsonthestageoflife,inotherwords,newsletters.

_Lettersoffriendship_arethemostcommonandtheirstyleandformdependuponthedegreeofrelationshipandintimacyexistingbetweenthewritersandthoseaddressed.Betweenrelativesandintimatefriendsthebeginningandendmaybeinthemostfamiliarformofconversation,eitheraffectionateorplayful.Theyshould,however,neveroversteptheboundariesofdecencyandpropriety,foritiswelltorememberthat,unlikeconversation,whichonlyisheardbytheearsforwhichitisintended,writtenwordsmaycomeundereyesotherthanthoseforwhomtheyweredesigned.Therefore,itiswellnevertowriteanythingwhichtheworldmaynotreadwithoutdetrimenttoyourcharacteroryourinstincts.Youcanbejoyful,playful,jocose,giveventtoyourfeelings,butneverstooptolowlanguageand,aboveall,tolanguagesavoringin

theslightestdegreeofmoralimpropriety.

_Businessletters_areoftheutmostimportanceonaccountoftheinterestsinvolved.Thebusinesscharacterofamanorofafirmisoftenjudgedbythecorrespondence.Onmanyoccasionslettersinsteadofdevelopingtradeandbusinessinterestsandgainingclientele,predisposepeopleunfavorablytowardsthosewhomtheyaredesignedtobenefit.Ambiguous,slip-shodlanguageisadetrimenttosuccess.Businesslettersshouldbeclear,concise,tothepointand,aboveall,honest,givingnowrongimpressionsorholdingoutanyinducementsthatcannotbefulfilled.Inbusinessletters,justasinbusinessconduct,honestyisalwaysthebestpolicy.

_Officialletters_aremostlyalwaysformal.Theyshouldpossessclearness,brevityanddignityoftonetoimpressthereceiverswiththeproperrespectforthenationallawsandinstitutions.

Lettersdesignedtoteachor_didacticletters_areinaclassallbythemselves.Theyaresimplyliteratureintheformoflettersandareemployedbysomeofthebestwriterstogivetheirthoughtsandideasagreateremphasis.ThemostconspicuousexampleofthiskindofcompositionisthebookonEtiquettebyLordChesterfield,whichtooktheformofaseriesofletterstohisson.



_Newsletters_areaccountsofworldhappeningsanddescriptionsofceremoniesandeventssentintothenewspapers.Someofthebestauthorsofourtimearenewspapermenwhowriteinaneasyflowingstylewhichismostreadable,fullofhumorandfancyandwhichcarriesonealongwithbreathlessinterestfrombeginningtoend.

Theprincipalpartsofaletterare(1)the_heading_orintroduction;(2)the_body_orsubstanceoftheletter;(3)the_subscription_orclosingexpressionandsignature;(4)the_address_ordirectionontheenvelope.Forthe_body_ofaletternoformsorrulescanbelaiddownasitaltogetherdependsonthenatureoftheletterandtherelationshipbetweenthewriterandthepersonaddressed.

Therearecertainruleswhichgoverntheotherthreefeaturesandwhichcustomhassanctioned.Everyoneshouldbeacquaintedwiththeserules.

THEHEADING

The_Heading_hasthreeparts,viz.,thenameoftheplace,thedateofwritingandthedesignationofthepersonorpersonsaddressed;thus:

73NewStreet,

Newark,N.J.,February1st,1910.Messr.GinnandCo.,NewYorkGentlemen:

Thenameoftheplaceshouldneverbeomitted;incities,streetandnumbershouldalwaysbegiven,andexceptwhenthecityislargeandveryconspicuous,sothattherecanbenoquestionastoitsidentitywithanotherofthesameorsimilarname,theabbreviationoftheStateshouldbeappended,asintheabove,Newark,N.J.ThereisanotherNewarkintheStateofOhio.Owingtofailuretocomplywiththisrulemanylettersgoastray.The_date_shouldbeoneveryletter,especiallybusiness

letters.Thedateshouldneverbeputatthebottominabusinessletter,butinfriendlylettersthismaybedone.The_designation_ofthepersonorpersonsaddresseddiffersaccordingtotherelationsofthecorrespondents.Lettersoffriendshipmaybegininmanywaysaccordingtothedegreesoffriendshiporintimacy.Thus:

MydearWife:MydearHusband:MydearFriend:MydarlingMother:MydearestLove:DearAunt:DearUncle:

DearGeorge:etc.

Tomarkalesserdegreeofintimacysuchformaldesignationsasthefollowingmaybeemployed:

DearSir:MydearSir:DearMr.Smith:DearMadam:etc.



ForclergymenwhohavethedegreeofDoctorofDivinity,thedesignationisasfollows:

Rev.AlbanJohnson,D.D.MydearSir:orRev.anddearSir:ormorefamiliarlyDearDr.Johnson:

BishopsoftheRomanandAnglicanCommunionsareaddressedas _RightReverend_.

TheRt.Rev.,theBishopofLongIsland.orTheRt.Rev.FrederickBurgess,BishopofLongIsland.Rt.Rev.anddearSir:

ArchbishopsoftheRomanChurchareaddressedas_MostReverend_andCardinalsas_Eminence_.Thus:

TheMostRev.ArchbishopKatzer.MostRev.anddearSir:

HisEminence,JamesCardinalGibbons,ArchbishopofBaltimore.MayitpleaseyourEminence:

ThetitleoftheGovernorofaStateorterritoryandofthePresidentof

theUnitedStatesis_Excellency_.However,_Honorable_ismorecommonlyappliedtoGovernors:--

HisExcellency,WilliamHowardTaft,PresidentoftheUnitedStates.

Sir:--

HisExcellency,CharlesEvansHughes,GovernoroftheStateofNewYork.

Sir:--

HonorableFranklinFort,GovernorofNewJersey.

Sir:--

ThegeneralsalutationforOfficersoftheArmyandNavyis_Sir_.Therankandstationshouldbeindicatedinfullattheheadoftheletter,thus:

GeneralJosephThompson,CommandingtheSeventhInfantry.

Sir:

RearAdmiralRobertAtkinson,CommandingtheAtlanticSquadron.

Sir:

ThetitleofofficersoftheCivilGovernmentisHonorableandtheyareaddressedas_Sir_.

Hon.NelsonDuncan,



SenatorfromOhio.

Sir:

Hon.NormanWingfield,SecretaryoftheTreasury.

Sir:

Hon.RupertGresham,MayorofNewYork.

Sir:

PresidentsandProfessorsofCollegesandUniversitiesaregenerallyaddressedas_Sir_or_DearSir_.

ProfessorFergusonJenks,Presidentof..........University.

Sir:orDearSir:

PresidentsofSocietiesandAssociationsaretreatedasbusinessmenandaddressedas_Sir_or_DearSir_.

Mr.JosephBanks,PresidentoftheNightOwls.

DearSir:orSir:

DoctorsofMedicineareaddressedas_Sir:MydearSir:DearSir:_ andmorefamiliarlyMydearDr:orDearDr:as

RyersonPitkin,M.D.Sir:DearSir:MydearDr:

OrdinarypeoplewithnodegreesortitlesareaddressedasMr.andMrs.andaredesignedDearSir:DearMadam:andanunmarriedwomanofanyageisaddressedontheenvelopeasMissSo-and-so,butalwaysdesignedintheletteras

DearMadam:

ThepluralofMr.asinaddressingafirmis_Messrs_,andthecorrespondingsalutationis_DearSirs:orGentlemen:_

InEngland_Esq._isusedfor_Mr._asamarkofslightsuperiorityandinthiscountryitissometimesused,butitispracticallyobsolete.

CustomisagainstitandAmericansentimentaswell.Ifitisuseditshouldbeonlyappliedtolawyersandjusticesofthepeace.

SUBSCRIPTION

The_Subscription_orendingofaletterconsistsofthetermofrespectoraffectionandthesignature.Thetermdependsupontherelationofthepersonaddressed.Lettersoffriendshipcanclosewithsuchexpressionsas:



Yourslovingly,Yoursaffectionately,Devotedlyyours,Everyours,etc.

asbetweenhusbandsandwivesorbetweenlovers.SuchgushingterminationsasYourOwnDarling,YourownDoveyandotherpetandsillyendingsshouldbeavoided,astheydenoteshallowness.Lovecanbestronglyexpressedwithoutdippingintothenonsensicalandthefarcical.

FormalexpressionsofSubscriptionare:

YoursSincerely,Yourstruly,Respectfullyyours,

andthelike,andthesemaybevariedtodenotetheexactbearingorattitudethewriterwishestoassumetothepersonaddressed:as,

Verysincerelyyours,Veryrespectfullyyours,Withdeeprespectyours,Yoursverytruly,etc.

Suchelaborateendingsas

"Inthemeantimewiththehighestrespect,Iamyourstocommand,""Ihavethehonortobe,Sir,YourhumbleServant,""Withgreatexpressionofesteem,IamSincerelyyours,""Believeme,mydearSir,Everfaithfullyyours,"

arecondemnedassavoringtoomuchofaffectation.

Itisbettertofinishformalletterswithoutanysuchqualifyingremarks.IfyouarewritingtoMr.Ryantotellhimthatyouhaveahouseforsale,afterdescribingthehouseandstatingthetermssimplysign

yourself

YourobedientServantYoursverytruly,Yourswithrespect,JamesWilson.

Don'tsayyouhavethehonortobeanythingoraskhimtobelieveanything,allyouwanttotellhimisthatyouhaveahouseforsaleandthatyouaresincere,orholdhiminrespectasaprospectivecustomer.

Don'tabbreviatethesignatureas:_Y'rsResp'fly_andalwaysmakeyoursexobvious.Writeplainly

Yourstruly,_JohnField_

andnot_J.Field_,sothatthepersontowhomyousenditmaynottakeyoufor_JaneField_.

Itisalwaysbesttowritethefirstnameinfull.Marriedwomenshouldprefix_Mrs._totheirnames,as



Verysincerelyyours,_Mrs._TheodoreWatson.

Ifyouaresendingaletteracknowledgingacomplimentorsomekindnessdoneyoumaysay,_Yoursgratefully,_or_Yoursverygratefully,_inproportiontotheactofkindnessreceived.

Itisnotcustomarytosignlettersofdegreesortitlesafteryourname,exceptyouarealord,earlordukeandonlyknownbythetitle,butaswehavenosuchtitlesinAmericaitisunnecessarytobringthismatterintoconsideration.Don'tsignyourself,

Sincerelyyours,ObadiahJackson,M.A.orL.L.D.

Ifyou'reanM.A.oranL.L.D.peoplegenerallyknowitwithoutyoursoundingyourowntrumpet.Manypeople,andespeciallyclergymen,arefondofflauntingaftertheirnamesdegreestheyhavereceived_honoriscausa_,thatis,degreesasamarkofhonor,withoutexamination.Suchdegreesshouldbekeptinthebackground.Manyadeadheadhasthesedegreeswhichhecouldneverhaveearnedbybrainwork.

Marriedwomenwhosehusbandsarealivemaysignthehusband'snamewiththeprefix_Mrs:_thus,

Yourssincerely,_Mrs._WilliamSouthey.

butwhenthehusbandisdeadthesignatureshouldbe--

Yourssincerely,_Mrs._SarahSouthey.

Sowhenwereceivealetterfromawomanweareenabledtotellwhethershehasahusbandlivingorisawidow.Awomanseparatedfromherhusbandbutnota_divorcee_should_not_signhisname.

ADDRESS

The_address_ofaletterconsistsofthename,thetitleandtheresidence.

Mr.HughBlack,112SouthgateStreet,Altoona,Pa.

Intimatefriendshaveoftenfamiliarnamesforeachother,suchaspetnames,nicknames,etc.,whichtheyuseinthefreedomofconversation,

butsuchnamesshouldnever,underanycircumstances,appearontheenvelope.Thesubscriptionontheenvelopeshouldbealwayswrittenwithproprietyandcorrectnessandasifpennedbyanentirestranger.Theonlydifficultyintheenvelopeinscriptionisthetitle.Everymanisentitledto_Mr._andeveryladyto_Mrs._andeveryunmarriedladyto _Miss_.Evenaboyisentitledto_Master_.Whenmorethanoneisaddressedthetitleis_Messrs.__Mesdames_issometimeswrittenofwomen.Ifthepersonaddressedhasatitleitiscourteoustouseit,buttitlesnevermustbeduplicated.Thus,wecanwrite



RobertStitt,M.D.,butneverDr.RobertStitt,M.D,orMr.RobertStitt,M.D.

InwritingtoamedicaldoctoritiswelltoindicatehisprofessionbythelettersM.D.soastodifferentiatehimfromaD.D.ItisbettertowriteRobertStitt,M.D.,thanDr.RobertStitt.

InthecaseofclergymentheprefixRev.isretainedevenwhentheyhaveothertitles;as

Rev.TracyTooke,LL.D.

Whenapersonhasmoretitlesthanoneitiscustomarytoonlygivehimtheleadingone.ThusinsteadofwritingRev.SamuelMacComb,B.A.,M.A.,B.Sc.,Ph.D.,LL.D.,D.D.theformemployedisRev.SamuelMacComb,LL.D.LL.D.isappendedinpreferencetoD.D.becauseinmostcasesthe"Rev."impliesa"D.D."whilecomparativelyfewwiththeprefix"Rev."areentitledto"LL.D."

Inthecaseof_Honorables_suchasGovernors,Judges,MembersofCongress,andothersoftheCivilGovernmenttheprefix"Hon."doesawaywith_Mr._ and_Esq._ThuswewriteHon.JosiahSnifkins,notHon.Mr.JosiahSnifkinsorHon.JosiahSnifkins,Esq.Thoughthisprefix_Hon._isalsooften

appliedtoGovernorstheyshouldbeaddressedasExcellency.Forinstance:

HisExcellency,CharlesE.Hughes,Albany,N.Y.

InwritingtothePresidentthesuperscriptionontheenvelopeshouldbe

TothePresident,ExecutiveMansion,Washington,D.C.

ProfessionalmensuchasdoctorsandlawyersaswellasthosehavinglegitimatelyearnedCollegeDegreesmaybeaddressedontheenvelopesbytheirtitles,as

JonathanJaneway,M.D.HubertHouston,B.L.MatthewMarks,M.A.,etc.

Theresidenceofthepersonaddressedshouldbeplainlywrittenoutinfull.Thestreetandnumbersshouldbegivenandthecityortownwrittenverylegibly.IftheabbreviationoftheStateisliabletobeconfoundedorconfusedwiththatofanotherthenthefullnameoftheStateshouldbewritten.Inwritingtheresidenceontheenvelope,insteadofputting

itallinonelineasisdoneattheheadofaletter,eachitemoftheresidenceformsaseparateline.Thus,

Liberty,SullivanCounty,NewYork.

215MinnaSt.,SanFrancisco,California.



Thereshouldbeleftaspaceforthepostagestampintheupperrighthandcorner.Thenameandtitleshouldoccupyalinethatisaboutcentralbetweenthetopoftheenvelopeandthebottom.Thenameshouldneitherbetoomuchtorightorleftbutlocatedinthecentre,thebeginningandendatequaldistancesfromeitherend.

Inwritingtolargebusinessconcernswhicharewellknownortopublicorcityofficialsitissometimescustomarytoleaveoutnumberandstreet.Thus,

Messrs.Seigel,CooperCo.,NewYorkCity,

Hon.WilliamJ.Gaynor,NewYorkCity.

NOTES

_Notes_mayberegardedaslettersinminiatureconfinedchieflytoinvitations,acceptances,regretsandintroductions,andmodernetiquettetendstowardsinformalityintheircomposition.Cardetiquette,infact,hastakentheplaceofceremoniouscorrespondenceandinformalnotesare

nowtherule.Invitationstodinnerandreceptionsarenowmostlywrittenoncards."Regrets"aresentbackonvisitingcardswithjusttheoneword_"Regrets"_plainlywrittenthereon.OftenoncardsandnotesofinvitationwefindthelettersR.S.V.P.atthebottom.TheselettersstandfortheFrench_repondezs'ilvousplait_,whichmeans"Reply,ifyouplease,"butthereisnonecessitytoputthisonaninvitationcardaseverywell-bredpersonknowsthatareplyisexpected.Inwritingnotestoyoungladiesofthesamefamilyitshouldbenotedthattheeldestdaughterofthehouseisentitledtothedesignation_Miss_withoutanyChristianname,onlythesurnameappended.ThusiftherearethreedaughtersintheThompsonfamilyMartha,theeldest,SusanandJemina,Marthaisaddressedas_Miss_Thompsonandtheothertwoas_Miss_SusanThompsonand_Miss_JeminaThompsonrespectively.

Don'twritetheword_addressed_ontheenvelopeofanote.

Don't_seal_anotedeliveredbyafriend.

Don'twriteanoteonapostalcard.

Hereareafewcommonforms:--

FORMALINVITATIONS

Mr.andMrs.HenryWagstaffrequestthe

honorofMr.McAdoo'spresenceonFridayevening,June15th,at8o'clocktomeettheGovernoroftheFort.19WoodbineTerraceJune8th,1910.

Thisisaninvitationtoaformalreceptioncallingforeveningdress.HereisMr.McAdoo'sreplyinthethirdperson:--

Mr.McAdoopresentshiscomplimentsto



Mr.andMrs.HenryWagstaffandacceptswithgreatpleasuretheirinvitationtomeettheGovernoroftheFortontheeveningofJunefifteenth.215BeaconStreet,June10th,1910.

HereishowMr.McAdoomightdeclinetheinvitation:--

Mr.McAdooregretsthatowingtoapriorengagementhemustforegothehonorofpayinghisrespectstoMr.andMrs.WagstaffandtheGovernoroftheFortontheeveningofJunefifteenth.215BeaconSt.,June10th,1910.

Hereisanoteaddressed,saytoMr.JeremiahReynolds.

Mr.andMrs.OldhamathomeonWednesdayeveningOctoberninthfromseventoeleven.21AshlandAvenue,October5th.

Mr.Reynoldsmakesreply:--

Mr.ReynoldsacceptswithhighappreciationthehonorofMr.andMrs.Oldham'sinvitationforWednesdayeveningOctoberninth.WindsorHotelOctober7th

or

Mr.ReynoldsregretsthathisdutiesrenderitimpossibleforhimtoacceptMr.andMrs.Oldham'skindinvitationfortheeveningof

Octoberninth.WindsorHotel,October7th,

Sometimeslessinformalinvitationsaresentonsmallspeciallydesignednotepaperinwhichthefirstpersontakestheplaceofthethird.Thus

360PineSt.,Dec.11th,1910.DearMr.Saintsbury:Mr.JohnsonandIshouldbemuchpleasedtohaveyoudinewithusandafewfriendsnextThursday,thefifteenth,athalfpastseven.

Yourssincerely,EmmaBurnside.

Mr.Saintsbury'sreply:

57CarlyleStrandDec.13th,1910.DearMrs.Burnside:LetmeacceptveryappreciativelyyourinvitationtodinewithMr.Burnsideandyou



onnextThursday,thefifteenth,athalfpastseven.Yourssincerely,HenrySaintsbury.Mrs.AlexanderBurnside.

NOTESOFINTRODUCTION

Notesofintroductionshouldbeverycircumspectasthewritersareinrealityvouchingforthosewhomtheyintroduce.Hereisaspecimenofsuchanote.

603LexingtonAve.,NewYorkCity,June15th,1910.

Rev.CyrusC.Wiley,D.D.,Newark,N.J.MydearDr.Wiley:Itakethelibertyofpresentingtoyoumyfriend,StacyRedfern,M.D.,ayoungpractitioner,whoisanxioustolocateinNewark.Ihaveknownhimmany

yearsandcanvouchforhisintegrityandprofessionalstanding.Anycourtesyandkindnesswhichyoumayshowhimwillbeverymuchappreciatedbyme.Verysincerelyyours,FranklinJewett.

CHAPTERVII

ERRORS

Mistakes--SlipsofAuthors--ExamplesandCorrections--ErrorsofRedundancy.

Inthefollowingexamplesthewordorwordsinparenthesesareuncalledforandshouldbeomitted:

1.Filltheglass(full).

2.Theyappearedtobetalking(together)onprivateaffairs.

3.Isawtheboyandhissister(both)inthegarden.

4.Hewentintothecountrylastweekandreturned(back)yesterday.

5.Thesubject(matter)ofhisdiscoursewasexcellent.

6.Youneednotwonderthatthe(subject)matterofhisdiscoursewasexcellent;itwastakenfromtheBible.

7.Theyfollowed(after)him,butcouldnotovertakehim.

8.Thesamesentimentsmaybefoundthroughout(thewholeof)thebook.



9.Iwasveryilleveryday(ofmylife)lastweek.

10.Thatwasthe(sumand)substanceofhisdiscourse.

11.Hetookwineandwaterandmixedthem(both)together.

12.Hedescended(down)thestepstothecellar.

13.Hefell(down)fromthetopofthehouse.

14.Ihopeyouwillreturn(again)soon.

15.Thethingshetookawayherestored(again).

16.Thethiefwhostolemywatchwascompelledtorestoreit(backagain).

17.Itisequally(thesame)tomewhetherIhaveittodayortomorrow.

18.Shesaid,(saysshe)thereportisfalse;andhereplied,(sayshe)ifitbenotcorrectIhavebeenmisinformed.

19.Itookmyplaceinthecars(for)togotoNewYork.

20.Theyneednot(to)calluponhim.

21.Nothing(else)butthatwouldsatisfyhim.

22.WheneverIrideinthecarsI(always)finditprejudicialtomyhealth.

23.Hewasthefirst(ofall)atthemeeting.

24.Hewasthetallestof(all)thebrothers.

25.Youarethetallestof(all)yourfamily.

26.WheneverIpassthehouseheis(always)atthedoor.

27.Therainhaspenetrated(through)theroof.

28.Besidesmyuncleandaunttherewas(also)mygrandfatheratthechurch.

29.Itshould(ever)beyourconstantendeavortopleaseyourfamily.

30.Ifitistrueasyouhaveheard(then)hissituationisindeedpitiful.

31.Eitherthis(here)manorthat(there)womanhas(got)it.

32.Whereisthefire(at)?

33.Didyousleepinchurch?NotthatIknow(of).

34.Ineverbefore(inmylife)met(with)suchastupidman.

35.(For)whydidhepostponeit?

36.Because(why)hecouldnotattend.



37.Whatageishe?(Why)Idon'tknow.

38.Hecalledonme(for)toaskmyopinion.

39.Idon'tknowwhereIam(at).

40.Ilookedin(at)thewindow.

41.Ipassed(by)thehouse.

42.He(always)cameeverySunday.

43.Moreover,(also)wewishtosayhewasinerror.

44.Itisnotlong(ago)sincehewashere.

45.Twomenwentintothewood(inorder)tocut(down)trees.

Furtherexamplesofredundancymightbemultiplied.Itisverycommoninnewspaperwritingwherenotalonesinglewordsbutentirephrasesaresometimesbroughtin,whichareunnecessarytothesenseorexplanationofwhatiswritten.

GRAMMATICALERRORSOFSTANDARDAUTHORS

Eventhebestspeakersandwritersaresometimescaughtnapping.Manyofourstandardauthorstowhomwehavebeenaccustomedtolookupasinfalliblehavesinnedmoreorlessagainstthefundamentalprinciplesofgrammarbybreakingtherulesregardingoneormoreoftheninepartsofspeech.Infactsomeofthemhaverecklesslytrespassedagainstallnine,andstilltheysitontheirpedestalsoffamefortheadmirationofthecrowd.Macaulaymistreatedthearticle.Hewrote,--"That_a_historianshouldnotrecordtriflesisperfectlytrue."Heshouldhaveused_an_.

Dickensalsousedthearticleincorrectly.Herefersto"RobinsonCrusoe"as"_an_universallypopularbook,"insteadof_a_universallypopular

book.

Therelationbetweennounsandpronounshasalwaysbeenastumblingblocktospeakersandwriters.Hallaminhis_LiteratureofEurope_writes,"Nooneasyethadexhibitedthestructureofthehumankidneys,Vesaliushavingonlyexaminedthemindogs."ThismeansthatVesaliusexaminedhumankidneysindogs.Thesentenceshouldhavebeen,"Noonehadasyetexhibitedthekidneysinhumanbeings,Vesaliushavingexaminedsuchorgansindogsonly."

SirArthurHelpsinwritingofDickens,states--"Iknewabrotherauthorofhiswhoreceivedsuchcriticismsfromhim(Dickens)verylatelyandprofitedby_it_."Insteadof_it_thewordshouldbe_them_toagree

withcriticisms.

Hereareafewotherpronominalerrorsfromleadingauthors:

"SirThomasMooreingeneralsowritesit,althoughnotmanyotherssolateas_him_."Shouldbe_he_.--Trench's_EnglishPastandPresent_.

"Whatshouldwegainbyitbutthatweshouldspeedilybecomeaspooras _them_."Shouldbe_they_.--Alison's_EssayonMacaulay_.



"IfthekinggivesusleaveyouorImayaslawfullypreach,as _them_thatdo."Shouldbe_they_or_those_,thelatterhavingpersonsunderstood.--Hobbes's_HistoryofCivilWars_.

"Thedriftofallhissermonswas,topreparetheJewsforthereceptionofaprophet,mightierthan_him_,andwhoseshoeshewasnotworthytobear."Shouldbethan_he_.--Atterbury's_Sermons_.

"Phalaris,whowassomucholderthan_her_."Shouldbe_she_.--Bentley's _DissertationonPhalaris_.

"KingCharles,andmorethan_him_,thedukeandthePopishfactionwereatlibertytoformnewschemes."Shouldbethan_he_.--Bolingbroke's _DissertationsonParties_.

"WecontributedathirdmorethantheDutch,whowereobligedtothesameproportionmorethan_us_."Shouldbethan_we_.--Swift's_ConductoftheAllies_.

Inalltheaboveexamplestheobjectivecasesofthepronounshavebeenusedwhiletheconstructioncallsfornominativecases.

"Let_thou_and_I_thebattletry"--_Anon_.

Here_let_isthegoverningverbandrequiresanobjectivecaseafterit;thereforeinsteadof_thou_and_I_,thewordsshouldbe_you_(_sing_.)and_me_.

"Foreverinthishumblecell,LettheeandI,myfairone,dwell"--_Prior_.

Here_thee_and_I_shouldbetheobjectives_you_and_me_.

Theuseoftherelativepronountripsthegreatestnumberofauthors.

EvenintheBiblewefindtherelativewronglytranslated:

WhomdomensaythatIam?--_St.Matthew_.

WhomthinkyethatIam?--_ActsoftheApostles_.

_Who_shouldbewritteninbothcasesbecausethewordisnotintheobjectivegovernedbysayorthink,butinthenominativedependentontheverb_am_.

"_Who_shouldImeetatthecoffeehouset'othernight,butmyoldfriend?"--_Steele_.

"Itisanotherpatternofthisanswerer'sfairdealing,togiveushintsthattheauthorisdead,andyetlaythesuspicionuponsomebody,Iknow

not_who_,inthecountry."--Swift's_TaleofaTub_.

"MysonisgoingtobemarriedtoIdon'tknow_who_."--Goldsmith's _Good-naturedMan_.

Thenominative_who_intheaboveexamplesshouldbetheobjective _whom_.

Thepluralnominative_ye_ofthepronoun_thou_isveryoftenusedfortheobjective_you_,asinthefollowing:



"Hiswrathwhichwillonedaydestroy_yeboth_."--_Milton_.

"Themoreshamefor_ye_;holymenIthought_ye_."--_Shakespeare_.

"Ifeelthegalesthatfrom_ye_blow."--_Gray_.

"Tyrantsdread_ye_,lestyourjustdecreeTransferthepowerandsetthepeoplefree."--_Prior_.

Manyofthegreatwritershaveplayedhavocwiththeadjectiveintheindiscriminateuseofthedegreesofcomparison.

"Oftwoformsofthesameword,usethefittest."--_Morell_.

Theauthorherein_trying_togivegoodadvicesetsabadexample.Heshouldhaveusedthecomparativedegree,"Fitter."

Adjectiveswhichhaveacomparativeorsuperlativesignificationdonotadmittheadditionofthewords_more_,_most_,ortheterminations, _er_,_est_,hencethefollowingexamplesbreakthisrule:

"Moneyisthe_mostuniversal_incitementofhumanmisery."--Gibbon's _DeclineandFall_.

"The_chiefest_ofwhichwasknownbythenameofArchonamongtheGrecians."--Dryden's_LifeofPlutarch_.

"The_chiefest_andlargestareremovedtocertainmagazinestheycalllibraries."--Swift's_BattleoftheBooks_.

Thetwo_chiefest_propertiesofair,itsgravityandelasticforce,havebeendiscoveredbymechanicalexperiments.--_Arbuthno_.

"Fromthesevariouscauses,whichingreateror_lesser_degree,affectedeveryindividualinthecolony,theindignationofthepeoplebecamegeneral."--Robertson's_HistoryofAmerica_.

"The_extremest_partsoftheearthweremeditatingasubmission."--Atterbury's_Sermons_.

"Thelastareindeed_morepreferable_becausetheyarefoundedonsomenewknowledgeorimprovementinthemindofman."--Addison,_Spectator_.

"Thiswasinrealitythe_easiest_mannerofthetwo."--Shaftesbury's _AdvicetoanAuthor_.

"Ineverywellformedmindthisseconddesireseemstobethe_strongest_ ofthetwo."--Smith's_TheoryofMoralSentiments_.

Intheseexamplesthesuperlativeiswronglyusedforthecomparative.Whenonlytwoobjectsarecomparedthecomparativeformmustbeused.

Ofimpossibilitytherearenodegreesofcomparison,yetwefindthefollowing:

"Asitwasimpossibletheyshouldknowthewords,thoughtsandsecretactionsofallmen,soitwas_moreimpossible_theyshouldpassjudgmentonthemaccordingtothesethings."--Whitby's_NecessityoftheChristianReligion_.



Agreatnumberofauthorsemployadjectivesforadverbs.Thuswefind:

"Ishallendeavortolivehereafter_suitable_toamaninmystation."--_Addison_.

"Icanneverthinksovery_mean_ofhim."--Bentley's_DissertationonPhalaris_.

"Hisexpectationsrunhighandthefundtosupplythemis_extreme_ scanty."--_Lancaster'sEssayonDelicacy_.

Thecommonesterrorintheuseoftheverbisthedisregardoftheconcordbetweentheverbanditssubject.Thisoccursmostfrequentlywhenthesubjectandtheverbarewidelyseparated,especiallyifsomeothernounofadifferentnumberimmediatelyprecedestheverb.Falseconcordsoccurveryoftenafter_either_,_or_,_neither_,_nor_,and _much_,_more_,_many_,_everyone_,_each_.

Hereareafewauthors'slips:--

"Thetermsinwhichthesaleofapatent_were_communicatedtothepublic."--Junius's_Letters_.

"Therichnessofherarmsandapparel_were_conspicuous."--Gibbon's _DeclineandFall_.

"Everyoneofthisgrotesquefamily_were_thecreaturesofnationalgenius."--D'Israeli.

"Heknowsnotwhatspleen,languororlistlessness_are_."--Blair's _Sermons_.

"Eachofthesewords_imply_,somepursuitorobjectrelinquished."--_Ibid_.

"Magnus,withfourthousandofhissupposedaccomplices_were_put

todeath."--_Gibbon_.

"Nonationgivesgreaterencouragementstolearningthanwedo;yetatthesametime_noneare_soinjudiciousintheapplication."--_Goldsmith_.

"_There'stwo_or_three_ofushaveseenstrangesights."--_Shakespeare_.

Thepastparticipleshouldnotbeusedforthepasttense,yetthelearnedByronoverlookedthisfact.Hethuswritesinthe_LamentofTasso_:--

"Andwithmyyearsmysoul_beguntopant_Withfeelingsofstrange

tumultandsoftpain."

HereisanotherexamplefromSavage's_Wanderer_inwhichthereisdoublesinning:

"Fromlibertyeachnoblerscience_sprung_,ABaconbrighten'dandaSpenser_sung_."

Otherbreachesinregardtotheparticiplesoccurinthefollowing:--



"Everybookoughttobereadwiththesamespiritandinthesamemannerasitis_writ_"--Fielding's_TomJones_.

"TheCourtofAugustushadnot_wore_offthemannersoftherepublic"--Hume's_Essays_.

"Mosestellsusthatthefountainsoftheearthwere_broke_openorcloveasunder."--Burnet.

"Afreeconstitutionwhenithasbeen_shook_bytheiniquityofformeradministrations."--_Bolingbroke_.

"Inthisrespecttheseedsoffuturedivisionswere_sowed_abundantly."--_Ibid_.

Inthefollowingexamplethepresentparticipleisusedfortheinfinitivemood:

"Itiseasy_distinguishing_therudefragmentofarockfromthesplinterofastatue."--Gilfillan's_LiteraryPortraits_.

_Distinguishing_hereshouldbereplacedby_todistinguish_.

Therulesregarding_shall_and_will_areviolatedinthefollowing:

"Ifwelookwithintheroughandawkwardoutside,we_will_berichlyrewardedbyitsperusal."--Gilfillan's_LiteraryPortraits_.

"IfI_should_declarethemandspeakofthem,theyshouldbemorethanIamabletoexpress."--_PrayerBookRevisionofPsalmsXI_.

"IfI_would_declarethemandspeakofthem,theyaremorethancanbenumbered."--_Ibid_.

"Withouthavingattendedtothis,we_will_beataloss,inunderstandingseveralpassagesintheclassics."--Blair's_Lectures_.

"Weknowtowhatcauseourpastreverseshavebeenowingand_we_ willhaveourselvestoblame,iftheyareagainincurred."--Alison's _HistoryofEurope_.

Adverbialmistakesoftenoccurinthebestwriters.Theadverb_rather_isawordveryfrequentlymisplaced.ArchbishopTrenchinhis"EnglishPastandPresent"writes,"It_rather_modifiedthestructureofoursentencesthantheelementsofourvocabulary."Thisshouldhavebeenwritten,--"Itmodifiedthestructureofoursentences_ratherthan_theelementsofourvocabulary."

"Sofarashismodeofteachinggoesheis_rather_adiscipleofSocratesthanofSt.PaulorWesley."ThuswritesLeslieStephensofDr.

Johnson.Heshouldhavewritten,--"SofarashismodeofteachinggoesheisadiscipleofSocrates_rather_thanofSt.PaulorWesley."

Theprepositionisapartofspeechwhichisoftenwronglyusedbysomeofthebestwriters.Certainnouns,adjectivesandverbsrequireparticularprepositionsafterthem,forinstance,theword_different_ alwaystakesthepreposition_from_afterit;_prevail_takes_upon_; _averse_takes_to_;_accord_takes_with_,andsoon.

Inthefollowingexamplestheprepositionsinparenthesesaretheones



thatshouldhavebeenused:

"Hefoundthegreatestdifficulty_of_(in)writing."--Hume's _HistoryofEngland_.

"Ifpolicycanprevail_upon_(over)force."--_Addison_.

"Hemadethediscoveryandcommunicated_to_(with)hisfriends."--Swift's_TaleofaTub_.

"Everyofficeofcommandshouldbeintrustedtopersons_on_(in)whomtheparliamentshallconfide."--_Macaulay_.

Severalofthemostcelebratedwritersinfringethecanonsofstylebyplacingprepositionsattheendofsentences.ForinstanceCarlyle,inreferringtotheStudyofBurns,writes:--"Ourowncontributionstoit,weareaware,canbebutscantyandfeeble;butweofferthemwithgoodwill,andtrusttheymaymeetwithacceptancefromthosetheyareintended_for_."

--"forwhomtheyareintended,"heshouldhavewritten.

"Mostwritershavesomeoneveinwhichtheypeculiarlyandobviouslyexcel_in_."--_WilliamMinto_.

Thissentenceshouldread,--Mostwritershavesomeoneveininwhichtheypeculiarlyandobviouslyexcel.

Manyauthorsuseredundantwordswhichrepeatthesamethoughtandidea.Thisiscalledtautology.

"Notwithstandingwhich(however)poorPollyembracedthemallaround."--_Dickens_.

"Ijudgedthattheywould(mutually)findeachother."--_Crockett_.

"....ashavingcreateda(joint)partnershipbetweenthetwoPowersin

theMoroccoquestion."--_TheTimes_.

"Theonlysensibleposition(thereseemstobe)istofranklyacknowledgeourignoranceofwhatliesbeyond."--_DailyTelegraph_.

"LordRoseberyhasnotbudgedfromhisposition--splendid,nodoubt,--of(lonely)isolation."--_TheTimes_.

"MissFoxwas(often)inthehabitofassuringMrs.Chick."--_Dickens_.

"Thedeck(it)wastheirfieldoffame."--_Campbell_.

"Hehadcomeuponemorning,aswasnow(frequently)hiswont,"

--_Trollope_.

ThecounsellorsoftheSultan(continueto)remainsceptical--_TheTimes_.

Seriously,(andapartfromjesting),thisisnolightmatter.--_Bagehot_.

Togobacktoyourowncountrywith(theconsciousnessthatyougobackwith)thesenseofdutywelldone.--_LordHalsbury_.



The_Peresviet_lostbothherfighting-topsand(inappearance)lookedthemostdamagedofalltheships--_TheTimes_.

Counseladmittedthat,thatwasafairsuggestiontomake,buthesubmittedthatitwasborneoutbythe(surrounding)circumstances.--_Ibid_.

Anotherunnecessaryuseofwordsandphrasesisthatwhichistermedcircumlocution,agoingaroundthebushwhenthereisnooccasionforit,--savetofillspace.

Itmaybelikenedtoapersonwalkingthedistanceoftwosidesofatriangletoreachtheobjectivepoint.Forinstanceinthequotation:"PopeprofessedtohavelearnedhispoetryfromDryden,whom,wheneveranopportunitywaspresented,hepraisedthroughthewholeperiodofhisexistencewithunvariedliberality;andperhapshischaractermayreceivesomeillustration,ofacomparisonheinstitutedbetweenhimandthemanwhosepupilhewas"muchoftheverbiagemaybeeliminatedandthesentencethuscondensed:

"PopeprofessedhimselfthepupilofDryden,whomhelostnoopportunityofpraising;andhischaractermaybeillustratedbyacomparisonwithhismaster."

"Hislifewasbroughttoaclosein1910atanagenotfarfromtheonefixedbythesacredwriterasthetermofhumanexistence."

Thisinbrevitycanbeput,"Hislifewasbroughttoacloseattheageofseventy;"or,betteryet,"Hediedattheageofseventy."

"Thedaywasintenselycold,socoldinfactthatthethermometercreptdowntothezeromark,"canbeexpressed:"Thedaywassocoldthethermometerregisteredzero."

Manyauthorsresorttocircumlocutionforthepurposeof"padding,"thatis,fillingspace,orwhentheystrikeasnaginwritinguponsubjectsofwhichtheyknowlittleornothing.Theyoungwritershouldsteerclearof

itandlearntoexpresshisthoughtsandideasasbrieflyaspossiblecommensuratewithlucidityofexpression.

Volumesoferrorsinfact,ingrammar,dictionandgeneralstyle,couldbeselectedfromtheworksofthegreatwriters,afactwhicheloquentlytestifiesthatnooneisinfallibleandthattheverybestisliabletoerrattimes.However,mostoftheerringinthecaseofthesewritersarisesfromcarelessnessorhurry,notfromalackofknowledge.

Asageneralruleitisinwritingthatthescholarisliabletoslip;inoralspeechheseldommakesablunder.Infact,therearemanypeoplewhoareperfectmastersofspeech,--whonevermakeablunderinconversation,yetwhoareignorantoftheveryprinciplesofgrammarandwouldnotknow

howtowriteasentencecorrectlyonpaper.Suchpersonshavebeenaccustomedfrominfancytohearthelanguagespokencorrectlyandsotheuseoftheproperwordsandformsbecomesasecondnaturetothem.Achildcanlearnwhatisrightaseasyaswhatiswrongandwhateverimpressionsaremadeonthemindwhenitisplasticwillremainthere.Evenaparrotcanbetaughttheproperuseoflanguage.Repeattoaparrot.--"Twoandtwo_make_four"anditneverwillsay"twoandtwo _makes_four."

Inwriting,however,itisdifferent.Withoutaknowledgeofthe



fundamentalsofgrammarwemaybeabletospeakcorrectlyfromassociationwithgoodspeakers,butwithoutsuchaknowledgewecannothopetowritethelanguagecorrectly.Towriteevenacommonletterwemustknowtheprinciplesofconstruction,therelationshipofonewordtoanother.Therefore,itisnecessaryforeverybodytounderstandatleasttheessentialsofthegrammarofhisownlanguage.

CHAPTERVIII

PITFALLSTOAVOID

CommonStumblingBlocks--PeculiarConstructions--MisusedForms.

ATTRACTION

Veryoftentheverbisseparatedfromitsrealnominativeorsubjectbyseveralinterveningwordsandinsuchcasesoneisliabletomaketheverbagreewiththesubjectnearesttoit.Hereareafewexamplesshowingthattheleadingwritersnowandthentakeatumbleintothispitfall:

(1)"Thepartitionwhichthetwoministersmadeofthepowersofgovernment_were_singularlyhappy."--_Macaulay_.

(Shouldbe_was_toagreewithitssubject,_partition_.)

(2)"Oneatleastofthequalitieswhichfititfortrainingordinarymen _unfit_itfor_training_anextraordinaryman."--_Bagehot_.

(Shouldbe_unfits_toagreewithsubject_one_.)

(3)"TheTibetanshaveengagedtoexcludefromtheircountrythosedangerousinfluenceswhoseappearance_were_thechiefcauseofour

action."--_TheTimes_.

(Shouldbe_was_toagreewith_appearance_.)

(4)"Animmenseamountofconfusionandindifference_prevail_inthesedays."--_Telegraph_.

(Shouldbe_prevails_toagreewithamount.)

ELLIPSIS

Errorsinellipsisoccurchieflywithprepositions.

Hisobjectionandcondoningoftheboy'scourse,seemedtosaytheleast,paradoxical.

(Thepreposition_to_shouldcomeafterobjection.)

Manymenofbrilliantpartsarecrushedbyforceofcircumstancesandtheirgeniusforeverlosttotheworld.

(Somemaintainthatthemissingverbaftergeniusis_are_,butsuch



isungrammatical.Insuchcasestherightverbshouldbealwaysexpressed:as--theirgenius_is_foreverlosttotheworld.)

THESPLITINFINITIVE

Eventhebestspeakersandwritersareinthehabitofplacingamodifyingwordorwordsbetweenthe_to_andtheremainingpartoftheinfinitive.Itispossiblethatsuchwillcometobelookeduponintimeastheproperformbutatpresentthesplittingoftheinfinitiveisdecidedlywrong."Hewasscarcelyable_to_even_talk_""Shecommenced _to_rapidly_walk_aroundtheroom.""_Tohave_really_loved_isbetterthannot_tohave_atall_loved_."Intheseconstructionsitismuchbetternottosplittheinfinitive.Inevery-dayspeechthebestspeakerssinagainstthisobservance.

InNewYorkCitythereisacertainmagistrate,amemberof"the400,"whoprideshimselfonhisdictioninlanguage.Hetellsthisstory:Aprisoner,afaded,batteredspecimenofmankind,onwhosehaggardface,deeplylinedwiththemarksofdissipation,therestilllingeredfaintremindersofbetterdayslongpast,stooddejectedbeforethejudge."Whereareyoufrom?"askedthemagistrate."FromBoston,"answeredtheaccused."Indeed,"saidthejudge,"indeed,yoursisasadcase,andyetyoudon'tseem_to_thoroughly_realise_howlowyouhavesunk."Theman

staredasifstruck."Yourhonordoesmeaninjustice,"hesaidbitterly."Thedisgraceofarrestfordrunkenness,themortificationofbeingthrustintoanoisomedungeon,thepublicityandhumiliationoftrialinacrowdedanddingycourtroomIcanbear,buttobesentencedbyaPoliceMagistratewho_splitshisinfinitives_--thatisindeedthelastblow."

ONE

Theindefiniteadjectivepronoun_one_whenputinplaceofapersonalsubstantiveisliabletoraiseconfusion.Whenasentenceorexpressionisbegunwiththeimpersonal_one_thewordmustbeusedthroughoutinallreferencestothesubject.Thus,"Onemustmindone'sownbusinessif

onewishestosucceed"mayseemprolixandawkward,neverthelessitistheproperform.Youmustnotsay--"Onemustmindhisbusinessifhewishestosucceed,"forthesubjectisimpersonalandthereforecannotexclusivelytakethemasculinepronoun.With_anyone_itisdifferent.Youmaysay--"Ifanyonesinsheshouldacknowledgeit;lethimnottrytohideitbyanothersin."

ONLY

Thisisawordthatisapitfalltothemostofuswhetherlearnedorunlearned.Probablyitisthemostindiscriminatelyusedwordinthelanguage.Fromthedifferentpositionsitismadetooccupyinasentence

itcanrelativelychangethemeaning.Forinstanceinthesentence--"I _only_struckhimthattime,"themeaningtobeinferredis,thattheonlythingIdidtohimwasto_strike_him,notkickorotherwiseabusehim.Butifthe_only_isshifted,soastomakethesentenceread-"Istruckhim_only_thattime"themeaningconveyedis,thatonlyonthatoccasionandatnoothertimedidIstrikehim.Ifanothershiftismadeto-"Istruck_only_himthattime,"themeaningisagainalteredsothatitsignifieshewastheonlypersonIstruck.

Inspeakingwecanbyemphasisimpressourmeaningonourhearers,butin



writingwehavenothingtodependuponbutthepositionofthewordinthesentence.Thebestruleinregardto_only_istoplaceit _immediatelybefore_thewordorphraseitmodifiesorlimits.

ALONE

isanotherwordwhichcreatesambiguityandaltersmeaning.Ifwesubstituteitforonlyintheprecedingexamplethemeaningofthesentencewilldependuponthearrangement.Thus"I_alone_struckhimatthattime"signifiesthatIandnootherstruckhim.Whenthesentencereads"Istruckhim_alone_atthattime"itmustbeinterpretedthathewastheonlypersonthatreceivedablow.Againifitismadetoread"Istruckhimatthattime_alone_"thesenseconveyedisthatthatwastheonlyoccasiononwhichIstruckhim.Therulewhichgovernsthecorrectuseof_only_isalsoapplicableto_alone_.

OTHERANDANOTHER

Thesearewordswhichoftengivetoexpressionsameaningfarfromthatintended.Thus,"Ihave_nothing_todowiththat_other_rascalacrossthestreet,"certainlymeansthatIamarascalmyself."Isentthedespatchtomyfriend,butanothervillaininterceptedit,"clearly

signifiesthatmyfriendisavillain.

Agoodplanistoomitthesewordswhentheycanbereadilydonewithout,asintheaboveexamples,butwhenitisnecessarytousethemmakeyourmeaningclear.Youcandothisbymakingeachsentenceorphraseinwhichtheyoccurindependentofcontextualaid.

ANDWITHTHERELATIVE

Neveruse_and_withthe_relative_inthismanner:"ThatisthedogImeant_andwhich_Iknowisofpurebreed."Thisisanerrorquitecommon.Theuseof_and_ispermissiblewhenthereisaparallelrelative

intheprecedingsentenceorclause.Thus:"ThereisthedogwhichImeantandwhichIknowisofpurebreed"isquitecorrect.

LOOSEPARTICIPLES

Aparticipleorparticipialphraseisnaturallyreferredtothenearestnominative.Ifonlyonenominativeisexpresseditclaimsalltheparticiplesthatarenotbytheconstructionofthesentenceotherwisefixed."John,workinginthefieldalldayandgettingthirsty,drankfromtherunningstream."Heretheparticiples_working_and_getting_ clearlyrefertoJohn.Butinthesentence,--"SweptalongbythemobIcouldnotsavehim,"theparticipleasitwereislyingaroundlooseand

maybetakentorefertoeitherthepersonspeakingortothepersonspokenabout.ItmaymeanthatIwassweptalongbythemobortheindividualwhomItriedtosavewassweptalong.

"Goingintothestoretherooffell"canbetakenthatitwastheroofwhichwasgoingintothestorewhenitfell.Ofcoursethemeaningintendedisthatsomepersonorpersonsweregoingintothestorejustastherooffell.

Inallsentenceconstructionwithparticiplesthereshouldbesuch



clearnessastoprecludeallpossibilityofambiguity.Theparticipleshouldbesoplacedthattherecanbenodoubtastothenountowhichitrefers.Oftenitisadvisabletosupplysuchwordsaswillmakethemeaningobvious.

BROKENCONSTRUCTION

Sometimesthebeginningofasentencepresentsquiteadifferentgrammaticalconstructionfromitsend.Thisarisesfromthefactprobably,thatthebeginningislostsightofbeforetheendisreached.Thisoccursfrequentlyinlongsentences.Thus:"Honesty,integrityandsquare-dealingwillbringanybodymuchbetterthroughlifethantheabsenceofeither."Heretheconstructionisbrokenat_than_.Theuseof _either_,onlyusedinreferringtooneoftwo,showsthatthefactisforgottenthatthreequalitiesandnottwoareunderconsideration.Anyoneofthethreemeaningsmightbeintendedinthesentence,viz.,absenceofanyonequality,absenceofanytwoofthequalitiesorabsenceofthewholethreequalities.Eitherdenotesoneortheotheroftwoandshouldneverbeappliedtoanyoneofmorethantwo.Whenwefallintotheerrorofconstructingsuchsentencesasabove,weshouldtakethemapartandreconstructtheminadifferentgrammaticalform.Thus,--"Honesty,integrityandsquare-dealingwillbringamanmuchbetterthroughlifethanalackofthesequalitieswhicharealmost

essentialtosuccess."

DOUBLENEGATIVE

ItmustberememberedthattwonegativesintheEnglishlanguagedestroyeachotherandareequivalenttoanaffirmative.Thus"I_don't_know _nothing_aboutit"isintendedtoconvey,thatIamignorantofthematterunderconsideration,butitdefeatsitsownpurpose,inasmuchastheuseofnothingimpliesthatIknowsomethingaboutit.Thesentenceshouldread--"Idon'tknowanythingaboutit."

Oftenwehearsuchexpressionsas"Hewas_not_askedtogive_no_

opinion,"expressingtheveryoppositeofwhatisintended.Thissentenceimpliesthathewasaskedtogivehisopinion.Thedoublenegative,therefore,shouldbecarefullyavoided,foritisinsidiousandisliabletoslipinandthewriterremainunconsciousofitspresenceuntiltheeyeofthecriticdetectsit.

FIRSTPERSONALPRONOUN

Theuseofthefirstpersonalpronounshouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossibleincomposition.Don'tintroduceitbywayofapologyandneverusesuchexpressionsas"Inmyopinion,""AsfarasIcansee,""Itappearstome,""Ibelieve,"etc.Inwhatyouwrite,thewhole

compositionisexpressiveofyourviews,sinceyouaretheauthor,therefore,thereisnonecessityforyoutoaccentuateoremphasizeyourselfatcertainportionsofit.

Moreover,thebig_I's_savorofegotism!Steerclearofthemasfarasyoucan.Theonlyplacewherethefirstpersonispermissibleisinpassageswhereyouarestatingaviewthatisnotgenerallyheldandwhichislikelytomeetwithopposition.



SEQUENCEOFTENSES

Whentwoverbsdependoneachothertheirtensesmusthaveadefiniterelationtoeachother."Ishallhavemuchpleasureinacceptingyourkindinvitation"iswrong,unlessyoureallymeanthatjustnowyoudeclinethoughby-and-byyouintendtoaccept;orunlessyoumeanthatyoudoacceptnow,thoughyouhavenopleasureindoingso,butlookforwardtobemorepleasedby-and-by.Infactthesequenceofthecompoundtensespuzzleexperiencedwriters.Thebestplanistogobackinthoughttothetimeinquestionandusethetenseyouwould_then_ naturallyuse.Nowinthesentence"Ishouldhavelikedtohavegonetoseethecircus"thewaytofindoutthepropersequenceistoaskyourselfthequestion--whatisitI"shouldhaveliked"todo?andtheplainansweris"togotoseethecircus."Icannotanswer--"Tohavegonetoseethecircus"forthatwouldimplythatatacertainmomentIwouldhavelikedtobeinthepositionofhavinggonetothecircus.ButIdonotmeanthis;ImeanthatatthemomentatwhichIamspeakingIwishIhadgonetoseethecircus.Theverbalphrase_Ishouldhaveliked_ carriesmebacktothetimewhentherewasachanceofseeingthecircusandoncebackatthetime,thegoingtothecircusisathingofthepresent.Thiswholeexplanationresolvesitselfintothesimplequestion,--whatshouldIhaveliked_atthattime_,andtheansweris"togotoseethecircus,"thereforethisisthepropersequence,andtheexpressionshouldbe"Ishouldhavelikedtogotoseethecircus."

Ifwewishtospeakofsomethingrelatingtoatime_prior_tothatindicatedinthepasttensewemustusetheperfecttenseoftheinfinitive;as,"Heappearedtohaveseenbetterdays."Weshouldsay"Iexpectedto_meethim_,"not"Iexpected_tohavemethim_.""Weintended _tovisityou_,"not"_tohavevisited_you.""Ihopedthey_would_ arrive,"not"Ihopedthey_wouldhave_arrived.""IthoughtIshould _catch_thebird,"not"IthoughtIshould_havecaught_thebird.""Ihadintended_togo_tothemeeting,"not"Ihadintendedto_havegone_ tothemeeting."

BETWEEN--AMONG

Theseprepositionsareoftencarelesslyinterchanged._Between_hasreferencetotwoobjectsonly,_among_tomorethantwo."Themoneywasequallydividedbetweenthem"isrightwhenthereareonlytwo,butiftherearemorethantwoitshouldbe"themoneywasequallydividedamongthem."

LESS--FEWER

_Less_refersisquantity,_fewer_tonumber."Nomanhas_less_virtues"shouldbe"Nomanhas_fewer_virtues.""Thefarmerhadsomeoatsanda _fewer_quantityofwheat"shouldbe"thefarmerhadsomeoatsanda

_less_quantityofwheat."

FURTHER--FARTHER

_Further_iscommonlyusedtodenotequantity,_farther_todenotedistance."Ihavewalked_farther_thanyou,""Ineedno_further_ supply"arecorrect.



EACHOTHER--ONEANOTHER

_Eachother_referstotwo,_oneanother_tomorethantwo."JonesandSmithquarreled;theystruckeachother"iscorrect."Jones,SmithandBrownquarreled;theystruckoneanother"isalsocorrect.Don'tsay,"Thetwoboysteachoneanother"nor"Thethreegirlsloveeachother."

EACH,EVERY,EITHER,NEITHER

Thesewordsarecontinuallymisapplied._Each_canbeappliedtotwooranyhighernumberofobjectstosignify_everyone_ofthenumber _independently_.Everyrequires_morethantwo_tobespokenofanddenotesallthe_persons_or_things_taken_separately_._Either_ denotes_oneortheotheroftwo_,andshouldnotbeusedtoincludeboth._Neither_isthenegativeofeither,denotingnottheother,andnottheone,andrelatingto_twopersons_or_things_consideredseparately.

Thefollowingexamplesillustratethecorrectusageofthesewords:

_Each_manofthecrewreceivedareward.

_Every_manintheregimentdisplayedbravery.

Wecanwalkon_either_sideofthestreet.

_Neither_ofthetwoistoblame.

NEITHER-NOR

Whentwosingularsubjectsareconnectedby_neither_,_nor_useasingularverb;as,"_Neither_John_nor_James_wasthere_,"not_were_ there.

NONE

CustomHassanctionedtheuseofthiswordbothwithasingularandplural;as--"None_is_soblindashewhowillnotsee"and"None_are_ soblindastheywhowillnotsee."However,asitisacontractionof _noone_itisbettertousethesingularverb.

RISE-RAISE

Theseverbsareveryoftenconfounded._Rise_istomoveorpassupwardinanymanner;asto"risefrombed;"toincreaseinvalue,toimproveinpositionorrank,as"stocksrise;""politiciansrise;""theyhaverisen

tohonor."

_Raise_istoliftup,toexalt,toenhance,as"Iraisethetable;""Heraisedhisservant;""Thebakerraisedthepriceof_bread_."

LAY-LIE

Thetransitiveverb_lay_,and_lay_,thepasttenseoftheneuterverb _lie_,areoftenconfounded,thoughquitedifferentinmeaning.The



neuterverb_tolie_,meaningtoliedownorrest,cannottaketheobjectiveafteritexceptwithapreposition.Wecansay"He_lies_ontheground,"butwecannotsay"He_lies_theground,"sincetheverbisneuterandintransitiveand,assuch,cannothaveadirectobject.With _lay_itisdifferent._Lay_isatransitiveverb,thereforeittakesadirectobjectafterit;as"I_lay_awager,""I_laid_thecarpet,"etc.

Ofacarpetoranyinanimatesubjectweshouldsay,"Itliesonthefloor,""Aknife_lies_onthetable,"not_lays_.Butofapersonwesay--"He_lays_theknifeonthetable,"not"He_lies_----."_Lay_beingthepasttenseoftheneutertolie(down)weshouldsay,"He_lay_onthebed,"and_lain_beingitspastparticiplewemustalsosay"Hehas _lain_onthebed."

Wecansay"Ilaymyselfdown.""Helaidhimselfdown"andsuchexpressions.

Itisimperativetorememberinusingtheseverbsthatto_lay_means_todo_something,andtoliemeans_tobeinastateofrest_.

SAYSI--ISAID

_"SaysI"_isavulgarism;don'tuseit."Isaid"iscorrectform.

IN--INTO

Becarefultodistinguishthemeaningofthesetwolittleprepositionsanddon'tinterchangethem.Don'tsay"Hewent_in_theroom"nor"Mybrotheris_into_thenavy."_In_denotestheplacewhereapersonorthing,whetheratrestorinmotion,ispresent;and_into_denotes _entrance_."Hewent_into_theroom;""Mybrotheris_in_thenavy"arecorrect.

EAT--ATE

Don'tconfoundthetwo._Eat_ispresent,_ate_ispast."I_eat_thebread"meansthatIamcontinuingtheeating;"I_ate_thebread"meansthattheactofeatingispast._Eaten_istheperfectparticiple,butoften_eat_isusedinstead,andasithasthesamepronunciation(et)of _ate_,careshouldbetakentodistinguishthepasttense,I_ate_fromtheperfect_Ihaveeaten_(_eat_).

SEQUENCEOFPERSON

Rememberthatthe_first_persontakesprecedenceofthe_second_andthe _second_takesprecedenceofthe_third_.WhenCardinalWolseysaid_Ego

etRex_(IandtheKing),heshowedhewasagoodgrammarian,butabadcourtier.

AMCOME--HAVECOME

"_Iamcome_"pointstomybeinghere,while"Ihavecome"intimatesthatIhavejustarrived.Whenthesubjectisnotaperson,theverb_tobe_ shouldbeusedinpreferencetotheverb_tohave_;as,"Theboxiscome"insteadof"Theboxhascome."



PASTTENSE--PASTPARTICIPLE

Theinterchangeofthesetwopartsoftheirregularorso-called_strong_ verbsis,perhaps,thebreachoftenestcommittedbycarelessspeakersandwriters.Toavoidmistakesitisrequisitetoknowtheprincipalpartsoftheseverbs,andthisknowledgeisveryeasyofacquirement,astherearenotmorethanacoupleofhundredofsuchverbs,andofthisnumberbutasmallpartisindailyuse.Herearesomeofthemostcommonblunders:"Iseen"for"Isaw;""Idoneit"for"Ididit;""Idrunk"for"Idrank;""Ibegun"for"Ibegan;""Irung"for"Irang;""Irun"for"Iran;""Isung"for"Isang;""Ihavechose"for"Ihavechosen;""Ihavedrove"for"Ihavedriven;""Ihavewore"for"Ihaveworn;""Ihavetrod"for"Ihavetrodden;""Ihaveshook"for"Ihaveshaken;""Ihavefell"for"Ihavefallen;""Ihavedrank"for"Ihavedrunk;""Ihavebegan"for"Ihavebegun;""Ihaverang"for"Ihaverung;""Ihaverose"for"Ihaverisen;""Ihavespoke"for"Ihavespoken;""Ihavebroke"for"Ihavebroken.""Ithasfroze"for"Ithasfrozen.""Ithasblowed"for"Ithasblown.""Ithasflowed"(ofabird)for"Ithasflown."

N.B.--Thepasttenseandpastparticipleof_ToHang_is_hanged_or _hung_.Whenyouaretalkingaboutamanmeetingdeathonthegallows,say"Hewashanged";whenyouaretalkingaboutthecarcassofananimal

say,"Itwashung,"as"Thebeefwashungdry."Alsosayyourcoat"_was_ hungonahook."

PREPOSITIONSANDTHEOBJECTIVECASE

Don'tforgetthatprepositionsalwaystaketheobjectivecase.Don'tsay"Betweenyouand_I_";say"Betweenyouand_me_"

_Two_prepositionsshouldnotgovern_oneobjective_unlessthereisanimmediateconnectionbetweenthem."Hewasrefusedadmissiontoandforciblyejectedfromtheschool"shouldbe"Hewasrefusedadmissiontotheschoolandforciblyejectedfromit."

SUMMON--SUMMONS

Don'tsay"Ishallsummonshim,"but"Ishallsummonhim."_Summon_isaverb,_summons_,anoun.

Itiscorrecttosay"Ishallgeta_summons_forhim,"nota_summon_.

UNDENIABLE--UNEXCEPTIONABLE

"Mybrotherhasanundeniablecharacter"iswrongifIwishtoconveythe

ideathathehasagoodcharacter.Theexpressionshouldbeinthatcase"Mybrotherhasanunexceptionablecharacter."An_undeniable_characterisacharacterthatcannotbedenied,whetherbadorgood.Anunexceptionablecharacterisonetowhichnoonecantakeexception.

THEPRONOUNS

Verymanymistakesoccurintheuseofthepronouns."LetyouandIgo"shouldbe"Letyouand_me_go.""Letthemandwego"shouldbe"Letthem



andusgo."Theverbletistransitiveandthereforetakestheobjectivecase.

"Giveme_them_flowers"shouldbe"Giveme_those_flowers";"Imean _them_three"shouldbe"Imeanthosethree."Themistheobjectivecaseofthepersonalpronounandcannotbeusedadjectivelylikethedemonstrativeadjectivepronoun."Iamasstrongas_him_"shouldbe"Iamasstrongas_he_";"Iamyoungerthan_her_"shouldbe"Iamyoungerthan_she_;""Hecanwritebetterthan_me_"shouldbe"HecanwritebetterthanI,"forintheseexamplestheobjectivecases_him_,_her_ and_me_areusedwrongfullyforthenominatives.Aftereachofthemisappliedpronounsaverbisunderstoodofwhicheachpronounisthesubject.Thus,"Iamasstrongashe(is).""Iamyoungerthanshe(is).""HecanwritebetterthanI(can)."

Don'tsay"_Itisme_;"say"_ItisI_"Theverb_ToBe_ofwhichisisaparttakesthesamecaseafteritthatithasbeforeit.Thisholdsgoodinallsituationsaswellaswithpronouns.

Theverb_ToBe_alsorequiresthepronounsjoinedtoittobeinthesamecaseasapronounaskingaquestion;Thenominative_I_requiresthenominative_who_andtheobjectives_me_,_him_,_her_,_its_,_you_, _them_,requiretheobjective_whom_.

"_Whom_doyouthinkIam?"shouldbe"_Who_doyouthinkIam?"and"_Who_dotheysupposemetobe?"shouldbe"_Whom_dotheysupposemetobe?"TheobjectiveformoftheRelativeshouldbealwaysused,inconnectionwithapreposition."Whodoyoutakemefor?"shouldbe"_Whom_do,etc.""Whodidyougivetheappleto?"shouldbe"Whomdidyougivetheappleto,"butaspointedoutelsewheretheprepositionshouldneverendasentence,therefore,itisbettertosay,"Towhomdidyougivetheapple?"

Aftertransitiveverbsalwaysusetheobjectivecasesofthepronouns.For"_He_and_they_wehaveseen,"say"_Him_and_them_wehaveseen."

THATFORSO

"Thehurtitwasthatpainfulitmadehimcry,"say"sopainful."

THESE--THOSE

Don'tsay,_Thesekind;thosesort_._Kind_and_sort_areeachsingularandrequirethesingularpronouns_this_and_that_.Inconnectionwiththesedemonstrativeadjectivepronounsrememberthat_this_and_these_ refertowhatisnearathand,_that_and_those_towhatismoredistant;as,_thisbook_(nearme),_thatbook_(overthere),_these_ boys(near),_those_boys(atadistance).

THISMUCH--THUSMUCH

"_This_muchiscertain"shouldbe"_Thus_muchor_so_muchiscertain."

FLEE--FLY

Thesearetwoseparateverbsandmustnotbeinterchanged.Theprincipal



partsof_flee_are_flee_,_fled_,_fled_;thoseof_fly_are_fly_, _flew_,_flown_._Toflee_isgenerallyusedinthemeaningofgettingoutofdanger._Tofly_meanstosoarasabird.Tosayofaman"He_hasflown_fromtheplace"iswrong;itshouldbe"He_hasfled_fromtheplace."Wecansaywithproprietythat"Abirdhas_flown_fromtheplace."

THROUGH--THROUGHOUT

Don'tsay"Heiswellknownthroughtheland,"but"Heiswellknownthroughouttheland."

VOCATIONANDAVOCATION

Don'tmistakethesetwowordssonearlyalike.Vocationistheemployment,businessorprofessiononefollowsforaliving;avocationissomepursuitoroccupationwhichdivertsthepersonfromsuchemployment,businessorprofession.Thus

"Hisvocationwasthelaw,hisavocation,farming."

WAS--WERE

Inthesubjunctivemoodthepluralform_were_shouldbeusedwithasingularsubject;as,"IfI_were_,"not_was_.Rememberthepluralformofthepersonalpronoun_you_alwaystakes_were_,thoughitmaydenotebutone.Thus,"_Youwere_,"never"_youwas_.""_IfIwashim_"isaverycommonexpression.Notethetwomistakesinit,--thatoftheverbimplyingacondition,andthatoftheobjectivecaseofthepronoun.Itshouldread_IfIwerehe_.Thisisanotherillustrationoftheruleregardingtheverb_ToBe_,takingthesamecaseafteritasbeforeit; _were_ispartoftheverb_ToBe_,thereforeasthenominative(I)goesbeforeit,thenominative(he)shouldcomeafterit.

AORAN

_A_becomesanbeforeavowelorbefore_h_muteforthesakeofeuphonyoragreeablesoundtotheear._Anapple_,_anorange_,_anheir_,_anhonor_,etc.

CHAPTERIX

STYLE

Diction--Purity--Propriety--Precision.

Itistheobjectofeverywritertoputhisthoughtsintoaseffectiveformaspossiblesoastomakeagoodimpressiononthereader.Apersonmayhavenoblethoughtsandideasbutbeunabletoexpresstheminsuchawayastoappealtoothers,consequentlyhecannotexertthefullforceofhisintellectualitynorleavetheimprintofhischaracteruponhistime,whereasmanyamanbutindifferentlygiftedmaywieldsuchafacile



penastoattractattentionandwinforhimselfanenviousplaceamonghiscontemporaries.

Ineverydaylifeoneseesillustrationsofmenofexcellentmentalitybeingcastasideandonesofmediocreorinsomecases,little,ifany,abilitychosentofillimportantplaces.Theformerareunabletoimpresstheirpersonality;theyhavegreatthoughts,greatideas,butthesethoughtsandideasarelockedupintheirbrainsandarelikeprisonersbehindthebarsstrugglingtogetfree.Thekeyoflanguagewhichwouldopenthedooriswanting,hencetheyhavetoremainlockedup.

Manyamanhastopassthroughtheworldunheardofandoflittlebenefittoitorhimself,simplybecausehecannotbringoutwhatisinhimandmakeitsubservienttohiswill.Itisthedutyofeveryonetodevelophisbest,notonlyforthebenefitofhimselfbutforthegoodofhisfellowmen.Itisnotatallnecessarytohavegreatlearningoracquirements,thelaborerisasusefulinhisownplaceasthephilosopherinhis;norisitnecessarytohavemanytalents.Onetalentrightlyusedismuchbetterthantenwronglyused.Oftenamancandomorewithonethanhiscontemporarycandowithten,oftenamancanmakeonedollargofartherthantwentyinthehandsofhisneighbor,oftenthepoormanlivesmorecomfortablythanthemillionaire.Alldependsupontheindividualhimself.IfhemakerightuseofwhattheCreatorhasgivenhimandliveaccordingtothelawsofGodandnatureheisfulfillinghisallottedplaceintheuniversalschemeof

creation,inotherwords,whenhedoeshisbest,heislivinguptothestandardofausefulmanhood.

Nowinordertodohisbestamanofordinaryintelligenceandeducationshouldbeabletoexpresshimselfcorrectlybothinspeakingandwriting,thatis,heshouldbeabletoconveyhisthoughtsinanintelligentmannerwhichthesimplestcanunderstand.ThemannerinwhichaspeakerorwriterconveyshisthoughtsisknownashisStyle.Inotherwords _Style_maybedefinedasthepeculiarmannerinwhichamanexpresseshisconceptionsthroughthemediumoflanguage.Itdependsuponthechoiceofwordsandtheirarrangementtoconveyameaning.Scarcelyanytwowritershaveexactlythesamestyle,thatistosay,expresstheirideasafterthesamepeculiarform,justasnotwomortalsarefashioned

bynatureinthesamemould,sothatoneisanexactcounterpartoftheother.

Justasmendifferintheaccentandtonesoftheirvoices,sodotheydifferintheconstructionoftheirlanguage.

Tworeporterssentoutonthesamemission,saytoreportafire,willverballydifferintheiraccountsthoughmateriallybothdescriptionswillbethesameasfarastheleadingfactsareconcerned.Onewillexpresshimselfinastyle_different_fromtheother.

Ifyouareaskedtodescribethedancingofared-hairedladyatthelastcharityballyoucaneithersay--"TherubyCirce,withtheTitianlocks

glowingliketheoriflammewhichsurroundsthegoldengodofdayashesinkstorestamidthecrimsongloryoftheburnishedWest,gaveadivineexhibitionoftheTerpsichoreanartwhichthrilledthesoulsofthemultitude"or,youcansimplysay--"Thered-hairedladydancedverywellandpleasedtheaudience."

Theformerisaspecimenoftheultrafloridorbombasticstylewhichmaybesaidtodependuponthepomposityofverbosityforitseffect,thelatterisaspecimenofsimple_natural_Style.Needlesstosayitistobepreferred.Theothershouldbeavoided.Itstampsthewriterasa



personofshallowness,ignoranceandinexperience.Ithasbeeneliminatedfromthenewspapers.Eventhemostflatulentofyellowsheetsnolongertolerateitintheircolumns.Affectationandpedantryinstylearenowuniversallycondemned.

Itisthedutyofeveryspeakerandwritertolaborafterapleasingstyle.Itgainshimanentrancewherehewouldotherwisebedebarred.Oftentheinterestofasubjectdependsasmuchonthewayitispresentedasonthesubjectitself.Onewriterwillmakeitattractive,anotherrepulsive.Forinstancetakeapassageinhistory.Treatedbyonehistorianitislikeadesiccatedmummy,dry,dull,disgusting,whileunderthespellofanotheritis,asitwere,galvanizedintoavirilelivingthingwhichnotonlypleasesbutcaptivatesthereader.

DICTION

Thefirstrequisiteofstyleis_choice_of_words_,andthiscomesundertheheadof_Diction_,thepropertyofstylewhichhasreferencetothewordsandphrasesusedinspeakingandwriting.Thesecretofliteraryskillfromanystandpointconsistsinputtingtherightwordintherightplace.Inordertodothisitisimperativetoknowthemeaningofthewordsweuse,theirexactliteralmeaning.Manysynonymouswordsareseeminglyinterchangeableandappearasifthesamemeaningwereapplicable

tothreeorfourofthematthesametime,butwhenallsuchwordsarereducedtoafinalanalysisitisclearlyseenthatthereisamarkeddifferenceintheirmeaning.Forinstance_grief_and_sorrow_seemtobeidentical,buttheyarenot._Grief_isactive,_sorrow_ismoreorlesspassive;_grief_iscausedbytroublesandmisfortuneswhichcometousfromtheoutside,while_sorrow_isoftentheconsequenceofourownacts._Grief_isfrequentlyloudandviolent,_sorrow_isalwaysquietandretiring._Grief_shouts,_Sorrow_remainscalm.

Ifyouarenotsureoftheexactmeaningofawordlookitupimmediatelyinthedictionary.Sometimessomeofourgreatscholarsarepuzzledoversimplewordsinregardtomeaning,spellingorpronunciation.Wheneveryoumeetastrangewordnoteitdownuntilyoudiscoveritsmeaningand

use.Readthebestbooksyoucanget,bookswrittenbymenandwomenwhoareacknowledgedmastersoflanguage,andstudyhowtheyusetheirwords,wheretheyplacetheminthesentences,andthemeaningstheyconveytothereaders.

Mixingoodsociety.Listenattentivelytogoodtalkersandtrytoimitatetheirmannerofexpression.Ifawordisusedyoudonotunderstand,don'tbeashamedtoaskitsmeaning.

True,asmallvocabularywillcarryyouthrough,butitisanadvantagetohavealargeone.Whenyoulivealonealittlepotservesjustaswellasalargeonetocookyourvictualsanditishandyandconvenient,butwhenyourfriendsorneighborscometodinewithyou,youwillneeda

muchlargerpotanditisbettertohaveitinstore,sothatyouwillnotbeputtoshameforyourscantinessoffurnishings.

Getasmanywordsasyoupossiblycan--ifyoudon'tneedthemnow,packthemawayinthegarretsofyourbrainsothatyoucancalluponthemifyourequirethem.

Keepanotebook,jotdownthewordsyoudon'tunderstandorclearlyunderstandandconsultthedictionarywhenyougettime.



PURITY

_Purity_ofstyleconsistsinusingwordswhicharereputable,nationalandpresent,whichmeansthatthewordsareincurrentusebythebestauthorities,thattheyareusedthroughoutthenationandnotconfinedtooneparticularpart,andthattheyarewordsinconstantuseatthepresenttime.

Therearetwoguidingprinciplesinthechoiceofwords,--_gooduse_ and_goodtaste_._Gooduse_tellsuswhetherawordisrightorwrong; _goodtaste_,whetheritisadaptedtoourpurposeornot.

Awordthatisobsoleteortoonewtohavegainedaplaceinthelanguage,orthatisaprovincialism,shouldnotbeused.

HerearetheTenCommandmentsofEnglishstyle:

(1)Donotuseforeignwords.

(2)Donotusealongwordwhenashortonewillserveyourpurpose. _Fire_ismuchbetterthan_conflagration_.

(3)Donotusetechnicalwords,orthoseunderstoodonlybyspecialists

intheirrespectivelines,exceptwhenyouarewritingespeciallyforsuchpeople.

(4)Donotuseslang.

(5)Donotuseprovincialisms,as"Iguess"for"Ithink";"Ireckon"for"Iknow,"etc.

(6)Donotinwritingprose,usepoeticalorantiquatedwords:as"lore,e'er,morn,yea,nay,verily,peradventure."

(7)Donotusetriteandhackneyedwordsandexpressions;as,"onthejob,""upandin";"downandout."

(8)Donotusenewspaperwordswhichhavenotestablishedaplaceinthelanguageas"tobugle";"tosuicide,"etc.

(9)Donotuseungrammaticalwordsandforms;as,"Iain't;""hedon't."

(10)Donotuseambiguouswordsorphrases;as--"Heshowedmeallaboutthehouse."

Tritewords,similesandmetaphorswhichhavebecomehackneyedandwornoutshouldbeallowedtorestintheoblivionofpastusage.Suchexpressionsandphrasesas"Sweetsixteen""theAlmightydollar,""UncleSam,""Onthefence,""TheGloriousFourth,""YoungAmerica,""Thelords

ofcreation,""Therisinggeneration,""Theweakersex,""Theweakervessel,""Sweetnesslongdrawnout"and"chiefcookandbottlewasher,"shouldbeputontheshelfastheyareutterlywornoutfromtoomuchusage.

Someoftheoldsimileswhichhaveoutlivedtheirusefulnessandshouldbepensionedoff,are"Sweetassugar,""Boldasalion,""Strongasanox,""Quickasaflash,""Coldasice,""Stiffasapoker,""Whiteassnow,""Busyasabee,""Paleasaghost,""RichasCroesus,""Crossasabear"andagreatmanymorefartoonumeroustomention.



Beasoriginalaspossibleintheuseofexpression.Don'tfollowintheoldrutbuttryandstrikeoutforyourself.Thisdoesnotmeanthatyoushouldtrytosetthestyle,ordoanythingoutlandishoroutoftheway,orbeaninnovatorontheprevailingcustom.Inordertobeoriginalthereisnonecessityforyoutointroducesomethingnovelorestablishaprecedent.Theprobabilityisyouarenotfittodoeither,byeducationortalent.Whilefollowingthestyleofthosewhoareacknowledgedleadersyoucanbeoriginalinyourlanguage.Tryandclotheanideadifferentfromwhatithasbeenclothedandbetter.Ifyouarespeakingorwritingofdancingdon'ttalkorwriteabout"trippingthelightfantastictoe."ItisovertwohundredyearssinceMiltonexpresseditthatwayin"_L'Allegro_."You'renotaMiltonandbesidesoveramillionhavestolenitfromMiltonuntilitisnownolongerworthstealing.

Don'tresurrectobsoletewordssuchas_whilom_,_yclept_,_wis_,etc.,andbecarefulinregardtoobsolescentwords,thatis,wordsthatareatthepresenttimegraduallypassingfromusesuchas_quoth,trow,betwixt,amongst,froward_,etc.

Andbewareofnewwords.Beoriginalintheconstructionandarrangementofyourlanguage,butdon'ttrytooriginatewords.LeavethattotheMastersoflanguage,anddon'tbethefirsttotrysuchwords,waituntilthechemistsofspeechhavetestedthemandpassedupontheirmerits.

Quintiliansaid--"Prefertheoldestofthenewandthenewestoftheold."Popeputthisinrhymeanditstillholdsgood:

Inwords,asfashions,thesamerulewillhold,Alikefantastic,iftooneworold:Benotthefirstbywhomthenewaretried,Noryetthelasttolaytheoldaside.

PROPRIETY

_Propriety_ofstyleconsistsinusingwordsintheirpropersenseandasinthecaseofpurity,goodusageistheprincipaltest.Manywordshave

acquiredinactualuseameaningverydifferentfromwhattheyoncepossessed."Prevent"formerlymeanttogobefore,andthatmeaningisimpliedinitsLatinderivation.Nowitmeanstoputastopto,tohinder.Toattainproprietyofstyleitisnecessarytoavoidconfoundingwordsderivedfromthesameroot;as_respectfully_and_respectively_;itisnecessarytousewordsintheiracceptedsenseorthesensewhicheverydayusesanctions.

SIMPLICITY

_Simplicity_ofstylehasreferencetothechoiceofsimplewordsandtheirunaffectedpresentation.Simplewordsshouldalwaysbeusedin

preferencetocompound,andcomplicatedoneswhentheyexpressthesameoralmostthesamemeaning.TheAnglo-Saxonelementinourlanguagecomprisesthesimplewordswhichexpresstherelationsofeverydaylife,strong,terse,vigorous,thelanguageofthefireside,street,marketandfarm.ItisthisstylewhichcharacterizestheBibleandmanyofthegreatEnglishclassicssuchasthe"Pilgrim'sProgress,""RobinsonCrusoe,"and"Gulliver'sTravels."

CLEARNESS



_Clearness_ofstyleshouldbeoneoftheleadingconsiderationswiththebeginnerincomposition.Hemustavoidallobscurityandambiguousphrases.Ifhewriteasentenceorphraseandseethatameaningmightbeinferredfromitotherwisethanintended,heshouldre-writeitinsuchawaythattherecanbenopossibledoubt.Words,phrasesorclausesthatarecloselyrelatedshouldbeplacedasneartoeachotheraspossiblethattheirmutualrelationmayclearlyappear,andnowordshouldbeomittedthatisnecessarytothecompleteexpressionofthought.

UNITY

_Unity_isthatpropertyofstylewhichkeepsallpartsofasentenceinconnectionwiththeprincipalthoughtandlogicallysubordinatetoit.Asentencemaybeconstructedastosuggesttheideaofonenesstothemind,oritmaybesolooselyputtogetherastoproduceaconfusedandindefiniteimpression.Ideasthathavebutlittleconnectionshouldbeexpressedinseparatesentences,andnotcrowdedintoone.

Keeplongparenthesesoutofthemiddleofyoursentencesandwhenyouhaveapparentlybroughtyoursentencestoaclosedon'ttrytocontinuethethoughtorideabyaddingsupplementaryclauses.

STRENGTH

_Strength_isthatpropertyofstylewhichgivesanimation,energyandvivacitytolanguageandsustainstheinterestofthereader.Itisasnecessarytolanguageasgoodfoodistothebody.Withoutitthewordsareweakandfeebleandcreatelittleornoimpressiononthemind.Inordertohavestrengththelanguagemustbeconcise,thatis,muchexpressedinlittlecompass,youmusthitthenailfairlyontheheadanddriveitinstraight.Gocriticallyoverwhatyouwriteandstrikeouteveryword,phraseandclausetheomissionofwhichimpairsneithertheclearnessnorforceofthesentenceandsoavoidredundancy,tautologyandcircumlocution.Givethemostimportantwordsthemostprominent

places,which,ashasbeenpointedoutelsewhere,arethebeginningandendofthesentence.

HARMONY

_Harmony_isthatpropertyofstylewhichgivesasmoothnesstothesentence,sothatwhenthewordsaresoundedtheirconnectionbecomespleasingtotheear.Itadaptssoundtosense.Mostpeopleconstructtheirsentenceswithoutgivingthoughttothewaytheywillsoundandasaconsequencewehavemanyjarringanddiscordantcombinationssuchas"Thoustrengthenedstthypositionandactedstarbitrarilyandderogatorilytomyinterests."

Harsh,disagreeableverbsareliabletooccurwiththeQuakerform_Thou_ ofthepersonalpronoun.Thisformisnownearlyobsolete,theplural _you_beingalmostuniversallyused.Toobtainharmonyinthesentencelongwordsthatarehardtopronounceandcombinationsoflettersofonekindshouldbeavoided.

EXPRESSIVEOFWRITER



Styleisexpressiveofthewriter,astowhoheisandwhatheis.Asamatterofstructureincompositionitistheindicationofwhatamancando;asamatterofqualityitisanindicationofwhatheis.

KINDSOFSTYLE

Stylehasbeenclassifiedindifferentways,butitadmitsofsomanydesignationsthatitisveryhardtoenumerateatable.Infactthereareasmanystylesastherearewriters,fornotwoauthorswrite_exactly_ afterthesameform.However,wemayclassifythestylesofthevariousauthorsinbroaddivisionsas(1)dry,(2)plain,(3)neat,(4)elegant,(5)florid,(6)bombastic.

The_dry_styleexcludesallornamentandmakesnoefforttoappealtoanysenseofbeauty.Itsobjectissimplytoexpressthethoughtsinacorrectmanner.ThisstyleisexemplifiedbyBerkeley.

The_plain_styledoesnotseekornamentationeither,butaimstomakeclearandconcisestatementswithoutanyelaborationorembellishment.LockeandWhatelyillustratetheplainstyle.

The_neat_styleonlyaspiresafterornamentsparingly.Itsobjectistohavecorrectfigures,puredictionandclearandharmonioussentences.

GoldsmithandGrayaretheacknowledgedleadersinthiskindofstyle.

The_elegant_styleuseseveryornamentthatcanbeautifyandavoidseveryexcesswhichwoulddegrade.MacaulayandAddisonhavebeenenthronedasthekingsofthisstyle.Tothemallwritersbendthekneeinhomage.

The_florid_stylegoestoexcessinsuperfluousandsuperficialornamentationandstrainsafterahighlycoloredimagery.ThepoemsofOssiantypifythisstyle.

The_bombastic_ischaracterizedbysuchanexcessofwords,figuresandornamentsastoberidiculousanddisgusting.Itislikeacircusclown

dressedupingoldtinselDickensgivesafineexampleofitinSergeantBuzfuz'speechinthe"PickwickPapers."Amongothervarietiesofstylemaybementionedthecolloquial,thelaconic,theconcise,thediffuse,theabrupttheflowing,thequaint,theepigrammatic,theflowery,thefeeble,thenervous,thevehement,andtheaffected.Themanneroftheseissufficientlyindicatedbytheadjectiveusedtodescribethem.

Infactstyleisasvariousascharacterandexpressestheindividualityofthewriter,orinotherwords,astheFrenchwriterBuffonveryaptlyremarks,"thestyleisthemanhimself."

CHAPTERX

SUGGESTIONS

HowtoWrite--WhattoWrite--CorrectSpeakingandSpeakers

Rulesofgrammarandrhetoricaregoodintheirownplace;theirlawsmustbeobservedinordertoexpressthoughtsandideasintherightway



sothattheyshallconveyadeterminatesenseandmeaninginapleasingandacceptablemanner.Hardandfastrules,however,cannevermakeawriterorauthor.ThatisthebusinessofoldMotherNatureandnothingcantakeherplace.Ifnaturehasnotendowedamanwithfacultiestoputhisideasintopropercompositionhecannotdoso.Hemayhavenoideasworthytherecording.Ifapersonhasnotathoughttoexpress,itcannotbeexpressed.Somethingcannotbemanufacturedoutofnothing.Theauthormusthavethoughtsandideasbeforehecanexpressthemonpaper.Thesecometohimbynatureandenvironmentandaredevelopedandstrengthenedbystudy.ThereisanoldLatinquotationinregardtothepoetwhichsays"Poetanasciturnonfit"thetranslationofwhichis--thepoetisborn,notmade.Toagreatdegreethesameappliestotheauthor.Somemenaregreatscholarsasfarasbooklearningisconcerned,yettheycannotexpressthemselvesinpassablecomposition.Theirknowledgeislikegoldlockedupinachestwhereitisofnovaluetothemselvesortherestoftheworld.

Thebestwaytolearntowriteistositdownandwrite,justasthebestwayhowtolearntorideabicycleistomountthewheelandpedalaway.Writefirstaboutcommonthings,subjectsthatarefamiliartoyou.Tryforinstanceanessayonacat.Saysomethingoriginalabouther.Don'tsay"sheisveryplayfulwhenyoungbutbecomesgraveasshegrowsold."Thathasbeensaidmorethanfiftythousandtimesbefore.Tellwhatyouhaveseenthefamilycatdoing,howshecaughtamouseinthegarretand

whatshedidaftercatchingit.Familiarthemesarealwaysthebestforthebeginner.Don'tattempttodescribeasceneinAustraliaifyouhaveneverbeenthereandknownothingofthecountry.Neverhuntforsubjects,therearethousandsaroundyou.Describewhatyousawyesterday--afire,arunawayhorse,adog-fightonthestreetandbeoriginalinyourdescription.Imitatethebestwritersintheir_style_,butnotintheirexactwords.Getoutofthebeatenpath,makeapathwayofyourown.

Knowwhatyouwriteabout,writeaboutwhatyouknow;thisisagoldenruletowhichyoumustadhere.Toknowyoumuststudy.Theworldisanopenbookinwhichallwhorunmayread.Natureisonegreatvolumethepagesofwhichareopentothepeasantaswellastothepeer.Study

Nature'smoodsandtenses,fortheyarevastlymoreimportantthanthoseofthegrammar.Booklearningismostdesirable,but,afterall,itisonlytheoryandnotpractice.ThegrandestallegoryintheEnglish,infact,inanylanguage,waswrittenbyanignorant,so-calledignorant,tinkernamedJohnBunyan.Shakespearewasnotascholarinthesenseweregardthetermto-day,yetnomaneverlivedorprobablyeverwilllivethatequalledorwillequalhimintheexpressionofthought.Hesimplyreadthebookofnatureandinterpreteditfromthestandpointofhisownmagnificentgenius.

Don'timaginethatacollegeeducationisnecessarytosuccessasawriter.Farfromit.Someofourcollegemenaredead-heads,drones,parasitesonthebodysocial,notaloneuselesstotheworldbutto

themselves.Apersonmaybesoornamentalthatheisvaluelessfromanyotherstandpoint.Asageneralruleornamentalthingsservebutlittlepurpose.Amanmayknowsomuchofeverythingthatheknowslittleofanything.Thismaysoundparadoxical,but,nevertheless,experienceprovesitstruth.

Ifyouarepoorthatisnotadetrimentbutanadvantage.Povertyisanincentivetoendeavor,notadrawback.Bettertobebornwithagood,workingbraininyourheadthanwithagoldspooninyourmouth.Iftheworldhadbeendependingontheso-calledpetsoffortuneitwouldhave



deterioratedlongago.

Fromthepitsofpoverty,fromthearenasofsuffering,fromthehovelsofneglect,fromthebackwoodcabinsofobscurity,fromthelanesandby-waysofoppression,fromthedingygarretsandbasementsofunendingtoilanddrudgeryhavecomemenandwomenwhohavemadehistory,madetheworldbrighter,better,higher,holierfortheirexistenceinit,madeofitaplacegoodtoliveinandworthytodiein,--menandwomenwhohavehalloweditbytheirfootstepsandsanctifieditwiththeirpresenceandinmanycasesconsecrateditwiththeirblood.Povertyisablessing,notanevil,abenisonfromtheFather'shandifacceptedintherightspirit.Insteadofretarding,ithaselevatedliteratureinallages.Homerwasablindbeggarmansinginghissnatchesofsongforthedoleofcharity;grandoldSocrates,oracleofwisdom,manyadaywentwithouthisdinnerbecausehehadnotthewherewithaltogetit,whileteachingtheyouthofAthens.ThedivineDantewasnothingbetterthanabeggar,houseless,homeless,friendless,wanderingthroughItalywhilehecomposedhisimmortalcantos.Milton,whoinhisblindness"lookedwhereangelsfeartotread,"wassteepedinpovertywhilewritinghissublimeconception,"ParadiseLost."ShakespearewasgladtoholdandwaterthehorsesofpatronsoutsidetheWhiteHorseTheatreforafewpenniesinordertobuybread.Burnsburstforthinnever-dyingsongwhileguidingtheploughshare.PoorHeinrichHeine,neglectedandinpoverty,fromhis"mattressgrave"ofsufferinginParisaddedliterarylaurelstothewreathofhisGerman

Fatherland.InAmericaElihuBurritt,whileattendingtheanvil,madehimselfamasterofascoreoflanguagesandbecametheliterarylionofhisageandcountry.

Inotherfieldsofendeavorpovertyhasbeenthespurtoaction.Napoleonwasborninobscurity,thesonofahand-to-mouthscrivenerinthebackwardislandofCorsica.AbrahamLincoln,theboastandprideofAmerica,themanwhomadethislandtoohotforthefeetofslaves,camefromalogcabinintheOhiobackwoods.SodidJamesA.Garfield.UlyssesGrantcamefromatanyardtobecometheworld'sgreatestgeneral.ThomasA.Edisoncommencedasanewsboyonarailwaytrain.

Theexamplesofthesemenareincentivestoaction.Povertythrustthem

forwardinsteadofkeepingthemback.Therefore,ifyouarepoormakeyourcircumstancesameanstoanend.Haveambition,keepagoalinsightandbendeveryenergytoreachthatgoal.AstoryistoldofThomasCarlylethedayheattainedthehighesthonortheliteraryworldcouldconferuponhimwhenhewaselectedLordRectorofEdinburghUniversity.Afterhisinstallationspeech,ingoingthroughthehalls,hemetastudentseeminglydeepinstudy.Inhisownpeculiar,abrupt,crustywaytheSageofChelseainterrogatedtheyoungman:"Forwhatprofessionareyoustudying?""Idon'tknow,"returnedtheyouth."Youdon'tknow,"thunderedCarlyle,"youngman,youareafool."Thenhewentontoqualifyhisvehementremark,"MyboywhenIwasyourage,Iwasstoopedingrinding,grippingpovertyinthelittlevillageofEcclefechan,inthewildsof[Transcriber'snote:Partofwordillegible]-frieshire,

whereinalltheplaceonlytheministerandmyselfcouldreadtheBible,yetpoorandobscureasIwas,inmymind'seyeIsawachairawaitingformeintheTempleofFameanddayandnightandnightanddayIstudieduntilIsatinthatchairto-dayasLordRectorofEdinburghUniversity."

AnotherScotchman,RobertBuchanan,thefamousnovelist,setoutforLondonfromGlasgowwithbuthalf-a-crowninhispocket."Heregoes,"saidhe,"foragraveinWestminsterAbbey."Hewasnotmuchofascholar,buthisambitioncarriedhimonandhebecameoneofthegreat



literarylionsoftheworld'smetropolis.

HenryM.StanleywasapoorhousewaifwhoserealnamewasJohnRowlands.HewasbroughtupinaWelshworkhouse,buthehadambition,soherosetobeagreatexplorer,agreatwriter,becameamemberofParliamentandwasknightedbytheBritishSovereign.

Haveambitiontosucceedandyouwillsucceed.Cuttheword"failure"outofyourlexicon.Don'tacknowledgeit.Remember

"Inlife'searnestbattletheyonlyprevailWhodailymarchonwardandneversayfail."

Leteveryobstacleyouencounterbebutasteppingstoneinthepathofonwardprogresstothegoalofsuccess.

Ifuntowardcircumstancessurroundyou,resolvetoovercomethem.Bunyanwrotethe"Pilgrim'sProgress"inBedfordjailonscrapsofwrappingpaperwhilehewashalfstarvedonadietofbreadandwater.ThatunfortunateAmericangenius,EdgarAllanPoe,wrote"TheRaven,"themostwonderfulconceptionaswellasthemosthighlyartisticpoeminallEnglishliterature,inalittlecottageintheFordhamsectionofNewYorkwhilehewasinthedireststraitsofwant.Throughoutallhisshortandwonderfullybrilliantcareer,poorPoeneverhadadollarhecould

callhisown.Such,however,wasbothhisfaultandhismisfortuneandheisabadexemplar.

Don'tthinkthattheknowledgeofalibraryofbooksisessentialtosuccessasawriter.Oftenamultiplicityofbooksisconfusing.Masterafewgoodbooksandmasterthemwellandyouwillhaveallthatisnecessary.Agreatauthorityhassaid:"Bewareofthemanofonebook,"whichmeansthatamanofonebookisamasterofthecraft.ItisclaimedthatathoroughknowledgeoftheBiblealonewillmakeanypersonamasterofliterature.CertainitisthattheBibleandShakespeareconstituteanepitomeoftheessentialsofknowledge.Shakespearegatheredthefruitageofallwhowentbeforehim,hehassowntheseedsforallwhoshallevercomeafterhim.Hewasthegreatintellectual

oceanwhosewavestouchthecontinentsofallthought.

Booksarecheapnow-a-days,thegreatestworks,thankstotheprintingpress,arewithinthereachofall,andthemoreyouread,thebetter,providedtheyareworthreading.Sometimesamantakespoisonintohissystemunconsciousofthefactthatitispoison,asinthecaseofcertainfoods,anditisveryhardtothrowoffitseffects.Therefore,becarefulinyourchoiceofreadingmatter.Ifyoucannotaffordafulllibrary,andashasbeensaid,suchisnotnecessary,selectafewofthegreatworksofthemasterminds,assimilateanddigestthem,sothattheywillbeofadvantagetoyourliterarysystem.Elsewhereinthisvolumeisgivenalistofsomeoftheworld'smasterpiecesfromwhichyoucanmakeaselection.

Yourbrainisastorehouse,don'tputuselessfurnitureintoittocrowdittotheexclusionofwhatisuseful.Layuponlythevaluableandserviceablekindwhichyoucancallintorequisitionatanymoment.

Asitisnecessarytostudythebestauthorsinordertobeawriter,soitisnecessarytostudythebestspeakersinordertotalkwithcorrectnessandingoodstyle.Totalkrightlyyoumustimitatethemastersoforalspeech.Listentothebestconversationalistsandhowtheyexpressthemselves.Gotoheartheleadinglectures,speechesand



sermons.Noneedtoimitatethegesturesofelocution,itisnature,notart,thatmakestheelocutionistandtheorator.Itisnot_how_aspeakerexpresseshimselfbutthelanguagewhichheusesandthemannerofitsusewhichshouldinterestyou.Haveyouheardthepresentdaymastersofspeech?Therehavebeenpasttimemastersbuttheirtonguesarestilledinthedustofthegrave,andyoucanonlyreadtheireloquencenow.Youcan,however,listentothecharmoftheliving.Tomanyofusvoicesstillspeakfromthegrave,voicestowhichwehavelistenedwhenfiredwiththedivineessenceofspeech.PerhapsyouhavehungwithraptureonthewordsofBeecherandTalmage.Boththrilledthesoulsofmenandwoncountlessthousandsovertoalivinggospel.Bothweremastersofwords,theyscatteredtheflowersofrhetoricontheshrineofeloquenceandhurledveritablebouquetsattheiraudienceswhichwereeagerlyseizedbythelatterandtreasuredinthestorehouseofmemory.Bothwerescholarsandphilosophers,yettheywerefarsurpassedbySpurgeon,aplainmanofthepeoplewithlittleornoclaimtoeducationinthemodernsenseoftheword.SpurgeonbyhisspeechattractedthousandstohisTabernacle.TheProtestantandCatholic,Turk,JewandMohammedanrushedtohearhimandlistened,entranced,tohislanguage.SuchanotherwasDwightL.Moody,thegreatestEvangelisttheworldhaseverknown.Moodywasnotamanoflearning;hecommencedlifeasashoesalesmaninChicago,yetnomaneverlivedwhodrewsuchaudiencesandsofascinatedthemwiththespellofhisspeech."Oh,thatwaspersonalmagnetism,"youwillsay,butitwasnothingofthekind.It

wastheburningwordsthatfellfromthelipsofthesemen,andtheway,themanner,theforcewithwhichtheyusedthosewordsthatcountedandattractedthecrowdstolistenuntothem.Personalmagnetismorpersonalappearanceenterednotasfactorsintotheirsuccess.Indeedasfarasphysiquewereconcerned,someofthemwerehandicapped.Spurgeonwasashort,podgy,fatlittleman,Moodywaslikeacountryfarmer,TalmageinhisbigcloakwasoneofthemostslovenlyofmenandonlyBeecherwaspassableinthewayofrefinementandgentlemanlybearing.Physicalappearance,assomanythink,isnotthesesametotheinterestofanaudience.DanielO'Connell,theIrishtribune,wasahomely,ugly,awkward,ungainlyman,yethiswordsattractedmillionstohissideandgainedforhimthehostileearoftheBritishParliament,hewasamasterofverbiageandknewjustwhattosaytocaptivatehisaudiences.

Itiswordsandtheirplacingthatcountonalmostalloccasions.Nomatterhowrefinedinotherrespectsthepersonmaybe,ifheusewordswronglyandexpresshimselfinlanguagenotinaccordancewithaproperconstruction,hewillrepelyou,whereasthemanwhoplaceshiswordscorrectlyandemployslanguageinharmonywiththelawsofgoodspeech,lethimbeeversohumble,willattractandhaveaninfluenceoveryou.

Thegoodspeaker,thecorrectspeaker,isalwaysabletocommandattentionanddoorsarethrownopentohimwhichremainclosedtoothersnotequippedwithalikefacilityofexpression.Themanwhocantalkwellandtothepointneedneverfeartogoidle.Heisrequiredinnearlyeverywalkoflifeandfieldofhumanendeavor,theworldwants

himateveryturn.Employersareconstantlyonthelookoutforgoodtalkers,thosewhoareabletoattractthepublicandconvinceothersbytheforceoftheirlanguage.Amanmaybeable,educated,refined,ofunblemishedcharacter,neverthelessifhelackthepowertoexpresshimself,putforthhisviewsingoodandappropriatespeechhehastotakeabackseat,whilesomeonewithmuchlessabilitygetstheopportunitytocometothefrontbecausehecanclothehisideasinreadywordsandtalkeffectively.

Youmayagainsaythatnature,notart,makesamanafluentspeaker;to



agreatdegreethisistrue,butitis_art_thatmakeshima_correct_ speaker,andcorrectnessleadstofluency.Itispossibleforeveryonetobecomeacorrectspeakerifhewillbutpersevereandtakealittlepainsandcare.

Attheriskofrepetitiongoodadvicemaybehereemphasized:Listentothebestspeakersandnotecarefullythewordswhichimpressyoumost.Keepanotebookandjotdownwords,phrases,sentencesthatareinanywaystrikingoroutoftheordinaryrun.Ifyoudonotunderstandtheexactmeaningofawordyouhaveheard,lookitupinthedictionary.Therearemanywords,calledsynonyms,whichhavealmostalikesignification,nevertheless,whenexaminedtheyexpressdifferentshadesofmeaningandinsomecases,insteadofbeingcloserelated,arewidelydivergent.Bewareofsuchwords,findtheirexactmeaningandlearntousethemintheirrightplaces.

Beopentocriticism,don'tresentitbutratherinviteitandlookuponthoseasfriendswhopointoutyourdefectsinorderthatyoumayremedythem.

CHAPTERXI

SLANG

Origin--AmericanSlang--ForeignSlang

Slangismoreorlesscommoninnearlyallranksofsocietyandineverywalkoflifeatthepresentday.Slangwordsandexpressionshavecreptintooureverydaylanguage,andsoinsiduously,thattheyhavenotbeendetectedbythegreatmajorityofspeakers,andsohavebecomepartandparceloftheirvocabularyonanequalfootingwiththelegitimatewordsofspeech.Theyarecalledupontodosimilarserviceastheordinarywordsusedineverydayconversation--toexpressthoughtsanddesiresand

conveymeaningfromonetoanother.Infact,insomecases,slanghasbecomesousefulthatithasfaroutstrippedclassicspeechandmadeforitselfsuchapositioninthevernacularthatitwouldbeveryhardinsomecasestogetalongwithoutit.Slangwordshaveusurpedtheplaceofregularwordsoflanguageinverymanyinstancesandreignsupremeintheirownstrengthandinfluence.

Cantandslangareoftenconfusedinthepopularmind,yettheyarenotsynonymous,thoughverycloselyallied,andproceedingfromacommonGypsyorigin.Cantisthelanguageofacertainclass--thepeculiarphraseologyordialectofacertaincraft,tradeorprofession,andisnotreadilyunderstoodsavebytheinitiatedofsuchcraft,tradeorprofession.Itmaybecorrect,accordingtotherulesofgrammar,butit

isnotuniversal;itisconfinedtocertainpartsandlocalitiesandisonlyintelligibletothoseforwhomitisintended.Inshort,itisanesotericlanguagewhichonlytheinitiatedcanunderstand.Thejargon,orpatter,ofthievesiscantanditisonlyunderstoodbythieveswhohavebeenletintoitssignificance;theinitiatedlanguageofprofessionalgamblersiscant,andisonlyintelligibletogamblers.

Ontheotherhand,slang,asitisnowadays,belongstonoparticularclassbutisscatteredalloverandgets_entre_intoeverykindofsocietyandisunderstoodbyallwhereitpassescurrentineverydayexpression.Of



course,thenatureoftheslang,toagreatextent,dependsuponthelocality,asitchieflyisconcernedwithcolloquialismsorwordsandphrasescommontoaparticularsection.Forinstance,theslangofLondonisslightlydifferentfromthatofNewYork,andsomewordsintheonecitymaybeunintelligibleintheother,thoughwellunderstoodinthatinwhichtheyarecurrent.Nevertheless,slangmaybesaidtobeuniversallyunderstood."Tokickthebucket,""tocrosstheJordan,""tohopthetwig"arejustasexpressiveofthedepartingfromlifeinthebackwoodsofAmericaorthewildsofAustraliaastheyareinLondonorDublin.

Slangsimplyconsistsofwordsandphraseswhichpasscurrentbutarenotrefined,norelegantenough,tobeadmittedintopolitespeechorliteraturewhenevertheyarerecognizedassuch.But,ashasbeensaid,agreatmanyuseslangwithouttheirknowingitasslangandincorporateitintotheireverydayspeechandconversation.

Someauthorspurposelyuseslangtogiveemphasisandspiceinfamiliarandhumorouswriting,buttheyshouldnotbeimitatedbythetyro.Amaster,suchasDickens,isforgivable,butinthenoviceitisunpardonable.

Thereareseveralkindsofslangattachedtodifferentprofessionsandclassesofsociety.Forinstance,thereiscollegeslang,politicalslang,sportingslang,etc.Itisthenatureofslangtocirculatefreelyamongallclasses,yetthereareseveralkindsofthiscurrentformof

languagecorrespondingtotheseveralclassesofsociety.Thetwogreatdivisionsofslangarethevulgaroftheuneducatedandcoarse-minded,andthehigh-tonedslangoftheso-calledupperclasses--theeducatedandthewealthy.Thehoydenofthegutterdoesnotusethesameslangasmyladyinherboudoir,butbothuseit,andsoexpressiveisitthattheonemightreadilyunderstandtheotherifbroughtincontact.Therefore,therearewhatmaybestyledanignorantslangandaneducatedslang--theonecommontothepurlieusandthealleys,theothertotheparlorandthedrawing-room.

Inallcasestheobjectofslangistoexpressanideainamorevigorous,piquantandtersemannerthanstandardusageordinarilyadmits.Aschoolgirl,whenshewantstopraiseababy,exclaims:"Oh,isn'theawfully

cute!"Tosaythatheisverynicewouldbetooweakawaytoexpressheradmiration.Whenahandsomegirlappearsonthestreetanenthusiasticmasculineadmirer,toexpresshisappreciationofherbeauty,tellsyou:"Sheisapeach,abird,acuckoo,"anyofwhichaccentuateshisestimationoftheyoungladyandismuchmoreemphaticthansaying:"Sheisabeautifulgirl,""ahandsomemaiden,"or"lovelyyoungwoman."

Whenapoliticiandefeatshisrivalhewilltellyou"itwasacinch,"hehada"walk-over,"toimpressyouhoweasyitwastogainthevictory.

Someslangexpressionsareofthenatureofmetaphorsandarehighlyfigurative.Suchare"topassinyourchecks,""toholdup,""topullthewooloveryoureyes,""totalkthroughyourhat,""tofireout,""togo

backon,""tomakeyourselfsolidwith,""tohaveajagon,""tobeloaded,""tofreezeonto,""tobarkupthewrongtree,""don'tmonkeywiththebuzz-saw,"and"inthesoup."Mostslanghadabadorigin.Thegreaterpartoriginatedinthecantofthieves'Latin,butitbrokeawayfromthiscantofmalefactorsintimeandgraduallyevolveditselffromitsunsavorypastuntilitdevelopedintoacurrentformofexpressivespeech.Someslang,however,cantraceitsoriginbacktoveryrespectablesources.

"Stolenfruitsaresweet"maybetracedtotheBibleinsentiment.



Proverbs,ix:17hasit:"Stolenwatersaresweet.""Whatareyougivingme,"supposedtobeathoroughAmericanism,isbaseduponGenesis,xxxviii:16.Thecommonslang,"abadman,"inreferringtoWesterndesperadoes,inalmosttheidenticalsensenowused,isfoundinSpenser's_FaerieQueen_,Massinger'splay_"ANewWaytoPayOldDebts,_"andinShakespeare's_"KingHenryVIII_."Theexpression"toblowon,"meaningtoinform,isinShakespeare's_"AsYouLikeit_.""It'sallGreektome"istraceabletotheplayof_"JuliusCaesar_.""Allcryandnowool"isinButler's_"Hudibras_.""Piousfrauds,"meaninghypocrites,isfromthesamesource."Toothin,"referringtoanexcuse,isfromSmollett's"_PeregrinePickle_."Shakespearealsousedit.

Americahashadalargeshareincontributingtomodernslang."TheheathenChinee,"and"Waysthataredark,andtricksthatarevain,"arefromBretHarte's_TruthfulJames_."NotforJoe,"aroseduringtheCivilWarwhenonesoldierrefusedtogiveadrinktoanother."NotifIknowmyself"haditsorigininChicago."What'sthematterwith----?He'sallright,"haditsbeginninginChicagoalsoandfirstwas"What'sthematterwithHannah."referringtoalazydomesticservant."There'smillionsinit,"and"Byalargemajority"comefromMarkTwain's_GildedAge_."Pulldownyourvest,""jim-jams,""got'embad,""that'swhat'sthematter,""gohireahall,""takeinyoursign,""dryup,""humpyourself,""it'sthemanaroundthecorner,""puttingupajob,""puta

headonhim,""nobacktalk,""bottomdollar,""wentoffonhisear,""chalkitdown,""stavinghimoff,""makingitwarm,""droppinghimgently,""deadgone,""busted,""counterjumper,""putuporshutup,""bangup,""smartAleck,""toomuchjaw,""chin-music,""topheavy,""barefootedonthetopofthehead,""alittletoofresh,""championliar,""chiefcookandbottlewasher,""bagandbaggage,""asfineassilk,""nameyourpoison,""diedwithhisbootson,""oldhoss,""hunkeydorey,""holdyourhorses,""galoot"andmanyothersinuseatpresentareallAmericanismsinslang.

Californiaespeciallyhasbeenmostfecundinthisclassoffigurativelanguage.TothisStateweowe"gooffanddie,""don'tyouforgetit,""roughdeal,""squaredeal,""flushtimes,""poolyourissues,""gobury

yourself,""godrownyourself,""giveyourtongueavacation,""abadegg,""goclimbatree,""plughats,""DollyVardens,""wellfixed,""downtobedrock,""hardpan,""paydirt,""peteredout,""itwon'twash,""slugofwhiskey,""itpansoutwell,"and"Ishouldsmile.""Smallpotatoes,andfewinthehill,""softsnap,""allfired,""goldurnit,""anup-hilljob,""slick,""shortcut,""guessnot,""correctthing"areBostonisms.Theterms"innocent,""acknowledgethecorn,""barkupthewrongtree,""greatsnakes,""Ireckon,""playing'possum,""deadshot,"hadtheiroriginintheSouthernStates."Doggoneit,""thatbeatstheDutch,""youbet,""youbetyourboots,"sprangfromNewYork."Stepdownandout"originatedintheBeechertrial,justas"brain-storm"originatedintheThawtrial.

AmongtheslangphrasesthathavecomedirectlytousfromEnglandmaybementioned"throwupthesponge,""drawitmild,""giveusarest,""deadbeat,""ontheshelf,""upthespout,""stunning,""giftofthegab,"etc.

Thenewspapersareresponsibleforalargepartoftheslang.Reporters,staffwriters,andeveneditors,putwordsandphrasesintothemouthsofindividualswhichtheyneverutter.NewYorkissupposedtobetheheadquartersofslang,particularlythatportionofitknownastheBowery.Alltransgressionsandcorruptionsoflanguagearesupposedto



originateinthatunclassicsection,whilethetruthisthatthelawsofpoliteEnglishareasmuchviolatedonFifthAvenue.Ofcourse,theforeignelementmincingtheir"pidgin"EnglishhavegiventheBoweryanunenviablereputation,buttherearejustasgoodspeakersofthevernacularontheBoweryaselsewhereinthegreatercity.YeteveryinexperiencednewspaperreporterthinksthatitisincumbentonhimtoholdtheBoweryuptoridiculeandlaughter,sohesitsdown,andoutofhiscircumscribedbrain,mutilatestheEnglishtongue(hecanrarelycoinaword),andblamesthemutilationontheBowery.

'Tisthesamewithnewspapersandauthors,too,detractingtheIrishrace.MenandwomenwhohaveneverseenthegreenhillsofIreland,paintIrishcharactersasboorsandblunderersandmakethemsayludicrousthingsandusesuchlanguageasisneverheardwithinthefourwallsofIreland.'TisverywellknownthatIrelandisthemostlearnedcountryonthefaceoftheearth--is,andhasbeen.Theschoolmasterhasbeenabroadthereforhundreds,almostthousands,ofyears,andnowhereelseintheworldto-dayistheking'sEnglishspokensopurelyasinthecitiesandtownsofthelittleWesternIsle.

Currentevents,happeningsofeverydaylife,oftengiverisetoslangwords,andthese,afteratime,comeintosuchgeneralusethattheytaketheirplacesineverydayspeechlikeordinarywordsand,ashasbeensaid,theirusersforgetthattheyoncewereslang.Forinstance,the

daysoftheLandLeagueinIrelandoriginatedtheword_boycott_,whichwasthenameofaveryunpopularlandlord,CaptainBoycott.Thepeoplerefusedtoworkforhim,andhiscropsrottedontheground.Fromthistimeanyonewhocameintodisfavorandwhomhisneighborsrefusedtoassistinanywaywassaidtobeboycotted.Thereforetoboycottmeanstopunishbyabandoningordeprivingapersonoftheassistanceofothers.Atfirstitwasanotoriouslyslangword,butnowitisstandardintheEnglishdictionaries.

Politicsaddtoourslangwordsandphrases.Fromthissourceweget"darkhorse,""thegraymareisthebetterhorse,""barrelofmoney,""buncombe,""gerrymander,""scalawag,""henchman,""logrolling,""pullingthewires,""takingthestump,""machine,""slate,"etc.

Themoneymarketfurnishesuswith"corner,""bull,""bear,""lamb,""slump,"andseveralothers.

Thecustomofthetimesandtherequirementsofcurrentexpressionrequirethebestofustouseslangwordsandphrasesonoccasions.Oftenwedonotknowtheyareslang,justasachildoftenusesprofanewordswithoutconsciousnessoftheirbeingso.Weshouldavoidtheuseofslangasmuchaspossible,evenwhenitservestoconveyourideasinaforcefulmanner.Andwhenithasnotgainedafirmfootholdincurrentspeechitshouldbeusednotatall.Rememberthatmostallslangisofvulgaroriginandbearsuponitsfacethebendsinisterofvulgarity.Oftheslangthatisofgoodbirth,passitbyifyoucan,foritislikea

broken-downgentleman,oflittlegoodtoanyone.Imitatethegreatmastersasmuchasyouwillinclassicalliterature,butwhenitcomestotheirslang,drawtheline.DeanSwift,thegreatIrishsatirist,coinedtheword"phiz"forface.Don'timitatehim.Ifyouarespeakingorwritingofthebeautyofalady'sfacedon'tcallither"phiz."TheDean,asanintellectualgiant,hadalicensetodoso--youhaven't.Shakespeareusedtheword"flush"toindicateplentyofmoney.Well,justremembertherewasonlyoneShakespeare,andhewastheonlyonethathadarighttousethatwordinthatsense.You'llneverbeaShakespeare,therewillneverbesuchanother--Natureexhaustedherselfinproducing



him.Bulwerusedtheword"stretch"forhang,astostretchhisneck.Don'tfollowhisexampleinsuchuseoftheword.Aboveall,avoidthelow,coarse,vulgarslang,whichismadetopassforwitamongtheriff-raffofthestreet.Ifyouarespeakingorwritingofapersonhavingdiedlastnightdon'tsayorwrite:"Hehoppedthetwig,"or"hekickedthebucket."Ifyouarecompelledtolistentoapersondiscoursingonasubjectofwhichheknowslittleornothing,don'tsay"Heistalkingthroughhishat."IfyouaretellingofhavingshakenhandswithMr.Rooseveltdon'tsay"Hetippedmehisflipper."Ifyouarespeakingofawealthymandon'tsay"Hehasplentyofspondulix,"or"thelonggreen."Allsuchslangislow,coarseandvulgarandistobefrownedupononanyandeveryoccasion.

Ifyouuseslangusetherefinedkindanduseitlikeagentleman,thatitwillnothurtorgiveoffensetoanyone.CardinalNewmandefinedagentlemanashewhoneverinflictspain.Beagentlemaninyourslang--neverinflictpain.

CHAPTERXII

WRITINGFORNEWSPAPERS

Qualification--AppropriateSubjects--Directions

Thenewspapernowadaysgoesintoeveryhomeintheland;whatwasformerlyregardedasaluxuryisnowlookeduponasanecessity.Nomatterhowpoortheindividual,heisnottoopoortoaffordapennytolearn,notalonewhatistakingplacearoundhiminhisownimmediatevicinity,butalsowhatishappeningineveryquarteroftheglobe.Thelaboreronthestreetcanbeaswellpostedonthenewsofthedayasthebankerinhisoffice.Throughthenewspaperhecanfeelthepulseofthecountryandfindwhetheritsvitalityisincreasingordiminishing;hecanreadthesignsofthetimesandscanthepoliticalhorizonforwhat

concernshisowninterests.Thedoingsofforeigncountriesarespreadbeforehimandhecanseeataglancetheoccurrencesintheremotestcornersofearth.IfafireoccurredinLondonlastnighthecanreadaboutitathisbreakfasttableinNewYorkthismorning,andprobablygetabetteraccountthantheLondonersthemselves.IfadueltakesplaceinParishecanreadallaboutitevenbeforethecontestantshaveleftthefield.

Thereareupwardsof3,000dailynewspapersintheUnitedStates,morethan2,000ofwhicharepublishedintownscontaininglessthan100,000inhabitants.Infact,manyplacesoflessthan10,000populationcanboastthepublishingofadailynewspaper.Therearemorethan15,000weekliespublished.Someoftheso-calledcountrypaperswieldquitean

influenceintheirlocalities,andevenoutside,andaremoney-makingagenciesfortheirownersandthoseconnectedwiththem,bothbywayofcirculationandadvertisements.

Itissurprisingthenumberofpeopleinthiscountrywhomakealivinginthenewspaperfield.Apartfromtheregulartoilerstherearethousandsofmenandwomenwhomakenewspaperworkasideissue,whoaddtidysumsof"pinmoney"totheirincomesbyoccasionalcontributionstothedaily,weeklyandmonthlypress.Mostofthesepeopleareonlypersonsofordinary,everydayability,havingjustenougheducationtoexpress



themselvesintelligentlyinwriting.

Itisamistaketoimagine,assomanydo,thatanextendededucationisnecessaryfornewspaperwork.Notatall!Onthecontrary,insomecases,ahigh-classeducationisahindrance,notahelpinthisdirection.Thegeneralnewspaperdoesnotwantlearneddisquisitionsnorphilosophicaltheses;asitsnameimplies,itwantsnews,currentnews,interestingnews,somethingtoappealtoitsreaders,toarousethemandrivettheirattention.Inthisrespectveryoftenaboycanwriteabetterarticlethanacollegeprofessor.Theprofessorwouldbeapttousewordsbeyondthecapacityofmostofthereaders,whiletheboy,notknowingsuchwords,wouldprobablysimplytellwhathesaw,howgreatthedamagewas,whowerekilledorinjured,etc.,anduselanguagewhichallwouldunderstand.

Ofcourse,therearesomebrilliantscholars,deeply-readmenandwomeninthenewspaperrealm,but,onthewhole,thosewhohavemadethegreatestnamescommencedignorantenoughandmostofthemgraduatedbywayofthecountrypaper.SomeoftheleadingwritersofEnglandandAmericaatthepresenttimestartedtheirliterarycareersbycontributingtotheruralpress.Theyperfectedandpolishedthemselvesastheywentalonguntiltheywereabletomakenamesforthemselvesinuniversalliterature.

Ifyouwanttocontributetonewspapersorenterthenewspaperfieldasameansoflivelihood,don'tletlackofacollegeoruniversityeducationstandinyourway.Ashasbeensaidelsewhereinthisbook,someofthegreatestmastersofEnglishliteratureweremenwhohadbutlittleadvantageinthewayofbooklearning.Shakespeare,Bunyan,Burns,andscoresofothers,whohavelefttheirnamesindeliblyinscribedonthetabletsoffame,hadlittletoboastofinthewayofbookeducation,buttheyhadwhatispopularlyknownas"horse"senseandagoodworkingknowledgeoftheworld;inotherwords,theyunderstoodhumannature,andwerenaturalthemselves.Shakespeareunderstoodmankindbecausehewashimselfaman;hencehehasportrayedthefeelings,theemotions,thepassionswithamaster'stouch,delineatingthekinginhispalaceastruetonatureashehasdonethepeasantinhishut.Themonitorwithinhisown

breastgavehimwarningastowhatwasrightandwhatwaswrong,justasthedaemoneverbythesideofoldSocrateswhisperedinhisearthecoursetopursueunderanyandallcircumstances.Burnsguidingtheploughconceivedthoughtsandclothedtheminalanguagewhichhasnever,norprobablyneverwillbe,surpassedbyallthelearningwhichartcanconfer.Thesemenwerenatural,anditwastheperfectionofthisnaturalitythatwreathedtheirbrowswiththenever-fadinglaurelsofundyingfame.

Ifyouwouldessaytowriteforthenewspaperyoumustbenaturalandexpressyourselfinyouraccustomedwaywithoutputtingonairsorfrills;youmustnotapeornamentsandindulgeinbombastorrhodomontadewhichstampawriterasnotonlysuperficialbutsilly.Thereisnoroomforsuchintheeverydaynewspaper.Itwantsfactsstatedinplain,

unvarnished,unadornedlanguage.True,youshouldreadthebestauthorsand,asfaraspossible,imitatetheirstyle,butdon'ttrytoliterallycopythem.Beyourselfoneveryoccasion--nooneelse.

NotlikeHomerwouldIwrite,NotlikeDanteifImight,NotlikeShakespeareathisbest,NotlikeGoetheortherest,Likemyself,howeversmall,Likemyself,ornotatall.



Putyourselfinplaceofthereaderandwritewhatwillinterestyourselfandinsuchawaythatyourlanguagewillappealtoyourownideasofthefitnessofthings.Youbelongtothe_great_commonplacemajority,thereforedon'tforgetthatinwritingforthenewspapersyouarewritingforthatmajorityandnotforthelearnedandaestheticminority.

Rememberyouarewritingforthemanonthestreetandinthestreetcar,youwanttointeresthim,tocompelhimtoreadwhatyouhavetosay.Hedoesnotwantadisplayoflearning;hewantsnewsaboutsomethingwhichconcernshimself,andyoumusttellittohiminaplain,simplemannerjustasyouwoulddoifyouwerefacetofacewithhim.

Whatcanyouwriteabout?Whyaboutanythingthatwillconstitutecurrentnews,someleadingeventoftheday,anythingthatwillappealtothereadersofthepapertowhichyouwishtosubmitit.Nomatterinwhatlocalityyoumaylive,howeverbackwarditmaybe,youcanalwaysfindsomethingofgenuinehumaninteresttoothers.Ifthereisnonewshappening,writeofsomethingthatappealstoyourself.Weareallconstitutedalike,andthechancesarethatwhatwillinterestyouwillinterestothers.Descriptionsofadventurearegenerallyacceptable.Tellofafoxhunt,orabadgerhunt,orabearchase.

Ifthereisanyimportantmanufacturingplantinyourneighborhood

describeitand,ifpossible,getphotographs,forphotographyplaysaveryimportantpartinthenewsitemsofto-day.Ifa"great"manlivesnearyou,onewhosenameisonthetipofeverytongue,goandgetaninterviewwithhim,obtainhisviewsonthepublicquestionsoftheday,describehishomelifeandhissurroundingsandhowhespendshistime.

Tryandstrikesomethinggermanetothemoment,somethingthatstandsoutprominentlyinthelimelightofthepassingshow.Ifanotedpersonage,somefamousmanorwoman,isvisitingthecountry,itisagoodtimetowriteuptheplacefromwhichheorshecomesandtherecordheorshehasmadethere.Forinstance,itwasopportunetowriteofSuluandthelittlePacificarchipelagoduringtheSultan'stripthroughthecountry.IfanattemptismadetoblowupanAmericanbattleship,say,intheharborof

Appia,inSamoa,itaffordsachancetowriteaboutSamoaandRobertLouisStephenson.WhenManuelwashurledfromthethroneofPortugalitwasaripetimetowriteofPortugalandPortugueseaffairs.Ifanygreatoccurrenceistakingplaceinaforeigncountrysuchasthecrowningofakingorthedethronementofamonarch,itisagoodtimetowriteupthehistoryofthecountryanddescribetheeventsleadinguptothemainissue.Whenaparticularlysavageoutbreakoccursamongstwildtribesinthedependencies,suchasarisingoftheManobosinthePhilippines,itisopportunetowriteofsuchtribesandtheirsurroundings,andthecausesleadinguptotherevolt.

Beconstantlyonthelookoutforsomethingthatwillsuitthepassinghour,readthedailypapersandprobablyinsomeobscurecorneryoumay

findsomethingthatwillserveyouasafoundationforagoodarticle--something,atleast,thatwillgiveyouaclue.

Becircumspectinyourselectionofapapertowhichtosubmityourcopy.Knowthetoneandgeneralimportofthepaper,itssocialleaningsandpoliticalaffiliations,alsoitsreligioussentiments,and,infact,alltheparticularsyoucanregardingit.Itwouldbeinjudiciousforyoutosendanarticleonaprizefighttoareligiouspaperor,_viceversa_,anaccountofachurchmeetingtotheeditorofasportingsheet.



Ifyougetyourcopybackdon'tbedisappointednoryetdisheartened.Perseverancecountsmoreinthenewspaperfieldthananywhereelse,andonlyperseverancewinsinthelongrun.Youmustbecomeresilient;ifyouarepresseddown,springupagain.Nomatterhowmanyrebuffsyoumayreceive,benotdiscouragedbutcallfreshenergytoyourassistanceandmakeanotherstand.Iftherightstuffisinyouitissuretobediscovered;yourlightwillnotremainlonghiddenunderabushelinthenewspaperdomain.Ifyoucandeliverthegoodseditorswillsoonbebeggingyouinsteadofyourbeggingthem.Thosemenareconstantlyonthelookoutforpersonswhocanmakegood.

Onceyougetintoprintthebattleiswon,foritwillbeanincentivetoyoutopersevereandimproveyourselfateveryturn.Goovereverythingyouwrite,cutandslashandpruneuntilyougetitintoasperfectformaspossible.Eliminateeverysuperfluouswordandbecarefultostrikeoutallambiguousexpressionsandreferences.

Ifyouarewritingforaweeklypaperrememberitdiffersfromadailyone.Weeklieswantwhatwillnotaloneinterestthemanonthestreet,butthewomanatthefireside;theywantout-of-the-wayfacts,curiousscrapsoflore,personalnotesoffamousoreccentricpeople,reminiscencesofexcitingexperiences,interestinggleaningsinlife'snumberlessby-ways,inshort,anythingthatwillentertain,amuse,instructthehomecircle.Thereisalwayssomethingoccurringinyourimmediatesurroundings,

somecuriouseventorthrillingepisodethatwillfurnishyouwithdataforanarticle.Youmustknowthenatureoftheweeklytowhichyousubmityourcopythesameasyoumustknowthedaily.Forinstance,the _ChristianHerald_,whileavowedlyareligiousweekly,treatssuchsecularmatterasmakesthepaperappealtoall.Onitsreligioussideitis _non-sectarian_,coveringthebroadfieldofChristianitythroughouttheworld;onitssecularsideitdealswithhumaneventsinsuchanimpartialwaythateveryone,nomattertowhatclasstheymaybelongortowhatcreedtheymaysubscribe,cantakealiving,personalinterest.

Themonthliesofferanotherattractivefieldfortheliteraryaspirant.Here,again,don'tthinkyoumustbeanuniversityprofessortowriteforamonthlymagazine.Many,indeedmost,oftheforemostmagazinecontributors

aremenandwomenwhohaveneverpassedthroughacollegeexceptbygoinginatthefrontdoorandemergingfromthebackone.However,forthemostpart,theyareindividualsofwideexperiencewhoknowthepracticalsideoflifeasdistinguishedfromthetheoretical.

Theordinarymonthlymagazinetreatsoftheleadingquestionsandissueswhichareengagingtheattentionoftheworldforthemoment,greatinventions,greatdiscoveries,whateverisengrossingthepopularmindforthetimebeing,suchasflyingmachines,battleships,sky-scrapers,theopeningofmines,thedevelopmentofnewlands,thepoliticalissues,viewsofpartyleaders,charactersketchesofdistinguishedpersonages,etc.However,beforetryingyourskillforamonthlymagazineitwouldbewellforyoutohaveagoodapprenticeshipinwritingforthedaily

press.

Aboveallthings,rememberthatperseveranceisthekeythatopensthedoorofsuccess.Persevere!Ifyouareturneddowndon'tgetdisheartened;onthecontrary,lettherebuffactasastimulanttofurthereffort.Manyofthemostsuccessfulwritersofourtimehavebeenturneddownagainandagain.Fordaysandmonths,andevenyears,someofthemhavehawkedtheirwaresfromoneliterarydoortoanotheruntiltheyfoundapurchaser.Youmaybeagreatwriterinembryo,butyouwillneverdevelopintoafetus,nottospeakoffullmaturity,unlessyou



bringoutwhatisinyou.Giveyourselfachancetogrowandseizeuponeverythingthatwillenlargethescopeofyourhorizon.Keepyoureyeswideopenandthereisnotamomentofthedayinwhichyouwillnotseesomethingtointerestyouandinwhichyoumaybeabletointerestothers.Learn,too,howtoreadNature'sbook.There'salessonineverything--inthestones,thegrass,thetrees,thebabblingbrooksandthesingingbirds.Interpretthelessonforyourself,thenteachittoothers.Alwaysbeinearnestinyourwriting;goaboutitinadeterminedkindofway,don'tbefaint-heartedorbackward,bebrave,bebrave,andevermorebebrave.

Onthewide,tentedfieldinthebattleoflife,Withanarmyofmillionsbeforeyou;LikeaheroofoldgirdyoursoulforthestrifeAndletnotthefoemantrampo'eryou;Act,actlikeasoldierandproudlyrushonThemostvaliantinBravery'svan,Withkeen,flashingswordcutyourwaytothefrontAndshowtotheworldyou'rea_Man_.

Ifyouareofthemasculinegenderbeamaninallthingsinthehighestandbestacceptationoftheword.Thatisthenoblesttitleyoucanboast,higherfarthanthatofearlorduke,emperororking.Inthesamewaywomanhoodisthegrandestcrownthefeminineheadcanwear.Whenthe

worldfrownsonyouandeverythingseemstogowrong,possessyoursoulinpatienceandhopeforthedawnofabrighterday.Itwillcome.Thesunisalwaysshiningbehindthedarkestclouds.Whenyougetyourmanuscriptsbackagainandagain,don'tdespair,northinktheeditorcruelandunkind.He,too,hastroublesofhisown.Keepupyourspiritsuntilyouhavemadethefinaltestandputyourtalentstoalastanalysis,thenifyoufindyoucannotgetintoprintbesurethatnewspaperwritingorliteraryworkisnotyour_forte_,andturntosomethingelse.Ifnothingbetterpresentsitself,tryshoemakingordiggingditches.Rememberhonestlabor,nomatterhowhumble,iseverdignified.Ifyouareawomanthrowasidethepen,sitdownanddarnyourbrother's,yourfather's,oryourhusband'ssocks,orputonacalicoapron,takesoapandwaterandscrubthefloor.Nomatterwhoyouaredosomethinguseful.

Thatoldsophistryabouttheworldowingyoualivinghasbeenexplodedlongago.Theworlddoesnotoweyoualiving,butyouoweitservitude,andifyoudonotpaythedebtyouarenotservingthepurposeofanall-wiseProvidenceandfillingtheplaceforwhichyouwerecreated.Itisforyoutoservetheworld,tomakeitbetter,brighter,higher,holier,grander,nobler,richer,foryourhavinglivedinit.Thisyoucandoinnomatterwhatpositionfortunehascastyou,whetheritbethatofstreetlaborerorpresident.Fightthegoodfightandgainthevictory.

"Aboveall,tothineownselfbetrue,And'twillfollowasthenighttheday,Thoucanstnotthenbefalsetoanyman."

CHAPTERXIII

CHOICEOFWORDS

SmallWords--TheirImportance--TheAnglo-SaxonElement



Inanotherplaceinthisbookadvicehasbeengiventoneverusealongwordwhenashortonewillservethesamepurpose.Thisadviceistobeemphasized.Wordsof"learnedlengthandthunderingsound"shouldbeavoidedonallpossibleoccasions.Theyproclaimshallownessofintellectandvanityofmind.Thegreatpurists,themastersofdiction,theexemplarsofstyle,usedshort,simplewordsthatallcouldunderstand;wordsaboutwhichtherecouldbenoambiguityastomeaning.Itmustberememberedthatbyourwordsweteachothers;therefore,averygreatresponsibilityrestsuponusinregardtotheuseofarightlanguage.Wemusttakecarethatwethinkandspeakinawaysoclearthattheremaybenomisapprehensionordangerofconveyingwrongimpressionsbyvagueandmistyideasenunciatedintermswhichareliabletobemisunderstoodbythosewhomweaddress.Wordsgiveabodyorformtoourideas,withoutwhichtheyareapttobesofoggythatwedonotseewheretheyareweakorfalse.Wemustmaketheendeavortoemploysuchwordsaswillputtheideawehaveinourownmindintothemindofanother.Thisisthegreatestartintheworld--toclotheourideasinwordsclearandcomprehensivetotheintelligenceofothers.Itistheartwhichtheteacher,theminister,thelawyer,theorator,thebusinessman,mustmasteriftheywouldcommandsuccessintheirvariousfieldsofendeavor.Itisveryhardtoconveyanideato,andimpressiton,anotherwhenhehasbutafaintconceptionofthelanguageinwhichtheideaisexpressed;butitisimpossibletoconveyitatallwhenthewordsinwhichitisclothedareunintelligibletothelistener.

IfweaddressanaudienceofordinarymenandwomenintheEnglishlanguage,butusesuchwordsastheycannotcomprehend,wemightaswellspeaktotheminCopticorChinese,fortheywillderivenobenefitfromouraddress,inasmuchastheideaswewishtoconveyareexpressedinwordswhichcommunicatenointelligentmeaningtotheirminds.

Longwords,learnedwords,wordsdirectlyderivedfromotherlanguagesareonlyunderstoodbythosewhohavehadtheadvantagesofanextendededucation.Allhavenothadsuchadvantages.Thegreatmajorityinthisgrandandgloriouscountryofourshavetohustleforalivingfromanearlyage.Thougheducationisfree,andcompulsoryalso,verymanynevergetfurtherthanthe"ThreeR's."Thesearethemenwithwhomwehaveto

dealmostinthearenaoflife,themenwiththehornypalmsandtheironmuscles,themenwhobuildourhouses,constructourrailroads,driveourstreetcarsandtrains,tillourfields,harvestourcrops--inaword,themenwhoformthefoundationofallsociety,themenonwhomtheworlddependstomakeitswheelsgoround.Thelanguageofthecollegesanduniversitiesisnotforthemandtheycangetalongverywellwithoutit;theyhavenoneedforitatallintheirrespectivecallings.Theplain,simplewordsofeverydaylife,towhichthecommonpeoplehavebeenusedaroundtheirownfiresidesfromchildhood,arethewordswemustuseinourdealingswiththem.

Suchwordsareunderstoodbythemandunderstoodbythelearnedaswell;whythennotusethemuniversallyandallthetime?Whymakeaone-sided

affairoflanguagebyusingwordswhichonlyoneclassofthepeople,theso-calledlearnedclass,canunderstand?Woulditnotbebettertouse,onalloccasions,languagewhichthebothclassescanunderstand?Ifwetakethetroubletoinvestigateweshallfindthatthemenwhoexertedthegreatestswayoverthemassesandthemultitudeasorators,lawyers,preachersandinotherpubliccapacities,weremenwhousedverysimplelanguage.DanielWebsterwasamongthegreatestoratorsthiscountryhasproduced.Hetouchedtheheartsofsenatesandassemblages,ofmenandwomenwiththeburningeloquenceofhiswords.Heneverusedalongwordwhenhecouldconveythesame,ornearlythesame,meaningwithashort



one.Whenhemadeaspeechhealwaystoldthosewhoputitinformforthepresstostrikeouteverylongword.Studyhisspeeches,gooverallheeversaidorwrote,andyouwillfindthathislanguagewasalwaysmadeupofshort,clear,strongterms,althoughattimes,forthesakeofsoundandoratoricaleffect,hewascompelledtousearatherlongword,butitwasalwaysagainsthisinclinationtodoso,andwherewasthemanwhocouldpaint,withwords,asWebsterpainted!Hecouldpicturethingsinawaysoclearthatthosewhoheardhimfeltthattheyhadseenthatofwhichhespoke.

AbrahamLincolnwasanotherwhostirredthesoulsofmen,yethewasnotanorator,notascholar;hedidnotwriteM.A.orPh.D.afterhisname,oranyothercollegedegree,forhehadnone.HegraduatedfromtheUniversityofHardKnocks,andheneverforgotthissevere_AlmaMater_ whenhebecamePresidentoftheUnitedStates.Hewasjustasplain,Ijustashumble,asinthedayswhenhesplitrailsorpliedaboatontheSangamon.Hedidnotusebigwords,butheusedthewordsofthepeople,andinsuchawayastomakethembeautiful.HisGettysburgaddressisanEnglishclassic,oneofthegreatmasterpiecesofthelanguage.

Fromthemerefactthatawordisshortitdoesnotfollowthatitisalwaysclear,butitistruethatnearlyallclearwordsareshort,andthatmostofthelongwords,especiallythosewhichwegetfromotherlanguages,aremisunderstoodtoagreatextentbytheordinaryrankand

fileofthepeople.Indeed,itistobedoubtedifsomeofthe"scholars"usingthem,fullyunderstandtheirimportonoccasions.Agreatmanysuchwordsadmitofseveralinterpretations.Awordhastobeinuseagreatdealbeforepeoplegetthoroughlyfamiliarwithitsmeaning.Longwords,notaloneobscurethoughtandmaketheideashazy,butattimestheytendtomixupthingsinsuchawaythatpositivelyharmfulresultsfollowfromtheiruse.

Forinstance,crimecanbesocoveredwiththefoldsoflongwordsastogiveitadifferentappearance.Eventhehideousnessofsincanbecloakedwithsuchwordsuntilitsoutlineslooklikeathingofbeauty.Whenabankcashiermakesoffwithahundredthousanddollarswepolitelytermhiscrime_defalcation_insteadofplain_theft_,andinsteadofcalling

himselfa_thief_wegrandioselyalludetohimasa_defaulter_.Whenweseeawealthymanstaggeringalongafashionablethoroughfareundertheinfluenceofalcohol,wavinghisarmsintheairandshoutingboisterously,wesmileandsay,poorgentleman,heissomewhat_exhilarated_;oratworstwesay,heisslightly_inebriated_;butwhenweseeapoormanwhohasfallenfromgracebyputtingan"enemyintohismouthtostealawayhisbrain"weexpressourindignationinthesimplelanguageofthewords:"Lookatthewretch;heisdeaddrunk."

Whenwefindapersonindownrightlyingwecoverthefalsehoodwiththefinely-spuncloakoftheword_prevarication_.Shakespearesays,"arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet,"andbyasimilarsequence,alie,nomatterbywhatnameyoumaycallit,isalwaysalieandshould

becondemned;thenwhynotsimplycallitalie?Meanwhatyousayandsaywhatyoumean;callaspadeaspade,itisthebesttermyoucanapplytotheimplement.

Whenyoutrytouseshortwordsandshunlongonesinalittlewhileyouwillfindthatyoucandosowithease.Afarmerwasshowingahorsetoacity-bredgentleman.Theanimalwasledintoapaddockinwhichanoldsow-pigwasrooting."Whatafinequadruped!"exclaimedthecityman.

"Whichofthetwodoyoumean,thepigorthehorse?"queriedthefarmer,



"for,inmyopinion,bothofthemarefinequadrupeds."

Ofcoursethevisitormeantthehorse,soitwouldhavebeenmuchbetterhadhecalledtheanimalbyitssimple;ordinaryname--,therewouldhavebeennoroomforambiguityinhisremark.Heprofited,however,bytheincident,andnevercalledahorseaquadrupedagain.

Mostofthesmallwords,thesimplewords,thebeautifulwordswhichexpresssomuchwithinsmallboundsbelongtothepureAnglo-Saxonelementofourlanguage.Thiselementhasgivennamestotheheavenlybodies,thesun,moonandstars;tothreeoutofthefourelements,earth,fireandwater;threeoutofthefourseasons,spring,summerandwinter.Itssimplewordsareappliedtoallthenaturaldivisionsoftime,exceptone,asday,night,morning,evening,twilight,noon,mid-day,midnight,sunriseandsunset.Thenamesoflight,heat,cold,frost,rain,snow,hail,sleet,thunder,lightning,aswellasalmostallthoseobjectswhichformthecomponentpartsofthebeautiful,asexpressedinexternalscenery,suchasseaandland,hillanddale,woodandstream,etc.,areAnglo-Saxon.Tothissamelanguageweareindebtedforthosewordswhichexpresstheearliestanddearestconnections,andthestrongestandmostpowerfulfeelingsofNature,andwhich,asaconsequence,areinterwovenwiththefondestandmosthallowedassociations.Ofsuchwordsarefather,mother,husband,wife,brother,sister,son,daughter,child,home,kindred,friend,hearth,roofandfireside.

Thechiefemotionsofwhichwearesusceptibleareexpressedinthesamelanguage--love,hope,fear,sorrow,shame,andalsotheoutwardsignsbywhichtheseemotionsareindicated,astear,smile,laugh,blush,weep,sigh,groan.NearlyallournationalproverbsareAnglo-Saxon.Almostallthetermsandphrasesbywhichwemostenergeticallyexpressanger,contemptandindignationareofthesameorigin.

WhatareknownastheSmartSetandso-calledpolitesociety,arerelegatingagreatmanyofouroldAnglo-Saxonwordsintotheshade,faithfulfriendswhoservedtheirancestorswell.Theseself-appointedarbitersofdictionregardsomeoftheAnglo-Saxonwordsastoocoarse,tooplebeianfortheiraesthetictastesandrefinedears,sotheyare

eliminatingthemfromtheirvocabularyandreplacingthemwithmongrelsofforeignbirthandhybridsofunknownorigin.Fortheordinarypeople,however,themaninthestreetorinthefield,thewomaninthekitchenorinthefactory,theyarestilltriedandtrueand,likeoldfriends,shouldbecherishedandpreferredtoallstrangers,nomatterfromwhatsourcethelattermayspring.

CHAPTERXIV

ENGLISHLANGUAGE

Beginning--DifferentSources--ThePresent

TheEnglishlanguageisthetonguenowcurrentinEnglandandhercoloniesthroughouttheworldandalsothroughoutthegreaterpartoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.ItsprangfromtheGermantonguespokenbytheTeutons,whocameovertoBritainaftertheconquestofthatcountrybytheRomans.TheseTeutonscomprisedAngles,Saxons,JutesandseveralothertribesfromthenorthernpartofGermany.Theyspokedifferentdialects,but



thesebecameblendedinthenewcountry,andthecompositetonguecametobeknownastheAnglo-Saxonwhichhasbeenthemainbasisforthelanguageasatpresentconstitutedandisstilltheprevailingelement.ThereforethosewhoaretryingtodoawaywithsomeofthepurelyAnglo-Saxonwords,onthegroundthattheyarenotrefinedenoughtoexpresstheiraestheticideas,areunderminingmainpropswhicharenecessaryforthesupportofsomeimportantpartsintheedificeofthelanguage.

TheAnglo-Saxonelementsuppliestheessentialpartsofspeech,thearticle,pronounofallkinds,thepreposition,theauxiliaryverbs,theconjunctions,andthelittleparticleswhichbindwordsintosentencesandformthejoints,sinewsandligamentsofthelanguage.Itfurnishesthemostindispensablewordsofthevocabulary.(SeeChap.XIII.)NowhereisthebeautyofAnglo-SaxonbetterillustratedthanintheLord'sPrayer.Fifty-fourwordsarepureSaxonandtheremainingonescouldeasilybereplacedbySaxonwords.ThegospelofSt.JohnisanotherillustrationofthealmostexclusiveuseofAnglo-Saxonwords.Shakespeare,athisbest,isAnglo-Saxon.Hereisaquotationfromthe_MerchantofVenice_,andofthefifty-fivewordsfifty-twoareAnglo-Saxon,theremainingthreeFrench:

Allthatglittersisnotgold--Oftenhaveyouheardthattold;Manyamanhislifehathsold,Butmyoutsidetobehold.

Guilded_tombs_dowormsinfold.Hadyoubeenaswiseasbold,Younginlimbs,in_judgment_old,Youranswerhadnotbeeninscrolled--Fareyouwell,your_suit_iscold.

ThelinesputintothemouthofHamlet'sfatherinfierceintenseness,secondonlytoDante'sinscriptiononthegateofhell,haveonehundredandeightAnglo-SaxonandbutfifteenLatinwords.

ThesecondconstituentelementofpresentEnglishisLatinwhichcomprisesthosewordsderiveddirectlyfromtheoldRomanandthosewhichcameindirectlythroughtheFrench.TheformerwereintroducedbytheRoman

Christians,whocametoEnglandatthecloseofthesixthcenturyunderAugustine,andrelatechieflytoecclesiasticalaffairs,suchassaintfrom _sanctus_,religionfrom_religio_,chalicefrom_calix_,massfrom _missa_,etc.SomeofthemhadorigininGreek,aspriestfrom_presbyter_,whichinturnwasadirectderivativefromtheGreek_presbuteros_,alsodeaconfromtheGreek_diakonos_.

ThelargestclassofLatinwordsarethosewhichcamethroughtheNorman-French,orRomance.TheNormanshadadopted,withtheChristianreligion,thelanguage,lawsandartsoftheRomanizedGaulsandRomanizedFranks,andafteraresidenceofmorethanacenturyinFrancetheysuccessfullyinvadedEnglandin1066underWilliamtheConquerorandanewerabegan.TheFrenchLatinismscanbedistinguishedbythespelling.Thus

SaviourcomesfromtheLatin_Salvator_throughtheFrench_Sauveur_;judgmentfromtheLatin_judiclum_throughtheFrench_jugement_;people,fromtheLatin_populus_,throughtheFrench_peuple_,etc.

ForalongtimetheSaxonandNormantonguesrefusedtocoalesceandwereliketwodistinctcurrentsflowingindifferentdirections.Normanwasspokenbythelordsandbaronsintheirfeudalcastles,inparliamentandinthecourtsofjustice.Saxonbythepeopleintheirruralhomes,fieldsandworkshops.Formorethanthreehundredyearsthestreamsflowedapart,butfinallytheyblended,takingintheCelticandDanishelements,andas



aresultcamethepresentEnglishlanguagewithitssimplesystemofgrammaticalinflectionanditsrichvocabulary.

ThefatherofEnglishproseisgenerallyregardedasWycliffe,whotranslatedtheBiblein1380,whilethepaternallaurelsinthesecularpoeticalfieldaretwinedaroundthebrowsofChaucer.

BesidestheGermanicandRomanic,whichconstitutethegreaterpartoftheEnglishlanguage,manyothertongueshavefurnishedtheirquota.OfthesetheCelticisperhapstheoldest.TheBritonsatCaesar'sinvasion,wereapartoftheCelticfamily.TheCelticidiomisstillspokenintwodialects,theWelshinWales,andtheGaelicinIrelandandtheHighlandsofScotland.TheCelticwordsinEnglish,arecomparativelyfew;cart,dock,wire,rail,rug,cradle,babe,grown,griddle,lad,lass,aresomeinmostcommonuse.

TheDanishelementdatesfromthepiraticalinvasionsoftheninthandtenthcenturies.Itincludesanger,awe,baffle,bang,bark,bawl,blunder,boulder,box,club,crash,dairy,dazzle,fellow,gable,gain,ill,jam,kidnap,kill,kidney,kneel,limber,litter,log,lull,lump,mast,mistake,nag,nasty,niggard,horse,plough,rug,rump,sale,scald,shriek,skin,skull,sledge,sleigh,tackle,tangle,tipple,trust,viking,window,wing,etc.

FromtheHebrewwehavealargenumberofpropernamesfromAdamandEvedowntoJohnandMaryandsuchwordsasMessiah,rabbi,hallelujah,cherub,seraph,hosanna,manna,satan,Sabbath,etc.

ManytechnicaltermsandnamesofbranchesoflearningcomefromtheGreek.Infact,nearlyallthetermsoflearningandart,fromthealphabettothehighestpeaksofmetaphysicsandtheology,comedirectlyfromtheGreek--philosophy,logic,anthropology,psychology,aesthetics,grammar,rhetoric,history,philology,mathematics,arithmetic,astronomy,anatomy,geography,stenography,physiology,architecture,andhundredsmoreinsimilardomains;thesubdivisionsandramificationsoftheologyasexegesis,hermeneutics,apologetics,polemics,dogmatics,ethics,homiletics,etc.,areallGreek.

TheDutchhavegivenussomemodernseaterms,assloop,schooner,yachtandalsoanumberofothersasboom,bush,boor,brandy,duck,reef,skate,wagon.TheDutchofManhattanislandgaveusboss,thenameforemployeroroverseer,alsocoldslaa(cutcabbageandvinegar),andanumberofgeographicalterms.

Manyofourmostpleasingeuphonicwords,especiallyintherealmofmusic,havebeengiventousdirectlyfromtheItalian.Ofthesearepiano,violin,orchestra,canto,allegro,piazza,gazette,umbrella,gondola,bandit,etc.

Spanishhasfurnisheduswithalligator,alpaca,bigot,cannibal,cargo,

filibuster,freebooter,guano,hurricane,mosquito,negro,stampede,potato,tobacco,tomato,tariff,etc.

FromArabicwehaveseveralmathematical,astronomical,medicalandchemicaltermsasalcohol,alcove,alembic,algebra,alkali,almanac,assassin,azure,cipher,elixir,harem,hegira,sofa,talisman,zenithandzero.

Bazaar,dervish,lilac,pagoda,caravan,scarlet,shawl,tartar,tiaraandpeachhavecometousfromthePersian.



Turban,tulip,divanandfirmanareTurkish.

Drosky,knout,rouble,steppe,ukaseareRussian.

TheIndianshavehelpedusconsiderablyandthewordstheyhavegivenusareextremelyeuphonicasexemplifiedinthenamesofmanyofourriversandStates,asMississippi,Missouri,Minnehaha,Susquehanna,Monongahela,Niagara,Ohio,Massachusetts,Connecticut,Iowa,Nebraska,Dakota,etc.InadditiontothesepropernameswehavefromtheIndianswigwam,squaw,hammock,tomahawk,canoe,mocassin,hominy,etc.

TherearemanyhybridwordsinEnglish,thatis,words,springingfromtwoormoredifferentlanguages.Infact,Englishhasdrawnfromallsources,anditisdailyaddingtoitsalreadylargefamily,andnotaloneisitaddingtoitself,butitisspreadingallovertheworldandpromisestotakeintheentirehumanfamilybeneathitsfoldserelong.ItistheopinionofmanythatEnglish,inashorttime,willbecometheuniversallanguage.ItisnowbeingtaughtasabranchofthehighereducationinthebestcollegesanduniversitiesofEuropeandinallcommercialcitiesineverylandthroughouttheworld.InAsiaitfollowstheBritishswayandthehighwaysofcommercethroughthevastempireofEastIndiawithitstwohundredandfiftymillionsofheathenandMohammedaninhabitants.ItislargelyusedintheseaportsofJapanandChina,andthenumberofnatives

ofthesecountrieswhoarelearningitisincreasingeveryday.ItisfirmlyestablishedinSouthAfrica,Liberia,SierraLeone,andinmanyoftheislandsoftheIndianandSouthSeas.ItisthelanguageofAustralia,NewZealand,Tasmania,andChristianmissionariesareintroducingitintoalltheislandsofPolynesia.ItmaybesaidtobethelivingcommerciallanguageoftheNorthAmericancontinent,fromBaffin'sBaytotheGulfofMexico,andfromtheAtlantictothePacific,anditisspokenlargelyinmanyoftherepublicsofSouthAmerica.Itisnotlimitedbyparallelsoflatitude,ormeridiansoflongitude.ThetwogreatEnglish-speakingcountries,EnglandandtheUnitedStates,aredisseminatingitnorth,south,eastandwestovertheentireworld.

CHAPTERXI

MASTERSANDMASTERPIECESOFLITERATURE

GreatAuthors--Classification--TheWorld'sBestBooks.

TheBibleistheworld'sgreatestbook.Apartfromitscharacterasaworkofdivinerevelation,itisthemostperfectliteratureextant.

LeavingouttheBiblethethreegreatestworksarethoseofHomer,Dante

andShakespeare.ThesearecloselyfollowedbytheworksofVirgilandMilton.

INDISPENSABLEBOOKS

Homer,Dante,Cervantes,ShakespeareandGoethe.

(Thebesttranslationof_Homer_fortheordinaryreaderisbyChapman.Norton'stranslationof_Dante_andTaylor'stranslationofGoethe's



_Faust_arerecommended.)

AGOODLIBRARY

Besidestheworksmentionedeveryoneshouldendeavortohavethefollowing:

_Plutarch'sLives_,_MeditationsofMarcusAurelius_,_Chaucer_,_ImitationofChrist_(ThomasaKempis),_HolyLivingandHolyDying_(JeremyTaylor), _Pilgrim'sProgress,Macaulay'sEssays,Bacon'sEssays,Addison'sEssays,EssaysofElia_(CharlesLamb),_LesMiserables_(Hugo),_HeroesandHeroWorship_(Carlyle),_Palgrave'sGoldenTreasury_,_Wordsworth_,_VicarofWakefield_,_AdamBede_(GeorgeEliot),_VanityFair_(Thackeray), _Ivanhoe_(Scott),_OntheHeights_(Auerbach),_EugenieGrandet_(Balzac), _ScarletLetter_(Hawthorne),_Emerson'sEssays_,_Boswell'sLifeofJohnson_,_HistoryoftheEnglishPeople_(Green),_OutlinesofUniversalHistory,OriginofSpecies,Montaigne'sEssays,Longfellow,Tennyson,Browning,Whittier,Ruskin,HerbertSpencer_.

Agoodencyclopoediaisverydesirableandareliabledictionaryindispensable.

MASTERPIECESOFAMERICANLITERATURE

_ScarletLetter,Parkman'sHistories,Motley'sDutchRepublic,Grant'sMemoirs,Franklin'sAutobiography,Webster'sSpeeches,Lowell'sBigelowPapers_,alsohis_CriticalEssays_,_Thoreau'sWalden_,_LeavesofGrass_ (Whitman),_Leather-stockingTales_(Cooper),_AutocratoftheBreakfastTable_,_BenHur_and_UncleTom'sCabin_.

TENGREATESTAMERICANPOETS

Bryant,Poe,Whittier,Longfellow,Lowell,Emerson,Whitman,Lanier,AldrichandStoddard.

TENGREATESTENGLISHPOETS

Chaucer,Spenser,Shakespeare,Milton,Burns,Wordsworth,Keats,Shelley,Tennyson,Browning.

TENGREATESTENGLISHESSAYISTS

Bacon,Addison,Steele,Macaulay,Lamb,Jeffrey,DeQuincey,Carlyle,ThackerayandMatthewArnold.

BESTPLAYSOFSHAKESPEARE

Inorderofmeritare:_Hamlet_,_KingLear_,_Othello_,_AntonyandCleopatra_,_Macbeth_,_MerchantofVenice_,_HenryIV_,_AsYouLikeIt_, _Winter'sTale_,_RomeoandJuliet_,_MidsummerNight'sDream_,_TwelfthNight_,_Tempest_.

ONLYTHEGOOD



Ifyouarenotabletoprocurealibraryofthegreatmasterpieces,getatleastafew.Readthemcarefully,intelligentlyandwithaviewtoenlargingyourownliteraryhorizon.Rememberagoodbookcannotbereadtoooften,oneofadeterioratinginfluenceshouldnotbereadatall.Inliterature,asinallthingselse,thegoodaloneshouldprevail.

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